Thinking about Oral Reading Fluency Thinking about Oral Reading Fluency as an Index of Reading Competence: as an Index of Reading Competence: Conceptual and Measurement IssuesConceptual and Measurement Issues

Joseph Torgesen, Steve Nettles, Yaacov PetscherJoseph Torgesen, Steve Nettles, Yaacov Petscher

Florida State University and the Florida Florida State University and the Florida Center for Reading ResearchCenter for Reading Research

DIBELS Summit, March, 2006DIBELS Summit, March, 2006

Topics to be covered:Topics to be covered:

1. Some information we should all understand 1. Some information we should all understand about measures of oral reading fluency and about measures of oral reading fluency and their utility as indices of early reading growththeir utility as indices of early reading growth

2. Using measures of Oral Reading Fluency to 2. Using measures of Oral Reading Fluency to estimate school level instructional estimate school level instructional effectivenesseffectivenessRelationships across grades within Relationships across grades within

schoolsschoolsStability across years within schoolsStability across years within schools

Relationships to other measures of Relationships to other measures of school effectivenessschool effectiveness

Some important background facts:Some important background facts:

1. Never in the history of this country has a single set of 1. Never in the history of this country has a single set of measures for reading in K-3 so dominated the measures for reading in K-3 so dominated the educational landscape in as DIBELS is currently educational landscape in as DIBELS is currently doing.doing.

2. The Reading First program has provided a significant 2. The Reading First program has provided a significant impetus for the wide-spread adoption of DIBELS impetus for the wide-spread adoption of DIBELS measures because of its standards for evidence of measures because of its standards for evidence of reliability and validity for early reading assessmentsreliability and validity for early reading assessments

3. There are many folks in the country who resent the 3. There are many folks in the country who resent the imposition of these standards for the reading imposition of these standards for the reading assessments acceptable within assessments acceptable within Reading FirstReading First, and there , and there are other groups whose assessments are now being are other groups whose assessments are now being used less than previously. used less than previously.

Some important background facts:Some important background facts:

4. Its natural for any widely used instrument to come 4. Its natural for any widely used instrument to come under increased research scrutiny, and there is likely under increased research scrutiny, and there is likely to be “special energy” for a critical examination of to be “special energy” for a critical examination of DIBELS measuresDIBELS measures

Users and promoters of the DIBELS measures must be Users and promoters of the DIBELS measures must be well informed about both their strengths and well informed about both their strengths and weaknesses, and we should also be actively contributing weaknesses, and we should also be actively contributing to research that will lead to increased understanding of to research that will lead to increased understanding of their limitations and to improvements in their use.their limitations and to improvements in their use.

Therefore….Therefore….

A focus on oral reading fluency….A focus on oral reading fluency….

1. It is arguably the most important of the DIBELS 1. It is arguably the most important of the DIBELS measuresmeasures

2. It is the primary assessment of growth in reading skill 2. It is the primary assessment of growth in reading skill during grades 1-3 in the DIBELS systemduring grades 1-3 in the DIBELS system

3. Although it is a measure of accuracy and rate of oral 3. Although it is a measure of accuracy and rate of oral reading for grade level text, it has been described reading for grade level text, it has been described theoretically as a good index of theoretically as a good index of overall reading overall reading competencecompetence

ORF as an index of reading competence….ORF as an index of reading competence….

““In practice, a high number of words read correctly per In practice, a high number of words read correctly per minute, when placed in the proper developmental minute, when placed in the proper developmental perspective, indicate efficient word-level processing, a perspective, indicate efficient word-level processing, a robust vocabulary knowledge base, and meaningful robust vocabulary knowledge base, and meaningful comprehension of the text.” comprehension of the text.” (Kame’enui & Simmons, 2001)(Kame’enui & Simmons, 2001)

“ …“ …the fluency with which an individual translates text the fluency with which an individual translates text into spoken words should function as an indicator not into spoken words should function as an indicator not only of word recognition skill but also as an indication of only of word recognition skill but also as an indication of an individual’s comprehension of that text an individual’s comprehension of that text (Fuchs, Fuchs, (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001))Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001))

ORF as an index of reading competence….ORF as an index of reading competence….

“ “ Fluency is an important focus of instruction that Fluency is an important focus of instruction that encompasses but extends beyond accurate word encompasses but extends beyond accurate word recognition and is a causal determinant of higher order recognition and is a causal determinant of higher order skills such as reading comprehension skills such as reading comprehension (Good, Simmons, & (Good, Simmons, & Kame’enui, 2001)Kame’enui, 2001)

A focus on oral reading fluency….A focus on oral reading fluency….

1. It is arguably the most important of the DIBELS 1. It is arguably the most important of the DIBELS measuresmeasures

2. It is the primary assessment of growth in reading skill 2. It is the primary assessment of growth in reading skill during grades 1-3 in the DIBELS systemduring grades 1-3 in the DIBELS system

3. Although it is a measure of accuracy and rate of oral 3. Although it is a measure of accuracy and rate of oral reading for grade level text, it has been described reading for grade level text, it has been described theoretically as a good index of overall reading theoretically as a good index of overall reading competencecompetence

4. It is strongly correlated with reliable measures of 4. It is strongly correlated with reliable measures of reading comprehension, and is a good predictor of reading comprehension, and is a good predictor of end-of-year performance on these measures end-of-year performance on these measures

Most important criticisms….Most important criticisms….

