TheThinker’sGuidetoAnalyticThinking

Contents

PartI:UnderstandingtheBasicTheoryofAnalysisThis section provides the foundational theory essential to analysis. Itdelineatestheeightbasicstructurespresentinallthinking.

WhyaGuideonAnalyticThinking?

WhytheAnalysisofThinkingisImportant

AllThinkingisDefinedbytheEightElementsThatMakeItUp

AllHumansUseTheirThinkingToMakeSenseoftheWorld

To Analyze Thinking We Must Learn to Identify and Question ItsElementalStructures

To Evaluate Thinking, We Must Understand and Apply IntellectualStandards

Thirty-fiveDimensionsofCriticalThought

On theBasis of theAboveWeCanDevelopAChecklist for EvaluatingReasoning

Part2:GettingStarted:SomeFirstStepsThissectionenumeratesthemostimportantfoundationalmovesinanalysis.

ThinkAboutPurpose

StatetheQuestion

GatherInformation

WatchYourInferences

CheckYourAssumptions

ClarifyYourConcepts

UnderstandYourPointofView

ThinkThroughtheImplications

Part3:UsingAnalysistoFigureOuttheLogicofAnythingThissectionprovidesarangeofsampleanalyses(aswellastemplatesforanalysis).

TheFiguringMind

AnalyzingtheLogicofHumanEmotions

AnalyzingProblems

AnalyzingtheLogicofanArticle,Essay,orChapter

AnalyzingtheLogicofaTextbook

EvaluatinganAuthor’sReasoning

AnalyzingtheLogicofaSubject:

•Science

•History

•Sociology

•Economics

•Ecology

•SubstantiveWriting

Part4:TakingYourUnderstandingtoaDeeperLevelThis section explains the elements more comprehensively, differentiatingskilledfromunskilledreasoners.AnalyzingandAssessing:

•Goals,Purposes,orObjectives

•Questions,Problems,andIssues

•Data,Evidence,Experience,Research

•Inferences,Interpretations,andConclusions

•AssumptionsandBeliefs

•Concepts,Ideas,andTheories

•PointsofViewandPerspectives

•ImplicationsandConsequences

DistinguishingBetweenInferencesandAssumptions

Conclusion

TheThinker’sGuideLibrary

WhyaGuideonAnalyticThinking?

Analysis and evaluation are recognized as crucial skills for all students tomaster.Andforgoodreason.Theseskillsarerequiredinlearninganysignificantbodyofcontent inanon-trivialway.Studentsarecommonlyasked toanalyzepoems, mathematical for-mulas, biological systems, chapters in textbooks,concepts and ideas, essays, novels, and articles—just to name a few.Yet howmany students can explain what analysis requires? How many have a clearconceptionofhowtothinkit through?Whichofourgraduatescouldcompletethesentence:“WheneverIamasked toanalyzesomething, Iuse thefollowingmodel:…”

The painful fact is that few students have been taught how to analyze.Hence,whentheyareaskedtoanalyzesomethingscientific,historical,literary,ormathematical—letalonesomethingethical,political,orpersonal—theylackamodeltoempowertheminthetask.Theymuddlethroughtheirassignmentwithonlythevaguestsenseofwhatanalysisrequires.Theyhavenoideahowsoundanalysis can lead the way to sound evaluation and assessment. Of course,students are not alone.Many adults are similarly confused about analysis andassessmentasintellectualprocesses.

Yetwhatwouldwethinkofanautomechanicwhosaid,“I’lldomybesttofixyourcar,butfranklyI’veneverunderstoodthepartsoftheengine,”orofagrammarianwho said, “Sorry, but I have always been confused about how toidentifythepartsofspeech.”Clearly,studentsshouldnotbeaskedtodoanalysisiftheydonothaveaclearmodel,andtherequisitefoundations,forthedoingofit.Similarly,weshouldnotaskstudentstoengageinassessmentiftheyhavenostandardsuponwhichtobasetheirassessment.Subjectivereactionshouldnotbeconfusedwithobjectiveevaluation.

Totheextentthatstudentsinternalizethismodelthroughpractice,theyputthemselves in a much better position to begin to think historically (in theirhistory classes), mathematically (in their math classes), scientifically (in theirscienceclasses),andthereforemoreskillfully(inalloftheirclasses).Whenthismodel is internalized, students become better students because they acquire apowerful“system-analyzing-system.”

This thinker’s guide is a companion to The Miniature Guide to CriticalThinkingConceptsandTools. Itsupports,andissupportedby,allof theotherminiatureguidesintheseries.Itexemplifieswhythinkingisbestunderstoodand

improved when we are able to analyze and assess it EXPLICITLY. Theintellectualskillsitemphasizesarethesameskillsneededtoreasonthroughthedecisionsandproblemsinherentinanyandeverydimensionofhumanlife.

WhytheAnalysisofThinkingisImportant

Everyonethinks;itisournaturetodoso.Butmuchofourthinking,lefttoitself,isbiased,distorted,partial,uninformed,ordownrightprejudiced.Yetthequalityof our life and of what we produce,make, or build depends precisely on thequalityofourthought.Shoddythinkingiscostly,bothinmoneyandinqualityof life. Ifwewant to thinkwell,wemustunderstandat least the rudimentsofthought, themostbasic structuresoutofwhichall thinking ismade.Wemustlearnhowtotakethinkingapart.

AllThinkingIsDefinedbytheEightElementsThatMakeItUpEightbasicstructures are present in all thinking:Whenever we think, we think for apurposewithinapointofviewbasedonassumptionsleadingtoimplicationsandconsequences.Weuseconcepts, ideasand theories to interpretdata, facts, andexperiencesinordertoanswerquestions,solveproblems,andresolveissues.

Thinking,then:

generatespurposesraisesquestionsusesinformationutilizesconceptsmakesinferencesmakesassumptionsgeneratesimplicationsembodiesapointofview

Each of these structures has implications for the others. If you change yourpurposeoragenda,youchangeyourquestionsandproblems.Ifyouchangeyourquestionsandproblems,youareforcedtoseeknewinformationanddata.Ifyoucollectnewinformationanddata…

EssentialIdea:Thereareeightstructuresthatdefinethinking.Learningtoanalyzethinkingrequirespracticeinidentifyingthesestructuresinuse.

AllHumansUseTheirThinkingToMakeSenseoftheWorld

Thewordsthinkingandreasoningareusedineverydaylifeasvirtualsynonyms.Reasoning,however,hasamoreformalflavor.Thisisbecauseithighlightstheinference-drawingcapacityofthemind.

Reasoning occurs whenever the mind draws conclusions on the basis ofreasons.Wedrawconclusionswheneverwemakesenseofthings.Theresultisthatwheneverwethink,wereason.Usuallywearenotawareofthefullscopeofreasoningimplicitinourminds.

We begin to reason from the moment we wake up in the morning. Wereasonwhenwe figureoutwhat toeat forbreakfast,what towear,whether tomake certain purchases, whether to go with this or that friend to lunch. Wereason as we interpret the oncoming flow of traffic, when we react to thedecisions of other drivers, when we speed up or slow down. One can drawconclusions,then,abouteverydayeventsor,really,aboutanythingatall:aboutpoems, microbes, people, numbers, historical events, social settings,psychologicalstates,charactertraits,thepast,thepresent,thefuture.

Byreasoning,then,wemeanmakingsenseofsomethingbygivingitsomemeaning in our mind. Virtually all thinking is part of our sense-makingactivities.Wehearscratchingatthedoorandthink,“It’sthedog.”Weseedarkcloudsintheskyandthink,“Itlookslikerain.”Someofthisactivityoperatesata subconscious level. For example, all of the sights and sounds about us havemeaning for us without our explicitly noticing that they do. Most of ourreasoning is unspectacular.Our reasoning tends to become explicit onlywhensomeonechallenges itandwehavetodefendit (“WhydoyousaythatJackisobnoxious? I think he is quite funny”). Throughout life, we form goals orpurposesandthenfigureouthowtopursuethem.Reasoningiswhatenablesustocometothesedecisionsusingideasandmeanings.

On the surface, reasoning often looks simple, as if it had no componentstructures.Lookedatmoreclosely,however,itimpliestheabilitytoengageinasetof interrelatedintellectualprocesses.Thisthinker’sguideis largelyfocusedon making these intellectual processes explicit. It will enable you to betterunderstandwhatisgoingonbeneaththesurfaceofyourthought.

