THESIS PROPOSAL

DEGREE PROGRAMME: M. Sc.

SUPERVISOR and COMMITTEE: Supervisor - Grant Wach

Committee Members - Marcos Zentilli, Martin Gibling, David Brown (CNSOPB)

TITLE OF PROPOSAL: Examination of architectural elements of Mesozoic rift basin sediments, Scotian margin.

KEY WORDS Scotian Shelf, resevoir characterization, rift basin, salt, diapirs, ground penetrating radar (GPR),

light detection and ranging (LiDAR), 3D digital modeling

LIST INNOVATIONS or EXPECTED SIGNIFICANT OUTCOMES:

1. The first three-dimwnsional, high resolution (< 15 m ) geologic digital model of

subsurface siliciclastic bedforms with implication to Scotian Margin sediment fill. The

model will produce new insight into reservoir sediments in the Orpheus Basin with

implications to potential hydrocarbon production and liquid phase CO2 injection.

2. Develop improved sedimentation and structural constraints describing braided channel

architectural elements clearly defining fluid reservoirs and potential fluid flow.

3. Assess reservoir heterogeneity of basin fill, with implication for hydrocarbon potential

for the naturally occurring Orpheus Graben sedimentary basin.

SUMMARY OF PROPOSED RESEARCH: The preferred technique for examination of Scotian Basin sedimentary fill has principally been

sequence stratigraphy (Wade and MacLean 1990; Wade et al. 1995; Piper et al. 2005). However,

due to the presence of basin sediment deformation of architectural elements the Scotian Basin

reservoir rocks are not well understood (Piper et al. 2005). Through use of highresolution

geologic digital modeling, reservoir analogues depicting architectural elements and geometric

features of related outcrop sediments can be characterized and applied to determine the reservoir

sedimentological and structural analysis of offshore basin fill.

Recent investigation into analogous outcrops along the Scotian and Fundy Basins include studies

of the Wolfville Formation along the Bay of Fundy (Kettanah 2008; Nickerson 2010). The

Wolfville Formation provides 2D and 3D imagery of exposed braided channel siliciclastic

deposits, demonstrating reservoir complexities associated with mid- to Late-Triassic depositional

environments. This sedimentological and structural analogue will prove useful for interpretation

of subsurface log and core successions and in defining models of fluid flow in complex

reservoirs of Orpheus Graben sediment fill.

This study will focus on characterizing heterogeneities of architectural elements in midto Late-

Triassic reservoir sediments of the Orpheus Graben. Three stages of study will be used to resolve

reservoir heterogeneities of architectural elements: 1) Outcrop analysis, including gamma

scintillometer and permeameter readings, of the synchronously forming Wolfville and Eurydice

formations; 2) Subsurface analysis, including seismic and well log interpretation, core and

cuttings description, and thin section petrography, of the Orpheus Graben basin fill; and 3)

Development of a high-resolution three-dimensional geologic digital model of the Wolfville

Formation siliciclastic sediments, using innovative techniques of GPR and LiDAR, for

application to offshore Orpheus Graben Eurydice Formation sediments. The combination of all

three studies will allow for high-resolution architectural element conditions to be characterized

for onshore sediments and used as an analogue for offshore basin fill characterization.

Statement of Problem

Rift basins are elongate depressions overlying areas of lithospheric extension and are important,

ubiquitous depositional environments which often contain potential reservoir sediment fill (e.g.

Jeanne D'Arc Basin and Tupi Basin) (Olsen 1997; Burke, 1985). The Orpheus Graben (Fig. 1),

offshore Nova Scotia, is well acknowledged as a previous rift and passive margin basin

containing rift related braided stream deposits. These sediments also outcrop along coastal

sections of Nova Scotia, namely as siliciclastic braided channel complexes of the Wolfville

Formation. However, previous investigation into these basin reservoir rocks has revealed

sedimentological and structural deformation resulting in a poor understanding of the sedimentary

units (Wade and MacLean 1990; Piper 2005). Because the proximity of the Orpheus Graben to

Nova Scotia, the onshore coastal sections of braided channel complexes offer an exceptional

depositional analogue to refine the architectural elements of the offshore reservoir sediments.