1. Reliance on a single measure like ORF for progress 1. Reliance on a single measure like ORF for progress monitoring can potentially confuse teachers, and monitoring can potentially confuse teachers, and mislead their instruction if they come to believe that a mislead their instruction if they come to believe that a principle goal is “fast reading”principle goal is “fast reading”

2. When students perform the ORF task, they do not 2. When students perform the ORF task, they do not typically engage in deep levels of comprehension. typically engage in deep levels of comprehension.

“ “Speed Reading Without Comprehension, Predicting Little”Speed Reading Without Comprehension, Predicting Little” (Pressley, Hilden, Shankland, submitted for publication)(Pressley, Hilden, Shankland, submitted for publication)

3. It is not an accurate enough predictor to serve as the 3. It is not an accurate enough predictor to serve as the primary monitor of growth in early reading competenceprimary monitor of growth in early reading competence

Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with most falling around .70. most falling around .70.

The strength of the relationship depends The strength of the relationship depends upon such things as:upon such things as:

The measure of reading comprehensionThe measure of reading comprehension

So, what about the relationship between ORF So, what about the relationship between ORF and reading comprehension?and reading comprehension?

N=218

R=.76

N=218

R=.56

Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with most falling around .70. most falling around .70.

The strength of the relationship depends The strength of the relationship depends upon such things as:upon such things as:

The measure of reading comprehensionThe measure of reading comprehension

Age/grade level of studentsAge/grade level of students

Reading FirstReading First11stst grade grade r = .79r = .7922ndnd grade grade r = .70r = .7033rdrd grade grade r = .69r = .69

Representative SampleRepresentative Sample33rdrd r = .76 r = .7677thth r = .66 r = .661010thth r = .57 r = .57Schatschneider, et al., 2004)Schatschneider, et al., 2004)

These correlations indicate that performance on brief These correlations indicate that performance on brief measures of oral reading fluency is strongly measures of oral reading fluency is strongly correlated with performance on measures of reading correlated with performance on measures of reading comprehension. comprehension.

For that, we need predictive utility dataFor that, we need predictive utility data

However, they don’t tell us directly how useful the However, they don’t tell us directly how useful the ORF measures actually are in identifying students ORF measures actually are in identifying students likely to struggle on comprehension measureslikely to struggle on comprehension measures

10

20

30

40

Hi risk Mod. Risk

50

60

Low Risk

70

80

90

3rd Grade-MASS Florida

Per

cent

Pro

ficie

nt o

n M

CA

SP

erce

nt P

rofic

ient

on

MC

AS

19

40

72

Orf

> 7

8

Orf

fro

m 5

3 to

77

<53

3,339 students

Prediction from first of year in third grade

Per

cent

Gra

de le

vel o

n F

CA

TP

erce

nt G

rade

leve

l on

FC

AT

25

46

86

Orf

> 7

8

Orf

fro

m 5

3 to

77

<53

31,000 students

The More complex Question of CausalityThe More complex Question of Causality

Is there a causal relationship between ORF and reading Is there a causal relationship between ORF and reading comprehension, or is the relationship only correlational?comprehension, or is the relationship only correlational?

What evidence do we have that there What evidence do we have that there isis a causal a causal connection?connection?

What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?

The predictive utility of ORF measures do not require that The predictive utility of ORF measures do not require that the relationship between ORF and RC be causal in naturethe relationship between ORF and RC be causal in nature

However, the recommendation to teach ORF However, the recommendation to teach ORF in order to in order to have an impacthave an impact on Reading Fluency on Reading Fluency isis based on a causal based on a causal assumption.assumption.

““the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious attention to the mechanics of reading, such as attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding” decoding” (Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).(Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).

Some definitions of reading fluencySome definitions of reading fluency

Five common methods for identifying words in Five common methods for identifying words in text text (Ehri, 2002)(Ehri, 2002)

1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes 1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes to form recognizable words (decoding)to form recognizable words (decoding)

2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a 2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a more advanced form of decoding)more advanced form of decoding)

3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are 3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly and effortlessly with practiceand effortlessly with practice

4. By analogizing to words already known by sight4. By analogizing to words already known by sight

5. By predicting words from context5. By predicting words from context

Five common methods for identifying words in Five common methods for identifying words in text text (Ehri, 1999)(Ehri, 1999)

1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes 1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes to form recognizable words (decoding)to form recognizable words (decoding)

2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a 2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a more advanced form of decoding)more advanced form of decoding)

3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are 3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly and effortlessly with practiceand effortlessly with practice

4. By analogizing to words already known by sight4. By analogizing to words already known by sight

5. By predicting words from context5. By predicting words from context

Although all these methods for reading words become more Although all these methods for reading words become more fluent with practice, fluency increases most dramatically as fluent with practice, fluency increases most dramatically as more words become identifiable “by sight.”more words become identifiable “by sight.”