EssentialIdea:Reasoningoccurswhenwedrawconclusionsbasedonreasons.Wecanupgradethequalityofourreasoningwhenweunderstandtheintellectualprocessesthatunderliereasoning.

ToAnalyzeThinkingWeMustLearntoIdentifyandQuestionitsElementalStructures

Beaware:Whenweunderstandthestructuresofthought,weaskimportantquestionsimpliedbythesestructures.

ToEvaluateThinkingWeMustUnderstandandApplyIntellectualStandards

Reasonable people judge reasoning by intellectual standards. When youinternalize these standards and explicitly use them in your thinking, yourthinking becomes more clear, more accurate, more precise, more relevant,deeper,broaderandmorefair.Youshouldnotethatwefocushereonaselectionof standards. Among others are credibility, sufficiency, reliability, andpracticality. The questions that employ these standards are listed on thefollowingpage.

Clarity:

understandable,themeaningcanbegrasped

Accuracy:

freefromerrorsordistortions,true

Precision:

exacttothenecessarylevelofdetail

Relevance:

relatingtothematterathand

Depth:

containingcomplexitiesandmultipleinterrelationships

Breadth:

encompassingmultipleviewpoints

Logic:

thepartsmakesensetogether,nocontradictions

Significance:

focusingontheimportant,nottrivial

Fairness:

justifiable,notself-servingorone-sided

Couldyouelaboratefurther?Couldyougivemeanexample?Couldyouillustratewhatyoumean?

Howcouldwecheckonthat?Howcouldwefindoutifthatistrue?Howcouldweverifyortestthat?

Couldyoubemorespecific?Couldyougivememoredetails?Couldyoubemoreexact?

Howdoesthatrelatetotheproblem?Howdoesthatbearonthequestion?Howdoesthathelpuswiththeissue?

Whatfactorsmakethisadifficultproblem?Whataresomeofthecomplexitiesofthisquestion?Whataresomeofthedifficultiesweneedtodealwith?

Doweneedtolookatthisfromanotherperspective?Doweneedtoconsideranotherpointofview?Doweneedtolookatthisinotherways?

Doesallthismakesensetogether?Doesyourfirstparagraphfitinwithyourlast?Doeswhatyousayfollowfromtheevidence?

Isthisthemostimportantproblemtoconsider?Isthisthecentralideatofocuson?Whichofthesefactsaremostimportant?

Whichofthesefactsaremostimportant?

DoIhaveanyvestedinterestinthisissue?AmIsympatheticallyrepresentingtheviewpointsofothers?

35DimensionsofCriticalThought

A.AffectiveDimensions

thinkingindependentlydevelopinginsightintoegocentricityorsociocentricityexercisingfairmindednessexploringthoughtsunderlyingfeelingsandfeelingsunderlyingthoughtdevelopingintellectualhumilityandsuspendingjudgmentdevelopingintellectualcouragedevelopingintellectualgoodfaithorintegritydevelopingintellectualperseverancedevelopingconfidenceinreason

B.CognitiveDimensions—Macro-Abilities

refininggeneralizationsandavoidingoversimplificationscomparinganalogoussituations:transferringinsightstonewcontextsdevelopingone’s perspective: creatingor exploringbeliefs, arguments, ortheoriesclarifyingissues,conclusions,orbeliefsclarifyingandanalyzingthemeaningsofwordsorphrasesdevelopingcriteriaforevaluation:clarifyingvaluesandstandardsevaluatingthecredibilityofsourcesofinformationquestioningdeeply:raisingandpursuingrootorsignificantquestionsanalyzingorevaluatingarguments,interpretations,beliefs,ortheoriesgeneratingorassessingsolutionsanalyzingorevaluatingactionsorpoliciesreadingcritically:clarifyingorcritiquingtexts

35DimensionsofCriticalThought(cont.)

listeningcritically:theartofsilentdialoguemakinginterdisciplinaryconnectionspracticingSocraticdiscussion:clarifyingandquestioningbeliefs, theories,orperspectivesreasoningdialogically:comparingperspectives,interpretations,ortheoriesreasoningdialectically:evaluatingperspectives,interpretations,ortheories

C.CognitiveDimensions—Micro-Skills

comparingandcontrastingidealswithactualpracticethinkingpreciselyaboutthinking:usingcriticalvocabularynotingsignificantsimilaritiesanddifferencesexaminingorevaluatingassumptionsdistinguishingrelevantfromirrelevantfactsmakingplausibleinferences,predictions,orinterpretationsgivingreasonsandevaluatingevidenceandallegedfactsrecognizingcontradictionsexploringimplicationsandconsequences

AChecklistforReasoning

1)AllreasoninghasaPURPOSE.

Taketimetostateyourpurposeclearly.Distinguishyourpurposefromrelatedpurposes.Checkperiodicallytobesureyouarestillontarget.Choosesignificantandrealisticpurposes.

2) All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle someQUESTION,tosolvesomeproblem.

Statethequestionatissueclearlyandprecisely.Expressthequestioninseveralwaystoclarifyitsmeaningandscope.Breakthequestionintosub-questions.Distinguish questions that have definitive answers from those that are amatter of opinion and from those that require consideration of multipleviewpoints.

3)AllreasoningisbasedonASSUMPTIONS.

Clearly identify your assumptions and determine whether they arejustifiable.Considerhowyourassumptionsareshapingyourpointofview.

4)AllreasoningisdonefromsomePOINTOFVIEW.

Identifyyourpointofview.Seek other points of view and identify their strengths as well asweaknesses.Strivetobefairmindedinevaluatingallpointsofview.

AChecklistforReasoning(cont.)

5)AllreasoningisbasedonDATA,INFORMATIONandEVIDENCE.

Restrictyourclaimstothosesupportedbythedatayouhave.Search for information that opposes your position aswell as informationthatsupportsit.Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate and relevant to thequestionatissue.Makesureyouhavegatheredsufficientinformation.

6) All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS andIDEAS.

Identifykeyconceptsandexplainthemclearly.Consideralternativeconceptsoralternativedefinitionsofconcepts.Makesureyouareusingconceptswithprecision.

7)AllreasoningcontainsINFERENCESorINTERPRETATIONSbywhichwedrawCONCLUSIONSandgivemeaningtodata.

Inferonlywhattheevidenceimplies.Checkinferencesfortheirconsistencywitheachother.Identifyassumptionsunderlyingyourinferences.

8) All reasoning leads somewhere or has IMPLICATIONS andCONSEQUENCES.

Tracetheimplicationsandconsequencesthatfollowfromyourreasoning.Searchfornegativeaswellaspositiveimplications.Considerallpossibleconsequences.

ThinkAboutPurpose

Your purpose is your goal, your objective, what you are trying toaccomplish. We also use the term to include functions, motives, andintentions.

You should be clear about your purpose, and your purpose should bejustifiable.Questionswhichtargetpurpose:

Whatisyour,my,theirpurposeindoing_____________?What is the objective of this assignment (task, job, experiment, policy,strategy,etc.)?Shouldwequestion,refine,modifyourpurpose(goal,objective,etc.)?Whydidyousay…?Whatisyourcentralaiminthislineofthought?Whatisthepurposeofthismeeting(chapter,relationship,action)?Whatisthepurposeofeducation?What is the function of this ____________________ (bodily system,machine,tool,economicpolicy,plant,ecosystem)?

Beaware:Allofwhatwedoisguidedbyourpurposesorgoals.Weareawareofonlysomeofourgoals.Whenourgoalsreflectourgreedorpossessiveness,orsuch,wedenythemasgoals.Wethendescribeouractionsinsuchawayastohidepurposestowhichwecannotadmit.

StatetheQuestion

Thequestionlaysouttheproblemorissueandguidesourthinking.Whenthequestionisvague,ourthinkingwilllackclarityanddistinctness.

Thequestionshouldbeclearandpreciseenoughtoproductivelyguideourthinking.