This study will investigate the architectural elements of the outcropping Wolfville and Eurydice

formations, through digital geologic reconstruction, in order to better constrain the

characterization of architectural elements of Scotian margin sediments. The first part of the study

uses a combination of standard descriptive methods to identify commonalities between onshore

outcrops to offshore subsurface data. Collected data will be used to determine the architectural

elements of onshore and offshore sediments, constraining the use of the onshore sediments as an

analogue for offshore basin fill. The second part of this study uses innovative methods to

digitally reconstruct architectural elements of the onshore Wolfville Formation to further

improve reservoir characterization of offshore subsurface sediments. Interpretation of 2D and 3D

GPR reflection data will be conducted to determine variation in braided channel architectural

elements to determine sedimentation patterns. Part three of this study will use the created model

to employ interpretive reservoir conditions to analyze fluid flow with implications to potential

hydrocarbon emplacement and CO2 liquid injection storage. This study will improve

understanding of small scale architectural elements of Scotian margin basin fill and will put

constraint on areas suitable for hydrocarbons exploration and CO2 liquid injection storage.

Figure 1 Generalized map approximately during the Triassic illustrating depositional environments around Nova Scotia. The three locations of study

are indicated by yellow boxes (outcropping Wolfville and Eurydice formations) and a red box (offshore Orpheus Graben). The current outcrops are noted as either lowland or lake depositional environments. The Orpheus Graben is noted to contain similar lowland environments but with the

addition of shallow salt water and salt evaporites (after Wade 1990)

Background The study region is located in the Northern Canadian Cordillera in the Mackenzie Mountains and

Mackenzie Plain, around the region of Norman Wells (approximately 65o W, 126o N) (Fig. 1).

The project will use apatite fission-track thermochronology (AFT) to determine upper cooling

history of Mackenzie Mountains and Plain in order to determine temporal correlations between

cooling history and key structural events.

Regional Geology - Scotian Basin

The Scotian Basin is a passive conjugate margin recording 250 million years of fluvialdeltaic-

lacustrine and deep water sedimentation, offshore Nova Scotia, Canada. Sedimentation occurred

during the continental breakup and rifting events, during the early- to Late-Triassic, as North

America separated from Africa forming a number of juxtaposed and interconnected subbasins

(Wade and MacLean 1990; Wade et al. 1996; Weir-Murphy 2004;). These subbasins have a

maximum sediment thickness of over 24 km and are known from south to north as the

Shelburne, Sable, and Abenaki subbasins, and the Orpheus Graben. Syn-rift mid- to late-Triassic

mixed clastic and carbonate redbeds (Eurydice Formation) were the earliest sediments deposited

into the subbasins (Wade et al. 1996) (Fig. 2). Late Triassic rifting furthered plate separation

with episodic incursion of marine waters into the newly formed basins. At equatorial latitude,

restricted marine waters formed a succession of evaporitic deposits. These deposits of salt are

separated sporadically by thin red shale beds (Argo Formation) (Wade et al. 1996; Weir-Murphy

2004) (Fig. 2.0). A period of tectonic quiescence followed until the mid-Sinemurian, recorded by

complex and heavy faulting of the mid to Late-Triassic Eurydice and Argo formations (Weir-

Murphy 2004). This tectonic renewal coevolved with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean and

complete separation of the North American and African plates. In the Late Sinemurian to Early

Bajocian, shales deposited during marine transgression largely covered the sedimentary basins.

Shallow marine dolomites and clastics (Iroquois Formation) and terrestrial fluvial coarse-grained

clastics (Mohican Formation) were deposited (Wade and MacLean 1990). Increased overburden

pressure initiated salt mobilization with the formation of a number of salt pillows and diapirs

(Wade and MacLean 1990). Delta progradation followed, producing shallow marine sandstone

and limestone beds during the Late Jurassic (Wade et al. 1996). Eustacy changes during the

Cretaceous resulted in a series of coarse clastic fluvial deposits and marine shales, marl, and

chalk deposits (Dawson Canyon Formation) and have continued into the Tertiary (Wade and

MacLean 1990).

Figure 2 Stratigraphic column of the Scotian margin. Located above the metasediment and igneous

basement rocks are the Eurydice Formation redbeds formed during the mid- to Late-Triassic. These

sediments are under investigation in this study as potential sources of hydrocarbon exploration and

liquid phase CO2 injection. Using synchronously formed outcrops (Wolfville and Eurydice

formations), offshore Eurydice formation architectural elements can be characterized

(www.CNSOPB.ns.ca- modified from Wade et al. 1996)

Regional Geology - Fundy Basin

The Fundy Basin is composed of a number of Mesozoic rift basins (Minas, Fundy, and

Chignecto subbasins) representing Triassic, stratigraphically complex half grabens fluids with 6-