These are iNTirEStinG and cHallinGinG times for anyone whose pRoFEshuNle responsibilities are rEelaTed in any way to liTiRucY outcomes among school children. For, in spite of all our new NaWLEGe about reading and reading iNstRukshun, there is a wide-spread concern that public EdgUkAshuN is not as eFfEktIve as it shood be in tEecHiNg all children to read.

The report of the National Research Council pointed out that these concerns about literacy derive not from declining levels of literacy in our schools but rather from recognition that the demands for high levels of literacy are rapidly accelerating in our society.

The Fluency Challenge…..The Fluency Challenge…..

““One of the great mysteries to challenge One of the great mysteries to challenge researchers is how people learn to read and researchers is how people learn to read and comprehend text rapidly and with ease. A large comprehend text rapidly and with ease. A large part of the explanation lies in how they learn to part of the explanation lies in how they learn to read individual words. Skilled readers are able to read individual words. Skilled readers are able to look at thousands of words and immediately look at thousands of words and immediately recognize their meanings without any effort.”recognize their meanings without any effort.”

Ehri, L. C. (2002). Phases of acquisition in learning to read words and implications Ehri, L. C. (2002). Phases of acquisition in learning to read words and implications for teaching. In R. Stainthorp and P. Tomlinson (Eds.) for teaching. In R. Stainthorp and P. Tomlinson (Eds.) Learning and teaching Learning and teaching reading.reading. London: British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series II. London: British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series II.

December, 3rd Grade

Correct word/minute=60

19th percentile

The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party

My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses on them….. return addresses on them…..

December, 3rd Grade

Correct word/minute=128

78th percentile

The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party

My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses on them….. return addresses on them…..

““the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious attention to the mechanics of reading, such as attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding” decoding” (Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).(Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).

Some definitions of reading fluencySome definitions of reading fluency

““Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression”accurately, and with proper expression”National Reading Panel, 2000National Reading Panel, 2000

““Fluency involves accurate reading at a minimal rate Fluency involves accurate reading at a minimal rate with appropriate prosodic features (expression) and with appropriate prosodic features (expression) and deep understanding” deep understanding” Hudson, Mercer, and Lane (2000, p. 16). Hudson, Mercer, and Lane (2000, p. 16).

““freedom from word recognition problems that freedom from word recognition problems that might hinder comprehension” might hinder comprehension” (Literacy Dictionary, Harris & (Literacy Dictionary, Harris &

Hodges, 1995, p. 85).Hodges, 1995, p. 85).

If comprehension is included as part of the If comprehension is included as part of the definitiondefinition of of fluency, then questions about the causal relationships fluency, then questions about the causal relationships between fluency and comprehension disappearbetween fluency and comprehension disappear

However, when we assess ORF, we do not directly However, when we assess ORF, we do not directly assess comprehension, we assess assess comprehension, we assess rate of readingrate of reading

The question we address here is whether there are The question we address here is whether there are causal relationships between the processes that causal relationships between the processes that contribute to individual differences contribute to individual differences in oral reading in oral reading raterate and the processes that are required for good and the processes that are required for good performance on measures of reading performance on measures of reading comprehensioncomprehension

Within current reading theory, we can identify two Within current reading theory, we can identify two major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is commonly measured) might be related commonly measured) might be related causallycausally to to individual differences in reading comprehensionindividual differences in reading comprehension

Efficient, or automatic, identification of words Efficient, or automatic, identification of words allowsallows the reader to focus more attention on the the reader to focus more attention on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage

Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may causecause individual differences in reading rate. These individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes influence both fluency comprehension processes influence both fluency and comprehension tasks. and comprehension tasks.

Within current reading theory, we can identify two Within current reading theory, we can identify two major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is commonly measured) might be related commonly measured) might be related causallycausally to to individual differences in reading comprehensionindividual differences in reading comprehension

Efficient, or automatic, identification of words Efficient, or automatic, identification of words allowsallows the reader to focus more attention on the the reader to focus more attention on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage

Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may causecause individual differences in reading rate. These individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes influence both fluency comprehension processes influence both fluency and comprehension tasks. and comprehension tasks.

The idea that automatic word recognition processes The idea that automatic word recognition processes make it possible to focus more attentional resources make it possible to focus more attentional resources on comprehension was initially popularized by the on comprehension was initially popularized by the work of LaBerge and Samuals (1974)work of LaBerge and Samuals (1974)

They developed a model of reading with the concept They developed a model of reading with the concept of of automaticityautomaticity as one of its central features as one of its central features

1. A complex skill like reading requires the rapid and 1. A complex skill like reading requires the rapid and efficient coordination of many processesefficient coordination of many processes

2. If enough processes are executed automatically, then 2. If enough processes are executed automatically, then the attentional load remains within tolerable limits.the attentional load remains within tolerable limits.