Questionswhichtargetthequestion:

WhatisthequestionIamtryingtoanswer?Whatimportantquestionsareembeddedintheissue?Isthereabetterwaytoputthequestion?Isthisquestionclear?Isitcomplex?Iamnotsureexactlywhatquestionyouareasking.Couldyouexplainit?Thequestioninmymindisthis:Howdoyouseethequestion?What kind of question is this? Historical? Scientific? Ethical? Political?Economic?Or…?Whatimportantquestionsdoesthisdisciplineaddress?Whatwouldwehavetodotosettlethisquestion?

Beaware:Oftentherealquestionorproblemishiddenorobscure.Peopleresistadmittingproblemsthatcasttheminanegativelight.Weneedintellectualcouragetobringtherealproblemsandissuestothesurface.

GatherInformation

Information includes the facts, data, evidence, or experiences we use tofigurethingsout.Itdoesnotnecessarilyimplyaccuracyorcorrectness.

Theinformationyouuseshouldbeaccurateandrelevanttothequestionorissueyouareaddressing.

Questionswhichtargetinformation:

WhatinformationdoIneedtoanswerthisquestion?Whatdataarerelevanttothisproblem?Doweneedtogathermoreinformation?Isthisinformationrelevanttoourpurposeorgoal?Onwhatinformationareyoubasingthatcomment?What experience convinced you of this? Could your experience bedistorted?Howdoweknowthisinformation(data,testimony)isaccurate?Haveweleftoutanyimportantinformationthatweneedtoconsider?

Beaware:ofmissinginformation,especiallyinformationthatrevealscontradictions,hypocrisy,andself-deceptiononourpart.Mostpeopleseekonlyinformationthatsupportswhattheyalreadybelieve.Theyignoreordiscounttherest.Criticalthinkingrequiresintellectualintegrity.

WatchYourInferences

Inferencesareinterpretationsorconclusionsyoucometo.Inferringiswhattheminddoesinfiguringsomethingout.

Inferencesshouldlogicallyfollowfromtheevidence.Infernomoreorlessthanwhatisimpliedinthesituation.

Questionsyoucanasktocheckyourinferences:

WhatconclusionsamIcomingto?Ismyinferencelogical?ArethereotherconclusionsIshouldconsider?Doesthisinterpretationmakesense?Doesoursolutionnecessarilyfollowfromourdata?Howdidyoureachthatconclusion?Whatareyoubasingyourreasoningon?Isthereanalternativeplausibleconclusion?Givenallthefactswhatisthebestpossibleconclusion?Howshallweinterpretthesedata?

Beaware:Ourconclusionsareoftendistortedbyourself-servinginterests,whichdisengageoursenseofjustice.Makesurethatyourconclusionsarebasedonalltherelevantinformationandthatyouhaven’texcludedinformationthatdoesnotsupportyourpreconceptions.

CheckYourAssumptions

Assumptionsarebeliefsyou take forgranted.Theyusuallyoperateat thesubconsciousorunconsciouslevelofthought.

Makesurethatyouareclearaboutyourassumptionsandtheyarejustifiedbysoundevidence.

Questionsyoucanaskaboutyourassumptions:

WhatamItakingforgranted?AmIassumingsomethingIshouldn’t?Whatassumptionisleadingmetothisconclusion?Whatis…(thispolicy,strategy,explanation)assuming?What exactly do sociologists (historians, mathematicians, etc.) take forgranted?Whyareyouassuming…?Whatisbeingpresupposedinthistheory?What are some important assumptions I make about my roommate, myfriends,myparents,myinstructors,mycountry?

Beaware:Therootofproblemsinthinkingoftenlieswithfalseassumptions.Becauseassumptionsareusuallyunconscious,theyoftenembodyprejudices,biases,stereotypes,andone-sidedorfalsebeliefs.Practiceexplicitlyidentifyingassumptionsandcheckingthemforjustifiability.

ClarifyYourConcepts

Concepts are ideas, theories, laws, principles, or hypotheses we use inthinkingtomakesenseofthings.

Beclearabouttheconceptsyouareusingandusethemjustifiably.

Questionsyoucanaskaboutconcepts:

WhatideaamIusinginmythinking?Isthisideacausingproblemsformeorforothers?Ithinkthisisagoodtheory,butcouldyouexplainitmorefully?Whatisthemainhypothesisyouareusinginyourreasoning?Areyouusingthisterminkeepingwithestablishedusage?Whatmaindistinctionsshouldwedrawinreasoningthroughthisproblem?What idea is this author using in his or her thinking? Is there a problemwithit?Can you name and explain some of the basic principles of physics(chemistry,sociology,etc.)?

Beaware:Thewaysinwhichwethinkabouttheworldaredeterminedbyourideasorconcepts.Yettheseconceptsareoftentwistedinself-servingwaysbythemind.Weoftenuseconceptstomanipulatepeopleortopursuevestedinterests.Uselanguagewithcare,precision,andfairness.

UnderstandYourPointofView

Point of view is literally “the place” from which you view something. Itincludeswhatyouarelookingatandthewayyouareseeingit.

Your point of view or perspective can easily distort the way you seesituationsandissues.Makesureyouunderstandthelimitationsofyourpointofviewandthatyoufullyconsiderotherrelevantviewpoints.Questionsyoucanasktocheckyourpointofview:

HowamIlookingatthissituation?IsthereanotherwaytolookatitthatIshouldconsider?WhatexactlyamIfocusedon?AndhowamIseeingit?Ismyviewtheonlyreasonableview?Whatdoesmypointofviewignore?Have you ever considered the way Germans (Japanese, Muslims, SouthAmericans,etc.)viewthis?Which of these possible viewpoints makes the most sense given thesituation?How often have you studied viewpoints that seriously challenge yourpersonalbeliefs?Whatisthepointofviewoftheauthorofthisstory?Am I having difficulty looking at this situation from a viewpoint withwhichIdisagree?Am I uncritically assuming that the point of view of my government isjustified?

Beaware:Allofreasoningiscouchedwithinapointofview.Weoftenfailtoconsiderviewpointswithwhichwedisagree.Why?Becausetoconsiderthose

viewpointsmightrequireustochangeourownviewpoint,togiveupsomebeliefsorgoalswewanttomaintain.Realizethatoneofthehallmarksofthecriticalthinkerisawillingnesstoentersympatheticallyintoanyandeveryviewpoint,andthentochangeone’sviewswhentheevidencewarrantsachange.

ThinkThroughtheImplications

Implicationsareclaimsortruthsthatlogicallyfollowfromotherclaimsortruths. Implications follow from thoughts. Consequences follow fromactions.

Implications are inherent in your thoughts,whether you see them or not.The best thinkers think through the logical implications in a situation beforeacting.Questionsyoucanaskaboutimplications:

IfIdecidetodo“X”,whatthingsmighthappen?IfIdecidenottodo“X”,whatthingsmighthappen?Whatareyouimplyingwhenyousaythat?Whatislikelytohappenifwedothisversusthat?Areyouimplyingthat…?Howsignificantaretheimplicationsofthisdecision?What, ifanything, is impliedbythefact thatamuchhigherpercentageofpoorpeopleareinjailthanwealthypeople?

Beaware:Thinkingthroughtheimplicationsofone’sthoughtpriortoactingrequiresdisciplineandtheabilitytothinkatmultiplelevels.Everyactionwetakehasimplications.Whatismore,weshouldbeawarethatonceweidentifyimportantimplicationsofanact,weshouldalsoidentifyimportantimplicationsofthoseimplications.Implicationsareliketheconcentriccirclesthatradiateoutwardwhenastoneisdroppedinapond.

FiguringOuttheLogicOfThings

Critical thinkershaveconfidence in their ability to figureout the logicof

anything they choose. They continually look for order, system andinterrelationships.Theysay“thereisalogictothis,andIcanfigureitout!”Forexample, consider the logic of love, fear and anger on this and the next twopages:

TheLogicofLove

Beaware:Evenemotionallypowerfulstatesofmindhavealogictothem.Allemotionshaveacognitivecontent.

TheLogicofFear

Beaware:Understandingthelogicoffearisthekeytodealingwithfearinareasonableway.Somefearsarejustified.Somearenot.

TheLogicofAnger

Beaware:Angercanbeintensifiedordiminisheddependingonhowwecognitivelyrelatetoit.Itispossibletotakechargeofouremotions.Emotionsarethedrivingforceofhumanlife.

