Thinking Critically with Psychological Sciencefac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 Courses/1 General Psychology/WorthPub...Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 4

Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 1

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PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition)David Myers

PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad

Henderson State University

Worth Publishers, © 2006

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Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

Chapter 1

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Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

The Need for Psychological Science

The limits of Intuition and Common Sense

The Scientific Attitude

The Scientific Method

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Thinking Critically …

DescriptionThe Case Study

The Survey

Naturalistic Observation

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CorrelationCorrelation and CausationIllusory CorrelationPerceiving Order in Random Events

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ExperimentationExploring Cause and Effect

Evaluating Therapies

Independent and Dependent Variables

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Statistical ReasoningDescribing Data

Making Inferences

FAQS About Psychology

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Impression of Psychology Hoping to satisfy curiosity, many people listen to talk‐radio counselors and psychics to know

about others and themselves.

Dr. Crane (radio‐shrink)

http://ww

w.nbc.com

http://ww

w.photovault.com

Psychic (Ball gazing)

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The Need for Psychological Science

Intuition & Common Sense

Many of us believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers about

human nature.

Although intuitions and common sense may aid queries, they are not free of error.

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Limits of Intuition

Personal interviewers tend to be overconfident of their “gut feelings”about job applicants.

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Errors of Common Sense

Try this !

If you were to fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) a 100 fold, how large do you think its thickness

would be?

800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.

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Hindsight Bias is the “I‐knew‐it‐all‐along”phenomenon.

We tend to believe, after learning about an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. We knew that the dot.com stocks would plummet,

only after they do.

Hindsight Bias

OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and

explain how it can make research findings

seem like mere common sense. Two

phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental

overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely

solely on intuition and common sense.

“Anything seems commonplace, once

explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.


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OverconfidenceWe tend to think we know more than we actually do.

Anagram

BARGEGRABE

ENTRYETYRN

WATERWREAT

How long do you think would it take to unscramble

these anagrams?

People said about 10 seconds. On average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).

OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence

contaminates our everyday judgments.

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Psychological Science

1. How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?

2. Science of psychology can help make these examined conclusions, which lead to our understanding what people feel, think, act, as they do!

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The Scientific Attitude

The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (humbleness to

accept when wrong).

OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific

attitude encourages critical thinking.

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Critical Thinking

Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions.

It examines assumptions, discerns

hidden values, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions.

The Amazing Randi

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Scientific Method

Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that

organize, summarize and simplify observations.

OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological

theories guide scientific research.

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Theory is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes and predicts behaviors

or events.

For example, low self‐esteem contributes to depression.

Theory

If we were to observe that depressed people talk

about their past, present, and future in a gloomy

manner, we may theorize that low‐self‐esteem

contributes to depression.

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Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often induced by a theory, to enable us to accept,

reject or revise the theory.

People with low self‐esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

Hypothesis

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Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression to

people. Individuals who score low on self‐esteem measures and high on depression

test, would confirm our hypothesis.

Research Observations

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Research Process

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Description

Case Study

A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.

Is language uniquely human?

OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and

disadvantages of case studies in studying

behavior and mental processes.

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Case Study

A clinical study is a form of case study where the therapist investigates the

problems associated with a client.

http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com

Clinical Study

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Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people

usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people.

http://ww

w.lynnefeatherstone.org


disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior

and mental processes, and explain the

importance of wording effects and random

sampling.

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Survey

Wording can change the results of a survey.

Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

Wording Effect

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Survey

A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and

behaviors.

False Consensus Effect

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Survey

Random Sampling

From a population if each member has an

equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample

(unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are spurious. The fastest way to know about the

marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and

count them.

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Naturalistic ObservationObserving and recording behavior of animals in

the wild, to recording self‐seating patterns in lunch rooms in a multiracial school constitutes

naturalistic observation.


disadvantages of naturalistic observation in

studying behavior and mental processes.

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Descriptive Methods

Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation all describe behaviors.

Summary

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Correlation

When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates directionof relationship

(positive or negative)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37+

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship

between two variables.

OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative

correlations and explain how correlational

measures can aid the process of prediction.