12 km of clastic sediments (Leleu & Hartley 2010; Wade et al. 1996). The Minas subbasin

contains two stratigraphic units of approximately 1050 m in total thickness; the Wolfville

Formation (800 m) and Blomidon Formation (250 m), each extending from onshore outcrop to

offshore subsurface (LeLeu and Hartley 2010; LeLeu et al. 2009). The Wolfville Formation

(mid- to Late Triassic) comprises a range of depositional environments from coarse- to

finegrained fluvial sandstones, aeolian dune sandstones, and alluvial fan sediments, all of which

unconformably lie on the Carboniferous sediments (Klein 1962; Hubert & Mertz 1980; Leleu &

Hartley 2010; Wade et al. 1996). The overlying Blomidon Formation (Late-Triassic to Early-

Jurassic) contains tabular, massive, and cross-bedded fluvial sandstones, and laminated

lacustrine mudstones with rare evaporites (Leleu & Hartley 2010). Both formations are exposed

along the south-eastern shore of the Minas subbasin, and demonstrate the internal 2D and 3D

stratigraphic and structural complexities of the early sedimentation of clastic fluvial and alluvial

sandstone.

Physical Analysis Physical analyses of both onshore outcrops and offshore core have been largely used to describe

variability in large-scale, basin-wide sedimentation and structural properties (Wade et al. 1996;

Leleu et al. 2009; Leleu & Hartley, 2010). Application of small-scale physical elements (i.e.

sedimentary structures, gamma ray spectra, permeability, and porosity measurements) will allow

for comparison, and geological linkage, between the two sedimentary systems (Vaughan, 2011).

Successful comparison between onshore and offshore sediments is fundamental for application

of a 3D geologic model to offshore sediments.

Conceptual Modeling Analogues Most work for describing architectural elements of sedimentary fill has relied on the use of either

GPR (Neal, 2004) or LiDAR (Labourdette, 2011; Hajek & Heller, 2004) separately creating 2D

models. Recent innovative work (Vaughan, 2011) has conjoined both GPR 3D profile data with

LiDAR outcrop measurements to form digital 3D models illustrating stratigraphic and structural

complexities of braided channel complexes.

Both 2D and 3D digital modeling from ground penetrating radar (GPR) and light detection and

ranging (LiDAR) have tested the analysis of architecture and dimensional distribution of fluvial

and alluvial depositional systems, principally in conjugate margin settings of Nova Scotia

(Vaughan, 2011) and Spain (Labourdette, 2011). The use of these digital models has shown to be

effective for high resolution application in understanding the distribution and connectivity of

related lithological bodies (i.e. permeable paths and barriers) in both hydrocarbon and

hydrological reservoirs (Labourdette 2011; Larue & Hovadik 2006; Neal 2004; Nickerson 2010).

Other uses include the formation and distinction of fluvial and alluvial depositional systems

(Vaughan, 2011; Labourdette, 2011), the differentiation between distribution of differing

lithologies (i.e. muds and sands) (Lynds and Hajek, 2006), and the influence of tectonic regimes

on basin structure. Such models allow for the incorporation of specific morphological data (i.e.

strata orientation, thickness, width, relationships to each other) to both small scale physical

outcrop entities (i.e. grain size, fossil fragments) and large scale physical outcrop entities (i.e.

faulting). Incorporating physical outcrop measurements (permeability, porosity, gamma ray) into

the 2D and 3D digital models will yield more geologically comprehensive digital models.

Comparing digital models and physical analysis Recent studies using LiDAR have described the stratigraphic and structural characterization of

outcrop in regards to creating 2D reservoir analogues (Labourdette, 2011; Labourdette, 2007;

Hajek & Heller, 2004; Lynds & Hajek, 2005). Only few studies have attempted creation of 3D

digital analogues using 2D GPR profiles and 2D LiDAR images to compare subsurface and

outcrop data (Vaughan, 2011). This work demonstrates that 1) The technique in creating a 3D

digital analogue is viable, and 2) The feasibility of using the digital model for assessment of

comparable rock formations is possible. This shows that it is possible to combine the digital

model with physical outcrop and core measurements to create a comprehensive and complete 3D

geologic model. This coupled framework will provide increased understanding on reservoir

architectural elements with implication for potential hydrocarbon production and liquid phase

CO2 injection (Wade et al. 1996; Leleu & Hartley, 2010; Kettanah, 2009). OBJECTIVES

Using three-dimensional data and description of analogous outcrop and subsurface data, the

overall good of the proposed research is to assess the small-scale (< 15 m) reservoir architectural

elements of Orpheus Graben sediment fill. Regional correlation, through comparison of onshore

outcrop to offshore subsurface sediment, will allow for application of high-resolution, 3D digital

geologic models to offshore basin fill and will be completed using the following objectives:

Construct a type log from existing well data (seven wells) from the Orpheus Graben.