AnalyzingProblems

Identifysomeproblemyouneedtoreasonthrough.Thencompletethe

following:Whatexactlyistheproblem?(Studytheproblemtomakeclearthekind

ofproblemyouaredealingwith.Figureout,forexample,whatsortsofthings you are going to have to do to solve it.Distinguish problemsover which you have some control from problems over which youhavenocontrol.Payspecialattentiontocontroversialissuesinwhichit isessential toconsidermultiplepointsofview.)Thekeyquestionthat emerges from the problem is… (State the question as clearlyandpreciselyasyoucan.Detailsareveryimportant.)Mypurposeinaddressingtheproblemis…(Knowexactlywhatyouareafter.Makesure you are not operating with a hidden agenda and that yourannounced and real purposes are the same.) Actively seek theinformation most relevant to the question. (Include in thatinformation options for action, both short-term and long-term.Recognize limitations in terms of money, time, and power.) SomeimportantassumptionsIamusinginmythinkingare…(Figureoutwhat you are taking for granted. Watch out for self-serving orunjustifiedassumptions.)Ifwesolvethisproblem,someimportantimplicationsare…Ifwefailtosolvethisproblem,someimportantimplications are… (Evaluate options, taking into account theadvantages and disadvantages of possible decisions before acting.What consequences are likely to follow from this or that decision?)Themostimportantconcepts,theories,orideasIneedtouseinmythinkingare…(Figureoutallsignificantideasneededtounderstandandsolvetheproblem.Youmayneedtoanalyzetheseconcepts.Useagooddictionary.)Thepoint(s)ofview is/areas follows: (Know thepointofviewfromwhichyourthinkingbegins.Beespeciallycarefulto determine whether multiple points of view are relevant.) Afterreasoning through the parts of thinking above, the best solution(conclusion) to the problem is… (If the problem involvesmultipleconflicting points of view, youwill have to assesswhich solution isthe best. If the problem is one-dimensional, there may be just one“correct” solution.) If I, and many others, fail to reason well

through this issue, the implications are thatwewill unnecessarilycontributetopollution’smanyharmfuleffects.

AnalyzingProblems

TheProblemofPolutionasanExample1

Whatistheproblem?Theproblemispollutionandthefactthatbecausepeople are not doing enough to reduce it, a host of negativeconsequencesareoccurring (e.g. increasedmedicalproblems, lossofanimal and plant life, increased contamination of the earth’s watersources).

Questionsthatemergefromtheproblemare…WhatcanIpersonallydotoreducepollution?Arelatedquestionis:Whatcanwecollectivelydotoreducepollution?

Mypurpose inaddressing theproblem is to increase the things Ido tocontributetoamorehealthybiosphere.

Theimportantinformationrelevanttothequestionisinformationaboutwhat I am currently doing to increase pollution (such as generatingtrash that could be recycled, driving a car, etc.), information aboutwhatIcoulddotoreducetheamountofpollutionIcontributeto(suchas locating recycling centers, pursuing alternative forms oftransportation, etc.), information about environmental groups Imightsupport,etc.

Some important assumptions I am using in my thinking are thatpollutioniscausingsignificantdamagetothebiosphere,thateveryonecanhelpreducepollution,thatI,andeveryoneelse,haveanobligationtomakeasignificantefforttohelpreducepollution.

If many people were to reason well through this issue, someimplicationsarethattherewouldbealongerandhigherqualityoflifefor millions of people. Additionally, plant and animal species andecosystemswouldbeprotected.Ahostofotherpositive implicationswouldfollowaswell,implicationsfortheatmosphere,thewaterways,theforests,etc.

Themostimportantconcepts,orideas,Ineedtouseinmythinkingarethe concepts of pollution, and that of a healthy biosphere. Each ofthese concepts leads to a host of further technical, ecological, andethical concepts required to understand the multiple dimensions ofpollution and the ethical responsibilities that knowledge of itsmany

harmfuleffectsentails.Mypointofviewisasfollows:Iamlookingatpollution.Iamseeingitas

somethingIcanhelpreducethroughmanymeans.Afterreasoningthroughthepartsofthinkingabove,thebestsolution

(conclusion) to the problem will be to put into action the variousoptionsthatmyresearchhasrevealed.

1Thisproblemispresentedwithoutdetailsandisintendedmerelytoexemplifyhowonemightbegintoreasonthroughthelogicofacomplexquestion.Whenusing thisapproach, themoredetailsone includes, thedeeper theanalysiscanbe.Many layersofdetail could thenbe specifiedbasedon research intoalloftheselevels.Forfurtherbackgroundinformationonthisparticularproblem,seetheLogicofEcology.

AnalyzingtheLogicofanArticle,EssayorChapter

One important way to understand an essay, article or chapter is through theanalysisofthepartsoftheauthor’sreasoning.Onceyouhavedonethis,youcanevaluatetheauthor’sreasoningusingintellectualstandards(seepage29).Hereisatemplatetofollow:

1. The main purpose of this article is ________________________. (Here

you are trying to state, as accurately as possible, the author’s intent inwritingthearticle.Whatwastheauthortryingtoaccomplish?)

2. The key question that the author is addressing is________________________.(Yourgoalistofigureoutthekeyquestionthatwasinthemindoftheauthorwhenhe/shewrotethearticle.Whatwasthekeyquestionaddressedinthearticle?)

3. The most important information in this article is________________________. (You want to identify the key informationthe author used, or presupposed, in the article to support his/her mainarguments. Here you are looking for facts, experiences, and/or data theauthorisusingtosupporthis/herconclusions.)

4. The main inferences in this article are_______________________________________________________________________(Youwant toidentifythemost importantconclusionstheauthorcomestoandpresentsinthearticle).

5. The key concept(s) we need to understand in this article is (are)______________. By these concepts the author means __________________________________. (To identify these ideas, ask yourself:What are the most important ideas that you would have to know tounderstandtheauthor’s lineofreasoning?Thenbrieflyelaboratewhat theauthormeansbytheseideas.)

6. The main assumption(s) underlying the author’s thinking is (are)_____________(Askyourself:What is theauthortakingforgranted[that

mightbequestioned]?Theassumptionsaregeneralizations that theauthordoesnotthinkhe/shehastodefendinthecontextofwritingthearticle,andthey are usually unstated. This is where the author’s thinking logicallybegins.)

7. a) If we accept this line of reasoning (completely or partially), theimplications are _______________. (What consequences are likely tofollowifpeopletaketheauthor’slineofreasoningseriously?Hereyouareto pursue the logical implications of the author’s position. You shouldinclude implications that the author states, and also those that the authordoesnotstate.)b) If we fail to accept this line of reasoning, the implications are__________.(Whatconsequencesarelikelytofollowifpeopleignoretheauthor’sreasoning?)

8. The main point(s) of view presented in this article is (are)_________________.(Themainquestionyouaretryingtoanswerhereis:Whatistheauthorlookingat,andhowishe/sheseeingit?Forexample,inthisminiguidewearelookingat“analysis”andseeingit“asrequiringonetounderstand”androutinelyapplytheelementsofreasoningwhenthinkingthroughproblems,issues,subjects,etc.).

If you truly understand these structures as they interrelate in an article,

essayorchapter,youshouldbeabletoempathicallyrole-playthethinkingoftheauthor.Thesearetheeightbasicstructuresthatdefineallreasoning.Theyaretheessentialelementsofthought.

Beaware:Itispossibletousethebasicstructuresofthinkingtoanalyzearticles,essays,andchapters.Thisanalysiswilldeepenone’sinsightintotheauthor’sreasoning.

AnalyzingtheLogicofanArticle:AnExample

On the next page youwill find an analysis of the following brief article (seepages28–29fortheanalysistemplate).IsitPossiblefortheNewsMediatoReform?2Toprovide theirpublicswithnon-biasedwriting, journalistsaround theworld,wouldhaveto,first,enterempathicallyintoworldviewstowhichtheyarenotatpresentsympathetic.Theywouldhavetoimaginewritingforaudiencesthatholdviews antithetical to the ones they hold. Theywould have to develop insightsintotheirownsociocentrism.Theywouldhavetodothethingsdonebycriticalconsumersofthenews.Themostsignificantproblemisthat,weretheytodoso,their readers would perceive their articles as “biased” and “slanted,” as“propaganda.”Thesereporterswouldbeseenasirresponsible,asallowingtheirpersonal point of view to bias their journalistic writings. Imagine Israelijournalists writing articles that present the Palestinian point of viewsympathetically. Imagine Pakistani journalists writing articles that present theIndianpointofviewsympathetically.