3. Word identification processes are more likely to 3. Word identification processes are more likely to become automatic than comprehension processesbecome automatic than comprehension processes

““There is…evidence that automaticity There is…evidence that automaticity is acquired only in consistent task is acquired only in consistent task environments, as when stimuli are environments, as when stimuli are mapped consistently onto the same mapped consistently onto the same responses throughout practice. Most responses throughout practice. Most of the properties of automaticity of the properties of automaticity develop through practice in such develop through practice in such environments.” environments.” (Logan, 1988)(Logan, 1988)

““In fact, the automaticity with which In fact, the automaticity with which skillful readers recognize words is the skillful readers recognize words is the key to the whole system…The reader’s key to the whole system…The reader’s attention can be focused on the attention can be focused on the meaning and message of a text only meaning and message of a text only to the extent that it’s free from fussing to the extent that it’s free from fussing with the words and letters.”with the words and letters.”

Marilyn AdamsMarilyn Adams

Why is fluency important?Why is fluency important?

Because it provides a bridge between Because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.word recognition and comprehension.

““Fluency, it seems, serves as a bridge between word Fluency, it seems, serves as a bridge between word recognition and comprehension. Because when fluent recognition and comprehension. Because when fluent readers are able to identify words readers are able to identify words accurately and accurately and automaticallyautomatically, they can focus most of their attention , they can focus most of their attention on comprehension. on comprehension.

They can make connections among the ideas in the text They can make connections among the ideas in the text and between the text and their background knowledge. and between the text and their background knowledge. In other words, fluent readers can recognize words and In other words, fluent readers can recognize words and comprehend at the same time. comprehend at the same time.

Less fluent readers, however, must focus much of their Less fluent readers, however, must focus much of their attention on word recognition…The result is that non-attention on word recognition…The result is that non-fluent readers have little attention to devote to fluent readers have little attention to devote to comprehension”comprehension” ( (Osborn, Lehr, and Hiebert, 2003)Osborn, Lehr, and Hiebert, 2003)

The Evidence:The Evidence:

When reading rate is increased through the use of When reading rate is increased through the use of repeated reading techniques, comprehension also repeated reading techniques, comprehension also increases (16 studies-NRP report)increases (16 studies-NRP report)

Effect size for fluency = .44Effect size for fluency = .44

Effect size for comprehension = .35Effect size for comprehension = .35

Problem: a variety of techniques were actually mixed Problem: a variety of techniques were actually mixed together in these findingstogether in these findings

A more recent meta-analysis focusing only on repeated A more recent meta-analysis focusing only on repeated reading studies reported these effect sizes reading studies reported these effect sizes (THERRIEN, 2004)(THERRIEN, 2004)

Effect size for fluency = .50Effect size for fluency = .50Effect size for comprehension= .25Effect size for comprehension= .25

Problem: processes other than word reading efficiency Problem: processes other than word reading efficiency might be enhanced by repeated reading practicemight be enhanced by repeated reading practice

The Evidence (cont.):The Evidence (cont.):

Can practice Can practice specifically targetedspecifically targeted on word reading on word reading efficiency improve fluency and comprehension?efficiency improve fluency and comprehension?

What we need is evidence that practice which focuses What we need is evidence that practice which focuses solely on increasing word reading efficiency can also solely on increasing word reading efficiency can also increase text reading fluency and reading comprehensionincrease text reading fluency and reading comprehension

What do we mean by context-free practice?:What do we mean by context-free practice?:

animalanimal

fasterfaster

happyhappy

nevernever

timetime

sleepsleep

rabbitrabbit

The Evidence (cont.):The Evidence (cont.):

Recently, Levy, Recently, Levy, Abello, and Lysnchuk(1997) reported a Abello, and Lysnchuk(1997) reported a carefully controlled study with 4carefully controlled study with 4thth grade poor readers in grade poor readers in which context free practice to increase speed of word which context free practice to increase speed of word identification positively affected both identification positively affected both fluency and fluency and comprehensioncomprehension

Critical featuresCritical features 1. intensive fluency practice-every word recognized in 1. intensive fluency practice-every word recognized in

less than 1 secondsless than 1 seconds 2. Used long stories that places particular demands on 2. Used long stories that places particular demands on

fluencyfluency 3. Stories were at the appropriate level of difficulty for 3. Stories were at the appropriate level of difficulty for

each studenteach student

To summarize:To summarize:

Increasing rate through repeated reading practice also Increasing rate through repeated reading practice also increases comprehensionincreases comprehension

There has been at least one demonstration that increasing There has been at least one demonstration that increasing rate through isolated word practice can increase reading rate through isolated word practice can increase reading comprehensioncomprehension

Not Not direct evidencedirect evidence for a causal connection between for a causal connection between reading fluency and reading comprehensionreading fluency and reading comprehension

Evidence that Evidence that efficiency of single word reading processesefficiency of single word reading processes has a causal influence on comprehension - beginninghas a causal influence on comprehension - beginning

It is evidence that repeated reading practice, by itself, can It is evidence that repeated reading practice, by itself, can improve both fluency and comprehensionimprove both fluency and comprehension

Across these definitions of fluency, we can identify two Across these definitions of fluency, we can identify two major ways that individual differences in ORF might be major ways that individual differences in ORF might be related causally to individual differences in reading related causally to individual differences in reading comprehensioncomprehension

Efficient identification of words allow a focus on the Efficient identification of words allow a focus on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage

Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may contribute to individual differences in reading rate. contribute to individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes are shared These comprehension processes are shared between fluency and comprehension tasks. between fluency and comprehension tasks.