Analyze and spatially correlate lithological, sedimentological, and structural

characteristics of mid- to Late-Triassic Eurydice and Wolfville formations and Orpheus

Graben basin fill.

Create a three-dimensional model of high-resolution (< 15 m) structural and stratigraphic

heterogeneity of braided channel complexes of the Wolfville Formation, determining

variation in channel architecture and geometry with implication on sedimentation patterns

and potential fluid flow.

Application of three-dimensional geologic model for potential hydrocarbon production

and liquid phase CO2 injection.

METHODS

Outcrop and Well Core Analysis

Measured Sections: This analysis will involve a detailed description of lithological and sedimentological elements of

the Wolfville and Eurydice formation outcrops (Fig. 1.0) can be completed using outcrop

analysis through measured sections. Through direct outcrop examination, characterization of

lithology (clast size and composition), laminae and bed thickness, physical and biogenic

sedimentary structures, and structural features will be measured and recorded.

Thin Sections: Through use of thin sections, the grain shape and size, cement, and major rock forming minerals

can be identified for outcrop and well cores. Using a polarized-reflected light petrographic

microscope, mounted thin sections can be placed under the field of view. Objectives between

10X to 40X magnification, depending on the level of magnification needed, sample properties

can be identified and collected.

Scintillometer: Outcrop and well core can be classified through gamma scintillometer measurements of

radioactive elements uranium, thorium, and potassium. By resting the handheld gamma

scintillometer next to a representative sample of interest, the radioactive content of the sample

can be measured.

Permeameter: The permeameter (Tiny Perm II) is a handheld tool used for determining rock sample

permeability (i.e. the measurement of the ability for a material to transmit fluid or air). The unit

consists of a cylinder air piston wired to a palm sized computer and display. Holding the

permeameter to a clean, flat, dry rock sample surface, and engaging the air piston, the

permeability of that sample can be measured.

Core Analysis: Cores stored at the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board (CNSOPB) are described by

examining and recording colour, lithology, induration, sedimentary structure, clasts presence,

and mineralogy. Through physical and photographic observation the sedimentological and

lithological characteristics of the well core are collected, described, and recorded.

Well Cuttings Analysis: Rock sample lithology and porosity can be determined through well cuttings analysis. Well

cuttings are analyzed by placing them in a sample tray under an optical microscope field of view

(FOV). The correct magnification (usually 10X objective) must be used to identify the rock

characteristics.

Seismic Reflection Data: Publicly available digital portable document format (PDF) files of seismic records were obtained

through the Data Management Center (DMC) of the CNSOPB. These will be used to describe

the Orpheus Basin rift architectural elements with identification of faults, salt movement, and

lithological changes. PDF seismic lines will be converted into SEG-Y files and imported into

Petrel computational software for interpretations.

Application: A complete and detailed physical characterization of outcropping Wolfville and Eurydice

formations and Orpheus Graben well core provides can be completed using the above methods.

The combination of these tools allows for complete insight on large scale (~20 m) to small scale

(grain size) features of onshore and offshore rock units. Together these methods provide insight

on architectural element characteristics, along with reservoir quality, to allow for type log

construction and the comparison of onshore Wolfville and Eurydice formations to offshore basin

fill. When applied to the 3D digital geologic model, these methods will be used for

characterizing reservoir quality and fluid flow with implication for describing potential

hydrocarbon production and liquid phase CO2 injection.

Outcrop Subsurface and 3D Digital Environment Reconstruction

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): GPR is a surficial geophysical method which uses electromagnetic energy transmission and

reflection to detect electrical discontinuities within changing shallow Earth subsurface materials

(Neal 2004). Through detection of changes in lithology, varying subsurface architectural

elements of the Wolfville Formation braided channel complex can be identified.

In this study GPR is used in a common offset geometry consisting of two, separate antennae, one

each for transmitting and receiving, set at a predetermined fixed spacing, oriented perpendicular

to the survey line, and attached to a mobile carbon fibre cart. The antennas are directly attached

to the electromagnetic transmitting and receiving devices and act as beginning and end points for

propagating electromagnetic energy. As electromagnetic pulses are sequentially collected

following reflection, a radar reflection profile is built (Neal 2004). This study will use two

different frequencies of antennae: 50 Hz and 100 Hz. The low frequency 50 Hz antennae allow

for deep subsurface penetration, up to ~20 m depending on lithology, but at a low subsurface

resolution. The 100 Hz antennae have a maximum depth penetration of ~12 m, but have

increased subsurface resolution (Neal 2004).