Themost basic point is this: journalists do not determine the nature anddemandsoftheirjob.Theydonotdeterminewhattheirreaderswantorthinkorhateorfear.Thenatureanddemandsoftheirjobaredeterminedbythebroadernature of societies themselves and the beliefs, values and world views of itsmembers.Itishumannaturetoseetheworld,inthefirstinstance,inegocentricand sociocentric terms. Most people are not interested in having their mindsbroadened.Theywant theirpresentbeliefs andvalues extolled andconfirmed.Likefootballfans,theywantthehometeamtowin,andwhenitwinstotriumphgloriously.Iftheylose,theywanttobetoldthatthegamewasn’timportant,orthattheothersidecheated,orthattheofficialswerebiasedagainstthem.

As long as the overwhelmingmass of persons in the broader society aredrawn to news articles that reinforce, and do not question, their fundamentalviewsorpassions,theeconomicimperativeswillremainthesame.Thelogicisparallel to that of reforming a nation’s eating habits. As long as the mass ofpeoplewanthighfatprocessedfoods,themarketwillsellhighfatandprocessedfoodstothem.Andaslongasthemassofpeoplewantsimplisticnewsarticlesthat reinforce egocentric and sociocentric thinking, that present the world insweepingtermsofgoodandevil(withthereader’sviewsandpassionstreatedasgoodandthoseofthereader’sconceivedenemiesasevil),thenewsmediawillgenerate such articles for them. The profit and ratings of news sources that

routinelyreinforce thepassionsandprejudicesof their readerswillcontinue tosoar.

2Paul,R.andElder,L.(2002).TheGuideforConscientiousCitizensonHowtoDetectMediaBiasandPropaganda.DillonBeach,CA:FoundationforCriticalThinking.

Themainpurposeofthisarticleistoshowwhythenewsmediaarenotlikelytoaltertheirtraditionalpracticesofslantingthenewsinkeepingwithaudiencepreconceptions.

Thekeyquestionthattheauthorisaddressingis:“Whyisitnotpossibleforthenewsmediatoreform?”

Themostimportantinformationinthisarticleis:1.informationabouthowandwhythenewsmediacurrentlyoperates:

a. that the news media slant stories to fit the viewpoint of theiraudience. “Most people are not interested in having their viewsbroadened…Likefootballfanstheywantthehometeamtowin…Theoverwhelming mass of persons in the broader society are drawn tonews articles that reinforce, and do not question, their fundamentalviewsorpassions.”b. that the fundamental purpose of themainstreamnewsmedia is tomakemoney. “As long as the mass of people want simplistic newsarticles…the news media will generate such articles for them. Theprofitandratingsofnewssourcesthatroutinelyreinforcethepassionsandprejudicesoftheirreaderswillcontinuetosoar.”

2.informationabouthowthenewsmediawouldhavetochangetobemoreintellectuallyresponsible:a. that the newsmediawould have to actively enter differingworldviews “Imagine Israeli journalists writing articles that present thePalestinian point of view sympathetically. Imagine Pakistanijournalists writing articles that present the Indian point of viewsympathetically.”b.Thatthenewsmediawouldhaveto“developinsightsintotheirownsociocentrism.”

Themain inferences in this article are: “As long as the overwhelmingmassofpersonsinthebroadersocietyaredrawntonewsarticlesthatreinforce,anddonotquestion, their fundamentalviewsorpassions,”

thenewswillbepresentedinabiasedway.Becausethefundamentalpurposeofthemediaistomakemoney,andtheonlywaypeoplewillbuy papers is if their sociocentric views are reinforced and notquestioned, the media will continue to distort events in accordancewithaudienceviews.

Thekeyconceptsthatguidetheauthor’sreasoninginthisarticleare:biased and unbiased journalism, egocentrism and sociocentrism,propaganda.(Eachoftheseconceptsshouldbeelaborated.)Themainassumptions underlying the author’s thinking are: The drivingforcebehind the newsmedia is vested interest – i.e.makingmoney;that thenewsmedia thereforepander to their readers’viewssoas tosell more papers; but that, at the same time, the news media mustappeartofunctionobjectivelyandfairly.

Ifthislineofreasoningisjustified,theimplicationsare:Citizensneedtothink critically about the news media and how they systematicallydistortstoriesinaccordancewithreaderbias.Theyneedtonoticehowtheirownsociocentricviewsareintensifiedbywhattheyread.

The main point of view presented in this article is: The world newsmediafunctionasprofit-makingenterprisesthatstructurethenewstopandertoreaderandsocietyprejudices.

AnalyzingtheLogicofaTextbook

1. Themainpurposeofthistextbookis__________________________.2. The keyquestion (s) that the author is addressing in the textbook is(are)

_______________________________________________________.

3. The most important kinds of information in this textbook are______________________________________________________________.

4. The main inferences (and conclusions) in this textbook are________________________________________________________________.

5. The key concept(s) we need to understand in this textbook is(are)_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

6. The main assumption(s) underlying the author’s thinking is(are)____________________________________________________________.By these concepts the authormeans_________________________________________________________________________________.

7. a) If people take the textbook seriously, the implications are_________________________________________________________________.b) If people fail to take the textbook seriously, the implications are____________________________________________________________.

8. The main point(s) of view presented in this textbook is(are)_______________________________________________________________.

Beaware:Studentswhotakethetimetofigureoutthelogicoftheirtextbooksdevelopcentralorganizersintowhichtheycanintegratealloftheirlearningfromthosetextbooks.Fragmentationandshort-termcrammingarenowfundamentalbarrierstodeepandintegratedlearning.

EvaluatinganAuthor’sReasoning

1. Identify the author’s purpose: Is the purpose of the authorwell-stated orclearlyimplied?Isitjustifiable?

2. Identifythekeyquestionwhichthewrittenpieceanswers:Isthequestionatissuewell-stated (or clearly implied)? Is it clear and unbiased?Does theexpression of the question do justice to the complexity of the matter atissue?Arethequestionandpurposedirectlyrelevanttoeachother?

3. Identifythemost important informationpresentedbytheauthor:Doesthewriter cite relevant evidence, experiences, and/or information essential totheissue?Istheinformationaccurateanddirectlyrelevanttothequestionatissue?Doesthewriteraddressthecomplexitiesoftheissue?

4. Identify the most fundamental concepts which are at the heart of theauthor’sreasoning:Doesthewriterclarifykeyideaswhennecessary?Aretheideasusedjustifiably?

5. Identify the author’s assumptions: Does the writer show a sensitivity towhat he or she is taking for granted or assuming (insofar as thoseassumptions might reasonably be questioned)? Or does the writer usequestionable assumptions without addressing problems inherent in thoseassumptions?

6. Identifythemost important inferencesorconclusionsin thewrittenpiece:Dotheinferencesandconclusionsmadebytheauthorclearlyfollowfromthe information relevant to the issue, or does the author jump tounjustifiableconclusions?Doestheauthorconsideralternativeconclusionswhere the issue is complex? In otherwords, does the author use a soundlineofreasoningtocometologicalconclusions,orcanyouidentifyflawsinthereasoningsomewhere?

7. Identify the author’spoint of view:Does the author showa sensitivity toalternative relevant points of view or lines of reasoning?Does he or sheconsider and respond to objections framed from other relevant points ofview?

8. Identify implications: Does the writer display a sensitivity to theimplicationsandconsequencesofthepositionheorsheistaking?

Beaware:Youcanevaluatethinkingbyapplyingintellectualstandardstoitscomponentparts.

AnalyzingtheLogicofaSubject

Whenweunderstandtheelementsofreasoning,werealizethatallsubjects,alldisciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thoughtembeddedinthem.

Therefore,tolaybareasubject’smostfundamentallogic,weshouldbeginwiththesequestions:

Whatisthemainpurposeorgoalofstudyingthissubject?Whatarepeopleinthisfieldtryingtoaccomplish?Whatkindsofquestionsdotheyask?Whatkindsofproblemsdotheytrytosolve?Whatsortsofinformationordatadotheygather?Whattypesofinferencesorjudgmentsdotheytypicallymake?(Judgmentsabout…)Howdotheygoaboutgatheringinformationinwaysthataredistinctivetothisfield?Whatarethemostbasicideas,conceptsortheoriesinthisfield?Whatdoprofessionalsinthisfieldtakeforgrantedorassume?Howshouldstudyingthisfieldaffectmyviewoftheworld?Whatviewpointisfosteredinthisfield?What implications follow from studying this discipline? How are theproductsofthisfieldusedineverydaylife?