The Evidence:The Evidence:

Although students remember more of the content from ORF Although students remember more of the content from ORF stories if prompted to remember, stories if prompted to remember, they do remember a they do remember a significant amount with only a cue to “do their best readingsignificant amount with only a cue to “do their best reading” ” ((O’Shea, Sindelar, & O’Shea, 1987)

There is experimental evidence to indicate that comprehension There is experimental evidence to indicate that comprehension processes (identifying anaphoric referents, integrating processes (identifying anaphoric referents, integrating propositions in text with background knowledge, inferencing) propositions in text with background knowledge, inferencing) can also become automatized with reading practice. can also become automatized with reading practice. (Perfetti, 1995)(Perfetti, 1995)

This means they can occur without the specific “intention to This means they can occur without the specific “intention to comprehend.”comprehend.”

Some level of comprehension is occurring for most students as they read the words on ORF passages.

The Evidence:The Evidence:

How could automatically occurring comprehension How could automatically occurring comprehension processes affect rate of reading on ORF tasks?processes affect rate of reading on ORF tasks?

There is experimental evidence for fast acting, There is experimental evidence for fast acting, automatic spreading of semantic activation thast automatic spreading of semantic activation thast does not consume attention resources…words are does not consume attention resources…words are primed for easier recognition (Posner & Snyder, primed for easier recognition (Posner & Snyder, 1975).1975).

The Evidence:The Evidence:

Jenkins, et al., (2003) asked 113 4Jenkins, et al., (2003) asked 113 4 thth grade students grade students with a broad range of reading ability to perform three with a broad range of reading ability to perform three tasks:tasks:

1. ORF following standard (best reading) cue.1. ORF following standard (best reading) cue.

3. ITBS reading comprehension test3. ITBS reading comprehension test

2. ORF with words in passage arranged in random 2. ORF with words in passage arranged in random order in a listorder in a list

The Evidence:The Evidence:

WPM Text = 127WPM Text = 127 WPM List = 83WPM List = 83

Correlation with ITBS Correlation with ITBS

Text = .83Text = .83

List = .53List = .53

Processes unique to reading meaningful text supported Processes unique to reading meaningful text supported more fluent reading of words – more fluent reading of words – spreading activation based spreading activation based on comprehension facilitates fluency – on comprehension facilitates fluency – is one possibilityis one possibility

Test format that allowed comprehension processes (presumably Test format that allowed comprehension processes (presumably operating in both ORF and comprehension test) to influence operating in both ORF and comprehension test) to influence raterate led to higher correlation – led to higher correlation – word reading that is influenced word reading that is influenced by comprehension is more correlated with comprehension than by comprehension is more correlated with comprehension than just word reading efficiency alonejust word reading efficiency alone

Conclusions:Conclusions:

1. Both 1. Both single word identificationsingle word identification processes and processes and comprehension processescomprehension processes contribute to individual contribute to individual differences in oral reading fluency for textdifferences in oral reading fluency for text

a. At the lower end of the ORF continuum, word reading a. At the lower end of the ORF continuum, word reading efficiency makes a stronger unique contribution in efficiency makes a stronger unique contribution in explaining variance in fluencyexplaining variance in fluency

b.At the higher end of the ORF continuum, b.At the higher end of the ORF continuum, comprehension processes make a stronger unique comprehension processes make a stronger unique contribution to explaining variance in fluency.contribution to explaining variance in fluency.

Individual Differences in Oral Reading Fluency are influenced by different factors, depending

on level of fluency

50th 16th 2nd 98th 84th

Standard Scores

Automatic comprehension

processes

Single word reading

efficiency

Conclusions (cont.):Conclusions (cont.):

ORF is correlated with reading comprehension ORF is correlated with reading comprehension becausebecause

1. Both ORF and reading comprehension depend to 1. Both ORF and reading comprehension depend to some extent on some extent on efficiency of single word reading efficiency of single word reading processesprocesses

2. Both ORF speed and reading comprehension 2. Both ORF speed and reading comprehension scores are influenced to some extent by the scores are influenced to some extent by the efficiency of comprehension processesefficiency of comprehension processes that that facilitate performance on both tasksfacilitate performance on both tasks

Reading Processes measured by ORF facilitate Reading Processes measured by ORF facilitate performance on tests of Reading Comprehensionperformance on tests of Reading Comprehension

Next questionNext question: Are the two direct causal connections : Are the two direct causal connections the only reason that ORF is related to performance on the only reason that ORF is related to performance on tests of reading comprehension?tests of reading comprehension?