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Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)

Scatterplot is a graph that comprises of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, and the amount of

scatter the strength of relationship.

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No relationship (0.00)Perfect negativecorrelation (‐1.00)

Scatterplot on the left shows a negative, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

Scatterplots___________________________________

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DataData showing height and temperament in people.

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Scatterplot

Scatterplot showing relationship between height and temperament in people with a moderate

positive correlation of +0.63.

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or

Correlation and CausationOBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational

research fails to provide evidence of cause‐

effect relationships.

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Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.

Confirming evidence

Disconfirming evidence

Do notadopt

Disconfirming evidence

Confirming evidenceAdopt

Do not conceiveConceive

OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form

illusory correlations.

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Given random data we look for order, for meaningful patterns.

Order in Random Events

Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

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Order in Random Events

Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.

Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.

OBJECTIVE 11| Explain the human tendency

to perceive order in random events.

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Experimentation

Like other sciences, experimentation makes the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments

isolate causes and their effects.

Exploring Cause and Effect

OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help

researchers isolate cause and effect.

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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us while keeping other factors under (2) control.

Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

Exploring Cause & Effect

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Independent Variable is a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is being

studied.

For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Breast feeding is the independent

variable.

Independent Variable

OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference

between an independent variable and a

dependent variable.

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Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it

is usually a behavior or a mental process.

For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Intelligence is the

dependent variable.

Dependent Variable___________________________________

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In evaluating drug therapies it important to keep the patients and experimenter’s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and

which placebo.


Double‐blind Procedure

OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random

assignment and double‐blind procedure build

confidence in research findings.

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Assigning participants to experimental (Breast‐fed) and control (formula‐fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre‐existing

differences between the two groups.


Random Assignment

Sometime research participants out of

enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out

come of an experiment. To control for such

affects, a double‐blind procedure is used, in

which the participants and the experimenter’s

assistants are not aware of which participants

got real treatment and who got placebo.

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ExperimentationA summary of steps during experimentation.

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ComparisonBelow is a comparison of different research

methods.

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Statistical Reasoning

Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data and let us see what the unaided eye misses.

White63%

Black16%Hispanic

10%Asian

7%Others

4%

Composition of ethnicity in urban locales

OBJECTIVE 15| Explain the importance of

statistical principles, and give an example of

their use in daily life.

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Describing DataMeaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation can lead to incorrect

conclusions.

OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can

misrepresent data.

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Measures of Central Tendency

Mode the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Mean the arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number.

Median the middle score in a rank‐ordered distribution.

OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of

central tendency and tell which is most

affected by extreme scores.

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Measures of Central Tendency

A Skewed Distribution

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Measures of Variation

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of

variation.

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Standard Deviation___________________________________

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Making Inferences

A statistical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or

by chance.

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Making Inferences

1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.

2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.

3. More cases are better than fewer cases.

When is an Observed Difference Reliable?

OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for

making generalizations from samples.

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Making Inferences

When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say

the difference has statistical significance.

For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.

When is a Difference Significant?

OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists

decide whether differences are meaningful.

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FAQ

Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior.

OBJECTIVE 21| Explain the value of

simplified laboratory conditions in

discovering general principles of behavior.

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FAQQ2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?

Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same.

OBJECTIVE 22| Discuss whether

psychological research can be generalized

across cultures and genders.

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FAQ

Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?

Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and then culture further bends the genders. Yet in many ways woman and man are similarly human.

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FAQ

Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?

Ans: Study of animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology

across animals and humans.

OBJECTIVE 23| Explain why psychologists

study animals, and discuss the ethics of

experimentation with both animals and

humans.

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FAQ

Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?

Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines

in caring for these animals.

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FAQ

Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?

Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm that is

beyond normal levels encountered in daily life can be carried out.

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FAQ

Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?

Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments.

OBJECTIVE 24| Describe how personal values

can influence psychologists’ research and its

application, and discuss psychology’s potential

to manipulate people.

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FAQ

Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?

Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of psychology is to help humanity with its problems,

like war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc.

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Documents

Thinking Critically with Psychological Sciencefac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 Courses/1 General Psychology/WorthPub...Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 4