AnalyzingtheLogicofInstruction

Thesequestionscanbecontextualized foranygivenclassday, chapter in

thetextbookanddimensionofstudy.Forexample,onanygivendayyoumightaskoneormoreofthefollowingquestions:

What is our main purpose or goal today? What are we trying toaccomplish?What kinds of questions arewe asking?What kinds of problems arewetryingtosolve?Howdoesthisproblemrelatetoeverydaylife?What sort of information or data do we need? How can we get thatinformation?What is themost basic idea, concept or theorywe need to understand tosolvetheproblemwearemostimmediatelyposing?Fromwhatpointofviewshouldwelookatthisproblem?Whatcanwesafelyassumeaswereasonthroughthisproblem?Shouldwecallintoquestionanyoftheinferencesthathavebeenmade?Whataretheimplicationsofwhatwearestudying?

TheLogicofScience

Beaware:Manypeoplewhohavestudiedscienceinschoolfailtothinkscientificallyintheirprofessionalandpersonallives.

TheLogicofHistory

Beaware:Muchhumanthinkingis“historical.”Weuseourbeliefs(formedinthepast)tomakethousandsofdecisionsinthepresentandplansforthefuture.Muchofthishistoricalthinkingisdeeplyflawed.

TheLogicofSociology

Beaware:Muchofoureverydaydecision-makingisbasedonpoor“sociological”thinking.Forexample,weoftenuncriticallyconformtopeergroupswhenweshouldquestionthemornotetheircontradictionsandinconsistencies.

TheLogicofEconomics

Purpose:Todeveloptheoriesthatexplainthedistributionofgoodsandserviceswithinasociety, as well as theories that define how goods and services should bedistributed.

Key Questions: How are goods and services produced, distributed andconsumedwithinanygivensociety?Howshouldtheybe?Whatisthebestwaytodeterminewhatpeopleshouldgetandhowtheyshouldbeallowedtogetit?Forexample,towhatextent,shouldpeoplebeencouragedtopursuewealthandpower principally for their own benefit? To what extent, on the other hand,should society try to provide equal access to education, wealth, and power?Whatarethestrengthsandweaknessesofcompetingeconomictheories?

Information:Economists fromdifferingschoolsof thoughtdisagreeon the information theyuse in reasoning through economicproblems.Thosewho favor capitalism, forexample, focus on information about supply of products versus demand,consumer preferences, consumer spending, business investments, andgovernmentsupportofbusiness.Insolvingeconomicproblems,theyemphasizeinformation about how to keep aggregate demand high. Those who favorsocialism focus on information that reveals the impact of the distribution ofwealth on the well-being of everyone, especially the poor and disadvantaged.Theiridealistodistributewealthsothatresourcesaremadeavailableasequallyaspossible,takingintoaccountthecrucialproblemofhowtomotivatepeopletocontributetothewell-beingofothersaswellasthemselves.Theinformationthateconomists use is ultimately determined by the way they conceptualize idealeconomicsystemsandthequestionsimpliedbytheeconomictheoriesthatguidetheirthinking.

KeyConcepts: Economics is the study of how goods, services and resourcesare/should be distributed and used within human societies. Leading economicconceptshaveevolved,especiallythroughthelast200years.Someofthemare:the principle of competition, law of supply and demand, utilitarianism,capitalism,socialism,communism,marxism,exploitation,classconflictbetween

economic strata (especiallybetweenworkers and employers), privateproperty,free markets, self-interest, psychological variables influencing economicbehavior, assumption of scarcity, law of diminishing returns, principles ofmarginal utility and productivity, aggregate demand, labor theory of value,Malthusianpopulationdoctrine,andKeynesianeconomics.

Assumptions:Bystudyingthewaysandmeansfordistributinggoodsandservices,economicsystems can become more stable and more fair to the people who vie forresources within those systems. Beyond this shared assumption, economists’assumptionsdiffer according to their philosophies, values, and theories.Thosewho favor capitalism assume that humans are fundamentally selfish and thatonly a system that utilizes the driving force of human selfishness will berealistic. Socialists, in contrast, assume that education can be used to shift theemphasisinhumanactivityfromself-aggrandizementtoaltruism.

Inferences:Economists make inferences about how best to stabilize and enhance thedistribution, production, and use of goods and services. They make theseinferences in accordancewith their economic philosophies, considering trendsandpatternsofindividualbusinessandgovernmentspending,economichealth,anddistributionofwealth.

Implications: The implications that economic theories generate vary fromtheory to theory. Which of the theoretical implications are likely to becomeactual consequences are a matter of continual debate. The debate focuses onwhat actual consequences seem to be accounted for by this or that economictheory and what consequences (good or bad) result from variables other thanthosepostulatedbyagiventheory.Forexample,didtheGreatDepressionofthe1930sresultfromadeepflawincapitalisttheory,ordiditresultfromafailuretopracticethetheorythoroughlyenough?

PointofView:Economistslookatthedistributionofgoodsandserviceswithina society, along with the distribution of power that distribution entails, as acrucialobjectofsystematicstudy.

TheLogicofEcology

Goals of ecologifts:Ecologifts seek to underftand plants and animals as theyexift in nature,with emphasis on their interrelationships, interdependence, andinteractionswith the environment. Theywork to underftand all the influencesthat combine to produce and modify an animal or given plant, and thus toaccountforitsexiftenceandpeculiaritieswithinitshabitat.

Queftions that ecologiftsAsk:How do plants and animals interact?How doanimals interact with each other? How do plants and animals depend on oneanother?Howdo thevaryingecosyftems functionwithin themselves?Howdothey interact with other ecosyftems? How are plants and animals affectedbyenvironmental influences?Howdoanimals andplantsgrow,develop,die, andreplace themselves?Howdo plants and animals create balances between eachother?Whathappenswhenplantsandanimalsbecomeunbalanced?

InformationthatecologiftsUse:Theprimaryinformationusedbyecologiftsisgainedthroughobservingplantsandanimalsthemselves,theirinteractions,andhowtheylivewithintheirenvironments.Ecologiftsnotehowanimalsandplantsareborn,howtheyreproduce,howtheydie,howtheyevolve,andhowtheyareaffectedby environmental changes. They also use information from otherdisciplinesincludingchemiftry,meteorologyandgeology.

Judgments that ecologifts Make: Ecologifts make judgments about howecosyftems naturally function, about how animals and plants within themfunction,aboutwhytheyfunctionastheydo.Theymakejudgmentsabouthowecosyftemsbecomeoutofbalanceandwhatcanbedonetobringthembackintobalance. They make judgments about how natural communities should begroupedandclassified.

Concepts that Guide ecologifts’ thinking: One of the moft fundamentalconcepts in ecology is ecosyftem, defined as a group of living things that aredependentononeanotherandlivinginaparticularhabitat.Ecologiftsftudyhowdiffering ecosyftems function. Another key concept in ecology is ecologicalsuccession,thenaturalpatternofchangeoccurringwithineveryecosyftemwhennaturalprocessesareundifturbed.Thispattern includes thebirth,development,

death, and then replacement of natural communities. Ecologifts have groupedcommunities into larger units called biomes, regions throughout the worldclassifiedaccordingtophysicalfeatures,includingtemperature,rainfallandtypeofvegetation.Anotherfundamentalconceptinecologyisbalanceofnature,thenatural process of birth, reproduction, eating and being eaten, which keepsanimal/plantcommunitiesfairlyftable.Otherkeyconcepts includeimbalances,energy, nutrients, population growth, diversity, habitat, competition, predation,parasitism, adaptation, coevolution, succession and climax communities andconservation.

Key Assumptions that ecologifts Make: Patterns exift within animal/plantcommunities; these communities shouldbe ftudied and classified; animals andplantsoftndependononeanotherandmodifyoneanother;andbalancesmuftbemaintainedwithinecosyftems.