A reminder about correlationsA reminder about correlations

A can be correlated with B because:A can be correlated with B because:

A A causescauses B B (good reading rate enables comp.)(good reading rate enables comp.)B B causescauses A A (comp. enables good reading rate)(comp. enables good reading rate)

Both A and B are Both A and B are causedcaused by C by C(comp. and rate are both influenced by experience)(comp. and rate are both influenced by experience)

Fluency can be correlated with comprehension Fluency can be correlated with comprehension because individual differences because individual differences in both skillsin both skills are are caused by differences in:caused by differences in:

Reading experienceReading experienceHome environment and supportHome environment and support

Motivation to succeed in schoolMotivation to succeed in school

Reading Reading ExperienceExperience

FluencyFluency

Reading comprehensionReading comprehension through through vocabulary increasesvocabulary increases

Motivation to Motivation to succeed in succeed in schoolschool

FluencyFluency

Reading comprehensionReading comprehension through through development of reading strategiesdevelopment of reading strategies

“…“…motivated students usually want to motivated students usually want to understand text content fully and therefore, understand text content fully and therefore, process information deeply. process information deeply. As they read As they read frequently with these cognitive purposesfrequently with these cognitive purposes, , motivated students gain in reading motivated students gain in reading comprehension proficiency”comprehension proficiency”

Guthrie, J.T. (et al.) (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and Guthrie, J.T. (et al.) (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 403-421.Educational Psychology, 96, 403-421.

Differences in SES cause differences among Differences in SES cause differences among students in students in bothboth comprehension and fluency comprehension and fluency

Lower SES students:Lower SES students: Lower vocabularyLower vocabulary

Less support for reading in Less support for reading in the home –less practicethe home –less practice

Less preparation in Less preparation in preschool environment for preschool environment for early acquisition of early acquisition of alphabetic principlealphabetic principle

Less exposure to booksLess exposure to books

Fewer opportunities to Fewer opportunities to develop rich content develop rich content knowledgeknowledge

Lower ComprehensionLower Comprehension

Lower Comprehension Lower Comprehension Lower FluencyLower Fluency

Lower FluencyLower Fluency

Lower Comprehension Lower Comprehension Lower FluencyLower Fluency

Lower ComprehensionLower Comprehension

Differences in SES cause differences among Differences in SES cause differences among students in students in bothboth comprehension and fluency comprehension and fluency

Differences in learning opportunities and motivation for Differences in learning opportunities and motivation for school learning that are associated with differences in school learning that are associated with differences in

SES SES causecause both: both:

Lower Lower ComprehensionComprehension

Lower Lower FluencyFluency

??????

N=218 Total R2 = 71%

Common = 43.5%

ORF = 18.9%

Vocab = 7.1%

NVR = 1.2%

Mem = .3%

ORF R=.76Vocab R=.69NVR R = .48Mem R = .35

ORF Unique R = .43

If we controlled for the joint, and shared, contribution of If we controlled for the joint, and shared, contribution of vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, and memory, we would vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, and memory, we would expect:expect:

What is the practical meaning of these analyses in terms of What is the practical meaning of these analyses in terms of the potential impact of interventions that increase the potential impact of interventions that increase just just reading fluencyreading fluency

If we based our estimate of the impact of these If we based our estimate of the impact of these interventions on the raw correlation between ORF and interventions on the raw correlation between ORF and comprehension, we would expect:comprehension, we would expect:

A 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce a 12.5 point gain A 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce a 12.5 point gain on the FCATon the FCAT

10 WPM gain on ORF would produce an 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce an 8.6 point8.6 point gain gain on the FCATon the FCAT

Conclusions from analysis of causal relations Conclusions from analysis of causal relations between ORF and reading comprehension:between ORF and reading comprehension:

Interventions that focus directly on increasing oral Interventions that focus directly on increasing oral reading fluency are likely to have an impact on reading fluency are likely to have an impact on performance on broad comprehension measures for performance on broad comprehension measures for two reasons:two reasons:

They are likely to increase the efficiency of word They are likely to increase the efficiency of word reading processes that has an enabling effect on reading processes that has an enabling effect on reading comprehensionreading comprehension

If students read for meaning when they practice, they If students read for meaning when they practice, they are likely to establish automatic comprehension are likely to establish automatic comprehension processes that will help them on comprehension tests processes that will help them on comprehension tests as well as help to increase their reading fluencyas well as help to increase their reading fluency

““Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and accurately, and with proper expressionwith proper expression””National Reading PanelNational Reading Panel

What is the role of prosody in fluent reading?What is the role of prosody in fluent reading?

Why is prosody important?Why is prosody important?

Should teachers spend time modeling Should teachers spend time modeling prosody and encouraging students to read prosody and encouraging students to read with expression?with expression?

Something else to think aboutSomething else to think about::

What are the What are the causalcausal relationships among relationships among prosody, comprehension, and reading rate?prosody, comprehension, and reading rate?