GPR Profile Processing: Processing of raw GPR radar profiles will be performed using the software package

EKKO_View Delux. Radar profile processing is essential in removing several types of noise to

yield a useful subsurface profile for identification of structural and stratigraphic subsurface

properties.

Data lines are imported into EKKO_View Delux as unprocessed subsurface 2D profiles. A series

of processing operations (gains and filters) must be applied. Processing filters used by Jol and

Smith (1991) and Vaughan (2011) include the removal of low frequencies, reduction in

electromagnetic noise, the removal of background noise, and the compensation for amplitude

attenuation with propagation. These allow for a clear 2D subsurface profile to be created. After

completing data processing, the radar profiles are exported in SEG-Y seismic format (Vaughan

2011).

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR): LiDAR is a remote sensing technology used to optically map and measure distance to and shape

of a given surface. Using LiDAR, this study will demonstrate lithological, sedimentological, and

structural changes in surface outcrop of the Wolfville Formation. LiDAR is able to detect

surficial changes in outcrop by using pulses of light, ranging from ultraviolet to infrared, from an

onboard laser. By detecting surficial changes in outcrop, architectural elements, geometries, and

fluid flow of braided channel complex sediments can be characterized for geologic

reconstruction and modeling (Labourdette 2011). Data collection consisted of placing the unit 25

m to 100 m from the outcrop, positioned so laser propagation and reception were facing the

outcrop. High resolution photos and a grid over a predetermined surficial region are acquired.

The laser beam is emitted toward the surface and is reflected back to the receiver on the LiDAR.

These laser point clouds are processed to generate three-dimensional pixel point-clouds of the

scanned area (Labourdette 2011)

LiDAR Post Processing: Processing of LiDAR data is completed using Polyworks to align, edit, and views three-

dimensional data, and merge multiple scans into a single three-dimensional point cloud.

Construction of 3-D Digital Environment: Developing a three-dimensional model of the Wolfville Formation braided channel complex

involves the incorporation of processed GPR radar profiles with LiDAR point-cloud images.

Adjacent data sets are combined and are spatially oriented, allowing for visualization of the

lithologies and structural geometries into the subsurface GPR radar profiles. Individual radar

horizons are identified and mapped on each radar profile through manual digitization of the

three-dimensional polygons.

Application: Radar reflection profiles from GPR surveys demonstrate subsurface lithological

contacts and provide initial insight into stratigraphic characteristics of gross lithological and

structural information (Neal and Roberts 2000). Processed GPR radar profiles produce

highresolution subsurface images revealing heterogeneities of architectural elements of braided

channel complexes in the Wolfville Formation. Specific subsurface architectural elements can be

determined, such as faults and changing lithologies, which are important for characterizing

reservoir quality and fluid flow.

Point-cloud images from LiDAR surveys provide high-resolution three-dimensional photos for

characterizing the complexities of reservoir quality. LiDAR is capable of aiding in discerning

physical outcrop heterogeneity while providing a surficial basis for which subsurface

interpretation can be made. These three dimensional point-clouds can be used to define

stratigraphic and structural outcrop geometries of braided channel complexes.

Together the GPR profiles and LiDAR point-cloud images will provide a basis for construction

of the three-dimensional digital geologic model, later applied to the Orpheus Graben reservoir

system. Understanding the subsurface architectural elements of the Wolfville Formation braided

channel complexes allows for characterization of offshore reservoirs with insight on potential

fluid flow and further implication in deciphering potential hydrocarbon production and liquid

phase CO2 injection.

Results and Significance

Develop improved sedimentation and structural constraints describing braided channel

architectural elements clearly defining fluid reservoirs and potential fluid flow.

Introduction of the three-dimensional model to offshore basin fill sediments will allow

for reservoir characterization of sedimentological and structural elements. At a

highresolution, the model will produce new insight into reservoir sediments in the

Orpheus Basin with implications to fluid flow.

Assess the reservoir potential of the Orpheus Graben for both hydrocarbon potential and

CO2 liquid injection. Overall, this study will illustrate the importance of using

highresolution geologic models as analogues for reservoir characterization of offshore

sediment.

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