Implicationsofecology:Theftudyofecologyleads tonumerous implicationsforlifeonEarth.Byftudyingbalanceofnature,forexample,wecanseewhennatureisoutofbalance,asinthecurrentpopulationexplosion.Wecanseehowpefticides, designed to kill pefts on farm crops, also lead to the harm ofmammalsandbirds,eitherdirectlyorindirectlythroughfoodwebs.Wecanalsolearnhowover-farmingcauseserosionanddepletionofsoilnutrients.

PointofViewofecologifts:Ecologiftslookatplantsandanimalsandseethemfunctioninginrelationshipwithoneanotherwithintheirhabitats,andneedingtobeinbalancefortheearthtobehealthyandsuftainable.

theLogicofSubstantiveWriting

Purpose: To communicate important concepts, and ideas to a particularaudience. Question: How can I approach my writing so that I clearlycommunicatemyideastomytargetaudience?

Information: Information about the assumptions, point of view, and generalknowledgeof thereader; informationabout thecharacteristicsofgoodwriting;information relevant to the thesis of my writing; information about how toeffctivelycommunicateideasinwriting.

Inferences/ interpretations: Interpretations of the information we gather;conclusionswecometoaboutthereader,abouttheassumptionsthereadermaybringto thereading,about thevariouspointsofviewthereadersmaybringtothereading,aboutthebackgroundknowledgeofthetargetreader;interpretationsabout the best ways to approach the content to clearly communicate the keyideastothereader;interpretationsoftheinformationwhichformthekeyideasofthewrittenpiece;keyconclusionsIamtryingtocommunicatetothereader.

Concepts:Allthekeyconceptsessentialtodevelopingmymainpoints;allthekeyideasabouthowtowritewellthatIuseinthinkingthroughmymainpointsandhowtoexpressthem.

Assumptions: That the ideas I am communicating can be effctivelycommunicated; that there are better and worse ways of communicating theseideas; that if I want to be a good writer I must be committed to writing andrewritingmywork; that the ideas Iamcommunicatingareworthspending thetimetocommunicatewell.

Implications: If Icommitmyself toeffctivewriting, Icanbecomeaneffctivewriter. If Iachievemypurpose, Imaybeable to transformthe thinkingof thereader.

PointofView:Thepointofviewofagoodwriter (inotherwords lookingatsubstantivewritingasacomplexprocessthatoneimprovesatthroughdisciplineandpractice);thepointsofviewrelevanttotheissuesinthewrittenpiece.

Purpose

(Allreasoninghasapurpose.)

Primarystandards:

(1)clarity,(2)significance,(3)achievability,(4)consistency,(5)justifiability

Commonproblems:

(1)unclear,(2)trivial,(3)unrealistic,(4)contradictory,(5)unfair

Principle:Toreasonwell,youmustclearlyunderstandyourpurpose,andyourpurposemustbereasonableandfair.

QuestionatIssueorCentralProblem

(Allreasoningisanattempttofiguresomethingout,tosettlesomequestion,

solvesomeproblem.)Primarystandards:

(1)clarityandprecision,,(2)significance,(3)answerability,(4)relevance

Commonproblems:

(1)unclearandimprecise,(2)insignificant,(3)notanswerable,(4)irrelevant

Principle: To settle a question, itmust be answerable, and youmust be clearaboutitandunderstandwhatisneededtoadequatelyanswerit.

Information

(Allreasoningisbasedondata,information,evidence,experience,

research.)Primarystandards:

(1)clear,(2)relevant,(3)fairlygatheredandreported,(4)accurate,(5)adequate,(6)consistentlyapplied

Commonproblems:

(1)unclear,(2)irrelevant,(3)biased,(4)inaccurate,(5)insufficient,(6)inconsistentlyapplied

Principle:Reasoningcanbeonlyassoundastheinformationuponwhichitisbased.

InferenceandInterpretation

(Allreasoningcontainsinferencesfromwhichwedrawconclusionsandgive

meaningtodataandsituations.)Primarystandards:

1)clarity,(2)logicality,(3)justifiability,(4)profundity,(5)reasonability,(6)consistency

Commonproblems:

(1)unclear,(2)illogical,(3)unjustified,(4)superficial,(5)unreasonable,(6)contradictory

Principle: Reasoning can be only as sound as the inferences itmakes (or theconclusionsitcomesto).

Assumptions

(Allreasoningisbasedonassumptions—beliefswetakeforgranted.)

Primarystandards: (1)clarity,(2)justifiability,(3)consistencyCommonproblems: (1)unclear,(2)unjustified,(3)contradictoryPrinciple: Reasoning can be only as sound as the assumptions onwhich it isbased.

ConceptsandIdeas

(Allreasoningisexpressedthrough,andshapedby,conceptsandideas.)

Primarystandards: (1)clarity,(2)relevance,(3)depth,(4)accuracyCommonproblems: (1)unclear,(2)irrelevant,(3)superficial,(4)inaccuratePrinciple: Reasoning can be only as clear, relevant, realistic and deep as theconceptsthatshapeit.

PointofView

(Allreasoningisdonefromsomepointofview.)

Primarystandards:

(1)flexibility,(2)fairness,(3)clarity,(4)breadth,(5)relevance

Commonproblems:

(1)restricted,(2)biased,(3)unclear,(4)narrow,(5)irrelevant

Principle:Toreasonwell,youmustidentifythosepointsofviewrelevanttotheissueandentertheseviewpointsempathetically.

*Monologicalproblemsareones forwhich therearedefinite correct andincorrect answers and definite procedures for getting those answers. Inmultilogical problems, there are competing schools of thought to beconsidered.

ImplicationsandConsequences

(Allreasoningleadssomewhere.Ithasimplicationsand,whenactedupon,

hasconsequences.)Primarystandards:

(1)significance,(2)logicality,(3)clarity,(4)precision,(5)completeness

Commonproblems:

(1)unimportant,(2)unrealistic,(3)unclear,(4)imprecise,(5)incomplete

Principle: To reason well through an issue, you must think through theimplications that follow from your reasoning. You must think through theconsequenceslikelytofollowfromthedecisionsyoumake.

DistinguishingBetweenInferencesandAssumptions

Itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenaninferenceandanassumption.Thesetwopartsofthinkingareeasilyconfusedwithoneanother.Aninferenceisastepofthemind, bywhich one concludes that something is true based on somethingelsebeingtrue,orappearingtrue.Inferencescanbejustifiedorunjustified.Allinferences are based on assumptions, beliefs we take for granted. Justifiableassumptions lead to reasonable inferences. Assumptions often operate at theunconsciouslevel.Whenweuncoverourassumptions,weoftenfindtherootsofprejudice,stereotyping,bias,andotherformsofirrationalthinking.

Considertheseexamples:Situation:Yournationisinaconflictwithanothernation.Inference:Yournationisjustifiedinthisconflict.Assumption:Yournationisalwaysjustifiedinitsconflictswithothernations.Situation:Igotan“A”inmycompositionclass.Inference:ThatprovesIamagoodwriter.Assumption:Allstudentswhogetan“A”incompositionclassaregoodwriters.

Beaware:Inferencesfollowfromassumptions.Ifourassumptionsarefaulty,ourinferenceswillbeaswell.

Consider the following method for identifying inferences and assumptions inone’s thinking. We first determine what one might infer (either rationally orirrationally)inasituation.Wethenfigureoutthegeneralizationthatledtothatinference.Thisistheassumption.

Nowthinkupyourownsituations.Formulateinferencesthatmightfollowfromthosesituations.Thenfigureouttheassumptionthatledtoeachinference.

Conclusion

Clearlytherearemanyvarietiesofanalysisspecifictoparticulardisciplinesandtechnicalpractices.Theseformsofanalysisoftenrequiretechnicaltrainingofaspecializednature.Forexample,onecannotdoqualitativeanalysisinchemistrywithoutinstructioninchemistry.

Whatwehaveprovidedinthisguide,however,isthecommondenominatorbetween all forms of analysis because all forms require thoughtful applicationandall thoughtpresupposes the elementsof thought.For example, one cannotthink analytically FOR NO PURPOSE. Or think analytically, with NOQUESTIONinmind.Thismuchshouldbeself-evident.Unfortunately,itisnotself-evidenttomoststudents.