Prosody indicates that the child is apprehending Prosody indicates that the child is apprehending the meaning of what is being read-prosody reflects the meaning of what is being read-prosody reflects comprehensioncomprehension

If children will read with expression, it helps them If children will read with expression, it helps them understand what they are readingunderstand what they are reading

Possible Causal connections:Possible Causal connections:

The relationship between prosody and reading The relationship between prosody and reading comprehensioncomprehension

Certainly, when speech is given with proper prosody Certainly, when speech is given with proper prosody and expression, it helps the listener to comprehend and expression, it helps the listener to comprehend

The evidence is not definitive on this point, but it The evidence is not definitive on this point, but it seems most likely that prosody is primarily a seems most likely that prosody is primarily a reflectionreflection of comprehension, rather than a of comprehension, rather than a causecause of it. of it.

Does it work the same way for reading? Does the Does it work the same way for reading? Does the reader listen to reader listen to his/her own prosodyhis/her own prosody as an aid to as an aid to comprehension?comprehension?

Schwanenflugel, P.J., et al., Becoming a Fluent Reader: Reading Skill and Prosodic Features in the Oral Reading of Young Readers, Journal of Educational Psychology, 2004, 119-129

Purpose of these indices within Reading First Purpose of these indices within Reading First in Floridain Florida

To provide a regular stimulus throughout the year for principals, coaches and teachers to look more closely at their student data

To provide an additional index of school improvement from year to year in reading first.

To help identify schools that are performing poorly on indices that have compelling face validity

LNF PSF NWF

Patterns of Performance Categorized as “Initial” or “Grade Level” performance at Assessment 1 in First Grade

Good, R. H., Kaminski, R. A., Smith, S., Simmons, D., Kame'enui, E., & Wallin, J. (In press).Reviewing outcomes: Using DIBELS to evaluate a school's core curriculum and system of additional intervention in kindergarten. In S. R. Vaughn & K. L. Briggs (Eds.), Reading in the classroom: Systems for observing teaching and learning. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Also available on the DIBELS website.

PSF NWF ORF

Patterns of Performance Categorized as “Initial” or “Grade Level” performance at Assessment 4 in First Grade

LNF PSF NWF

Patterns of Performance Categorized as “at risk” at Assessment 1 in First Grade

PSF NWF ORF

Patterns of Performance Categorized as “at risk” at Assessment 4 in First Grade

Core and Intervention effectiveness in year 1 Core and Intervention effectiveness in year 1 and 2and 2

ECIECI EIEIK year 1K year 1 year 2year 2

82%82%87%87%

45%45%55%55%

11stst year 1 year 1 year 2year 2

58%58%65%65%

14%14%15%15%

22ndnd year 1 year 1 year 2year 2

70%70%72%72%

6%6%5%5%

33rdrd year 1 year 1 year 2year 2

84%84%81%81%

15%15%14%14%

Average ECI for grades 1-3

.90.50

To what extent are EI and ECI influenced by “degree of difficulty” of schools?

Average EI for grades 1-3

.25.02

Percent Free Reduced

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Std. Dev = 15.97

Mean = 74.4

N = 315.00

Percent free/reduced lunch students

Average = 73%

Sch Yr. 04-05

40 %

100 %

Percent Minority

40

30

20

10

0

Std. Dev = 25.32

Mean = 59.9

N = 315.00

Percent minority students

Average = 61%

Sch Yr 04-05

10 %

100 %

Percent LEP

100.090.0

80.070.0

60.050.0

40.030.0

20.010.0

0.0

100

80

60

40

20

0

Std. Dev = 16.10

Mean = 14.3

N = 315.00

Percent English Language Learners

Average = 12%

Sch yr 04-05

0.0%

70.0%

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

ECI EI ORF Reading Comp. PPVT

Relationship of student demographics to various outcome measures

Per

cent

of

varia

nce

acco

unte

d fo

r

1818

66

2323

5050

818111stst=9% =9% 22ndnd =19% =19% 33rdrd =8% =8%

11stst=3% 2=3% 2ndnd =7% 3=7% 3rdrd =5%=5%

Are ECI’s and EI’s consistent across grades Are ECI’s and EI’s consistent across grades within schools?within schools?

ECI Average from Year 1 and Year 2ECI Average from Year 1 and Year 2

22nd nd .31.31

33rdrd . .19 .3319 .33

11stst 2 2ndnd

EI Average from Year 1 and Year 2EI Average from Year 1 and Year 2

22nd nd .03.03

33rdrd . .14 .3014 .30

11stst 2 2ndnd

What about consistency within grade across What about consistency within grade across years and overall consistency?years and overall consistency?

ECI correlations between year 1 and year 2ECI correlations between year 1 and year 2

EI correlations between year 1 and year 2EI correlations between year 1 and year 2

1st .35 2nd .26 3rd .20 All .48

1st .21 2nd .21 3rd .11 All .21

What about consistency within extreme What about consistency within extreme groups?groups?