Thosewhowoulddevelop analyticmindsneedguidance, instruction, andpracticeinmonitoringtheirthinkingusingintellectualtoolsapplicabletoeverydiscipline.Theyneed to learn toquestionpurposes,goals,problemdefinitions,information,concepts,etc…Itistheseinterdisciplinaryanalytictoolsthatenablethoseskilledinthemtounderstandandassesstheiranalyticthinking,whetherinahighlytechnicalareaorinaneverydaypersonalapplication.Itistheseanalytictools that enable one to get at the most fundamental logic of any discipline,subject, problem, or issue. They provide the means for transfer of learningbetweenandamongsubjectsanddisciplines.Theyenablemotivatedpersonstogainanoverviewoftheirlearninginanyandeverysituationanalyzed,tothinktheirwayintoandoutofvariousintellectualdomains.

Of course, there are no magic pills that will create analytic questioningminds.As inany importantareaof skillsandabilities,all learnersneed to loghundreds of hours to gain command and deep insight. There are no shortcuts.Wehopethatthisthinker’sguidewillserveasalaunchingpadtowardanalyticproficiency.Itisadmittedlyafirststeponly,butitisanessential,andwebelieveapowerful,firststep.Thequestionis,“Doyouhavethewillandtheinsighttocommityourselftothelong-termpracticerequired?”

TheThinker'sGuideLibrary

TheThinker'sGuideseriesprovidesconvenient,inexpensive,portablereferencesthat students and faculty can use to improve the quality of studying, learning,and teaching. Their modest cost enables instructors to require them of allstudents(inadditiontoatextbook).Theircompactnessenablesstudentstokeepthemathandwhenever theyareworking inoroutofclass.Their succinctnessservesasacontinualreminderofthemostbasicprinciplesofcriticalthinking.

ForStudents&FacultyCriticalThinking—Theessenceofcriticalthinkingconceptsandtoolsdistilledintoa22-pagepocket-sizeguide.#520m

AnalyticThinking—Thisguidefocusesontheintellectualskillsthatenableonetoanalyzeanythingonemightthinkabout—questions,problems,disciplines,subjects,etc.Itprovidesthecommondenominatorbetweenallformsofanalysis.#595m

AskingEssentialQuestions—Introducestheartofaskingessentialquestions.ItisbestusedinconjunctionwiththeMiniatureGuidetoCriticalThinkingandtheThinker'sGuideonHowtoStudyandLearn.#580m

HowtoStudy&Learn—Avarietyofstrategies—bothsimpleandcomplex—forbecomingnotjustabetterstudent,butalsoamasterstudent.#530m

HowtoReadaParagraph—Thisguideprovidestheoryandactivitiesnecessaryfordeepcomprehension.Imminentlypracticalforstudents.#525m

HowtoWriteaParagraph—Focusesontheartofsubstantivewriting.Howtosaysomethingworthsayingaboutsomethingworthsayingsomethingabout.#535m

TheHumanMind—Designedtogivethereaderinsightintothebasicfunctionsofthehumanmindandtohowknowledgeofthesefunctions(andtheirinterrelations)canenableonetouseone'sintellectandemotionsmoreeffectively.#570m

FoundationsofEthicalReasoning—Providesinsightsintothenatureofethicalreasoning,whyitissooftenflawed,andhowtoavoidthoseflaws.Itlaysoutthefunctionofethics,itsmainimpediments,anditssocialcounterfeits.#585m

HowtoDetectMediaBiasandPropaganda—Designedtohelpreaderscometorecognizebiasintheirnation'snewsandtorecognizepropagandasothattheycanreasonablydeterminewhatmediamessagesneedtobesupplemented,counter-balancedorthrownoutentirely.Itfocusesontheinternallogicofthenewsaswellassocietalinfluencesonthemedia.#575mScientificThinking—Theessenceofscientificthinkingconceptsandtools.Itfocusesontheintellectualskillsinherentinthewell-cultivatedscientificthinker.#590m

Fallacies:TheArtofMentalTrickeryandManipulation—Introducestheconceptoffallaciesanddetails44foulwaystowinanargument.#533m

EngineeringReasoning—Containstheessenceofengineeringreasoningconceptsandtools.Forfacultyitprovidesasharedconceptandvocabulary.Forstudentsitisathinkingsupplementtoanytextbookforanyengineeringcourse.#573m

GlossaryofCriticalThinkingTerms&Concepts—Offersacompendiumofmorethan170criticalthinkingtermsforfacultyand

students.#534m

AspiringThinker'sGuidetoCriticalThinking—Introducescriticalthinkingusingsimplifiedlanguage(andcolorfulvisuals)forstudents.Italsocontainspracticalinstructionalstrategiesforfosteringcriticalthinking.#554m

ClinicalReasoning—Introducestheclinicianorclinicalstudenttothefoundationsofcriticalthinking(primarilyfocusingontheanalysisandassessmentofthought),andoffersexamplesoftheirapplicationtothefield.#564m

CriticalandCreativeThinking—Focusesontheinterrelationshipbetweencriticalandcreativethinkingthroughtheessentialroleofbothinlearning.#565m

IntellectualStandards—Exploresthecriteriaforassessingreasoning;illuminatestheimportanceofmeetingintellectualstandardsineverysubjectanddiscipline.#593m

ForFaculty

ActiveandCooperativeLearning—Provides27simpleideasfortheimprovementofinstruction.ItlaysthefoundationfortheideasfoundintheminiguideHowtoImproveStudentLearning.#550m

CriticalThinkingCompetencyStandards—Providesaframeworkforassessingstudents'criticalthinkingabilities.#555m

CriticalThinkingReadingandWritingTest—Assessestheabilityofstudentstousereadingandwritingastoolsforacquiringknowledge.Providesgradingrubricsandoutlinesfivelevelsofclosereadingandsubstantivewriting.#563m

EducationalFads—Analyzesandcritiqueseducationaltrendsandfadsfromacriticalthinkingperspective,providingtheessentialideaofeachone,itspropereducationaluse,anditslikelymisuse.#583m

HowtoImproveStudentLearning—Provides30practicalideasfortheimprovementofinstructionbasedoncriticalthinkingconceptsandtools.ItcultivatesstudentlearningencouragedintheHowtoStudyandLearnminiguide.#560m

SocraticQuestioning—FocusesonthemechanicsofSocraticdialogue,ontheconceptualtoolsthatcriticalthinkingbringstoSocraticdialogue,andontheimportanceofquestioningincultivatingthedisciplinedmind.#553m

The Foundation for Critical Thinking seeks to promote essential change ineducation and society through the cultivation of fairminded critical thinking,thinking predisposed toward intellectual empathy, humility, perseverance,integrity, and responsibility. A rich intellectual environment is possible onlywithcritical thinkingat thefoundationofeducation.Why?Becauseonlywhenstudents learn to think through the content they are learning in a deep andsubstantivewaycantheyapplywhattheyarelearningintheirlives.Moreover,in a world of accelerating change, intensifying complexity, and increasinginterdependence,criticalthinkingisnowrequiredforsurvival.Contact us online at www.criticalthinking.org to learn about ourpublications, videos, workshops, conferences, and professional developmentprograms.

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AbouttheAuthors:

Dr.LindaElderisaneducationalpsychologistwhohastaughtbothpsychologyandcriticalthinkingatthecollegelevel.SheisthePresidentoftheFoundationfor Critical Thinking and the Executive Director of the Center for CriticalThinking.Dr.Elderhasaspecialinterestintherelationofthoughtandemotion,the cognitive and the affective, and has developed an original theory of thestages of critical thinking development. She has coauthored four books oncritical thinking, as well as twenty-one thinkers’ guides. She is a dynamicpresenterwithextensiveexperienceinleadingseminarsoncriticalthinking.

Dr. Richard Paul is a major leader in the international critical thinkingmovement.He isDirectorofResearchat theCenter forCriticalThinking,andtheChairoftheNationalCouncilforExcellenceinCriticalThinking,authorofover 200 articles and seven books on critical thinking. Dr. Paul has givenhundreds ofworkshops on critical thinking andmade a series of eight criticalthinking video programs for PBS. His views on critical thinking have beencanvassed in New York Times, Education Week, The Chronicle of HigherEducation, American Teacher, Educational Leadership, Newsweek,U.S. NewsandWorldReport,andReader’sDigest.ISBN978-0-944583-19-7Item#595m