For the ECI indexFor the ECI index

For the EI indexFor the EI index

Top quartile schools in Year 1

55% in top quartile 75% in top half 7% in bottom quartile

Year 2

Top quartile schools in Year 1

41% in top quartile 60% in top half 18% in bottom quartile

Year 2

What about consistency within extreme What about consistency within extreme groups?groups?

For the ECI indexFor the ECI index

For the EI indexFor the EI index

Bottom quartile schools in Year 1

10% in top quartile 74% in bottom half 54% in bottom quartile

Year 2

Bottom quartile schools in Year 1

8% in top quartile 63% in bottom half 29% in bottom quartile

Year 2

Improvements in ECI and EI in relationship to Improvements in ECI and EI in relationship to Improvements in Reading Comp. OutcomesImprovements in Reading Comp. Outcomes

If a school increased its ECI and EI from the first year to If a school increased its ECI and EI from the first year to the second year, was this associated with the second year, was this associated with improvements in the percent of students at grade improvements in the percent of students at grade level?level?

Schools are expected to increase the percentage of Schools are expected to increase the percentage of students reading at grade level each year they students reading at grade level each year they implement reading firstimplement reading first

Changes in percent of students at grade level are Changes in percent of students at grade level are calculated by subtracting the the percent at grade level calculated by subtracting the the percent at grade level in the 1in the 1stst year from the percent at grade level in the 2 year from the percent at grade level in the 2ndnd year. Positive numbers represent improvement.year. Positive numbers represent improvement.

Average ECI for grades 1-3YY change in % of students achieving grade level standard for reading comp. In grades 1-3

+.17-.15

Average ECI for grades 1-3YY change in ECI across grades1-3

+.27-.23

Relationships between improvement in Relationships between improvement in DIBELS indices and improvement in reading DIBELS indices and improvement in reading comprehension outcomescomprehension outcomes

Grade 1Grade 1

Grade 2Grade 2

Grade 3Grade 3

OverallOverall

ECIECI ECI+EIECI+EI

.41.41 .37 .37

.20.20 .21 .21

.17.17 .24 .24

.33.33 .43 .43

Conclusions about the ECI and EI IndicesConclusions about the ECI and EI Indices

1. They have face validity as indicators of core instructional 1. They have face validity as indicators of core instructional effectiveness and intervention effectivenesseffectiveness and intervention effectiveness

2. The ECI is more responsive to school level “degree of 2. The ECI is more responsive to school level “degree of difficulty than is the EI indexdifficulty than is the EI index

3. Neither index shows strong consistency across grade 3. Neither index shows strong consistency across grade levels within schoolslevels within schools

4. Both indices also showed marked lack of overall stability 4. Both indices also showed marked lack of overall stability within grade levels from year 1 to year 2within grade levels from year 1 to year 2

5. There was a reasonable degree of year to year stability 5. There was a reasonable degree of year to year stability when extreme groups were considered. It is not common when extreme groups were considered. It is not common for schools to move from the highest to lowest quartile in for schools to move from the highest to lowest quartile in successive years on either index.successive years on either index.

Conclusions about the ECI and EI IndicesConclusions about the ECI and EI Indices

6. Year to year improvement on the indices was more 6. Year to year improvement on the indices was more strongly correlated with improvement in reading strongly correlated with improvement in reading comprehension at first grade than for grades 2 and 3.comprehension at first grade than for grades 2 and 3.

7. Overall, changes in instructional effectiveness as 7. Overall, changes in instructional effectiveness as measured by the ECI and EI were modestly related to YY measured by the ECI and EI were modestly related to YY improvements in percent of students at grade level in improvements in percent of students at grade level in reading comprehension.reading comprehension.

Now, to finish on two inspirational notes…Now, to finish on two inspirational notes…

Inspirational Note #1: What DIBELS has done Inspirational Note #1: What DIBELS has done for Floridafor Florida

2. It has helped us clearly see that our first grade instruction in 2. It has helped us clearly see that our first grade instruction in the alphabetic principal (phonics) is the alphabetic principal (phonics) is not strong enoughnot strong enough to to meet the needs of many of the students in our RF schools..meet the needs of many of the students in our RF schools..

3. It has helped us clearly see that students in second grade do 3. It has helped us clearly see that students in second grade do not make the necessary growthnot make the necessary growth in reading fluency from the in reading fluency from the beginning to the end of the yearbeginning to the end of the year

4. It has also documented the fact that, although third grade 4. It has also documented the fact that, although third grade teachers are “holding their own” in fluency development for teachers are “holding their own” in fluency development for their students, the students enter third grade with fluency their students, the students enter third grade with fluency levels that are levels that are way too lowway too low..

1. It has helped us document big changes that have occurred in 1. It has helped us document big changes that have occurred in instruction in kindergarten in RF schoolsinstruction in kindergarten in RF schools

Inspirational note #2: A reason for Inspirational note #2: A reason for working toward continuous working toward continuous improvement….improvement….

Thank Thank YouYouwww.fcrr.org

Science of reading Science of reading sectionsection

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