1

Contents

Language

Sentence Improvement

Paragraphs

Conventions for quoting text names

Subject – Verb Agreement

Clauses – Main and Subordinate

Verbs - Tense

Verbs – Compound and Auxiliary

Direct Speech

Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd

Verbs - Voice

Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses, Brackets

Symbolism

Interjections

Parts of Speech Review

Adjectives – Comparatives and Superlatives

Apostrophe - Possession

Prefixes

Suffixes

Contractions

The Comma

Semicolon and Colon

Language Devices Review

Page

2

4

7

8

11

13

16

18

21

23

25

28

30

31

36

39

41

43

45

47

50

53

2

Sentence ImprovementThis sheet is about improving your writing by improving your sentences. This is an exciting area of grammar as it allows you to use your imagination and be creative. We have talked about joining short simple sentences by using conjunctions to improve the variety in your writing. In this sheet we continue this process. We continue to expand the length of some sentences, but this time we focus on being more expressive and detailed.

We do this by again using conjunctions but also by using adjectives, adverbs, phrases and clauses. This can be called sentence expansion.A simple sentence can be progressively expanded over stages. This should be done when you are editing your work. Example:

The eagle soared. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle soared. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle, whose dominion was the sky, effortlessly soared. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle, whose dominion was the sky, effortlessly soared on uplifting

thermals in ever increasing circles. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle, whose dominion was the sky, effortlessly soared on uplifting

thermals in ever increasing circles, with eyes intently focused on the earth below.

Adjectivesmajesticwedge-tailedincreasinguplifting

Adverbseffortlesslyintentlybelowever

Phrases & Clausesin ever increasing circles - on uplifting thermalswith eyes intently focused - on the earth belowwith eyes intently focused - on the earth belowwhose dominion was the sky

While all writing benefits from using a variety of expression, it is particularly relevant in imaginative and descriptive writing. Narratives and expositions can be improved significantly by the use of appropriate adjectives, adverbs, phrases and clauses.

Noun phrases create detailed, accurate atmospheric descriptions. Adjectives, adjectival phrases and adjectival clauses give characters, whether human, animal or

things, an identifying appearance, mannerism or personality. Adverbs, adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses indicate when, where and how the particular

events or incidents take place. Descriptive and figurative language can be used to improve your writing. See lessons on:

Symbolism, Personification, Alliteration, Simile, Metaphor and Onomatopoeia.

Your task, as a writer, is to communicate effectively with the reader. Always keep in mind that you are writing for an audience. Choose the format and style most appropriate for the audience you are writing for. Command your reader’s attention by expressing yourself with fluency, variety, and avoidance of any repetitious words, phrases and ideas. Good writing needs to be clear, interesting, concise and accurate. Use a good dictionary and a good thesaurus to assist you in using the vocabulary that is specific to the meaning you wish to convey.

Editing your sentences Don’t be satisfied with your first effort. Treat it as your first draft. Sometimes, to achieve your very best, you may need to edit your sentences a number of times. Even in exams, leave time to quickly edit your work so your answers express your thoughts in the best possible way.

3

ActivitiesExpand these simple sentences into compound or complex sentences using conjunctions or relative pronouns. Also use adjectives, adverbs, phrases & clauses. Think about including figurative language as well. Be imaginative but be careful not to write ‘run-on sentences’. (A run-on sentence is one that is added to another when it really should be kept separate. Don’t write a whole ‘story’ in one sentence.)

1. I kept afloat.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. We went to Luna Park.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The puppy saw a kitten.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Sarah left school.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

5. The ambulance arrived.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The siren sounded.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Our house is for sale.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

4

8. The ghost appeared.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

5

ParagraphsEssays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need paragraphs. Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way.

A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs have different functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed.

This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed somewhere in the paragraph by one sentence (the main or topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, but can come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence, and each idea round the main theme is supported by information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and examples), and by argument.

Use these methods to make your paragraphs more cohesive: Make the topic sentence the one idea to control the whole paragraph. It should be

developed in the rest of the paragraph. The details should be relevant and presented in logical order and be arranged in a number of

supporting or explanatory sentences. Paragraphs should finish with a concluding sentence that summarises the main idea. A well written paragraph has a clear link with other paragraphs. Use connecting words – conjunctions. Repeat key words and use reference words (like this, it, these, etc.).

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?You should start a new paragraph:• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph. • To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference. • When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing to be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex. • When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Remember paragraphs should have:1. Topic Sentence2. Several explanatory and supporting sentences3. Concluding sentence

Note: To indicate a paragraph you can ‘leave a line’. In print, the first word of a paragraph is usually indented. Paragraphs can vary in length: a basic guideline is from 25 to 250 words, or 1 to 10 sentences.

6

ActivitiesMatch the notes in the list with the appropriate topic sentences below. Then organise the notes into logical order and write each paragraph.

Includes Tasmania Britain had an extensive convict problem due to economic and social changes resulting in

widespread poverty Extensive deserts Complex spiritual beliefs based on ‘The Dreamtime’ when mythic beings created the world Convicts used as labour to establish Australian colony Population of 21 261 000 lives mainly along coastal areas Nomadic hunter-gatherers in small family clans Newly independent American colonies refused to accept convicts Covers a land area of 7 682 300 square kilometres Arrived 40 000 to 60 000 years ago from Asian regions The prison hulks on the Thames River were dangerously overcrowded Great Dividing Range and Barrier Reef are significant geographical features

1. Anthropologists believe that Indigenous Australians arrived during the last Ice Age.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why did the British government decide to send convicts to Botany Bay?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Australia is a significant continent in the Asia-Pacific region.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7

Write a paragraph about the character Jess in the film Bend It Like Beckham, and how she finds a feeling of belonging, engendering a feeling of cohesion, confidence and trust within a group. You will need to include a topic sentence, two or three supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. Don’t forget to use correct punctuation.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________There are five basic paragraph types. Each paragraph type provides the building block for different types of essays.

1. Descriptive paragraphs focus on character, setting or action, and incorporate descriptive techniques such as the use of adjectives, adverbs and figures of speech. These paragraphs appear most commonly in creative writing such as novels, short stories and poems, but also appear in advertisements.

2. Informative paragraphs describe and explain information on a particular topic, and incorporate facts and examples about the topic. These paragraphs appear in reference books such as encyclopaedias, dictionaries and non-fiction books.

3. Instructional paragraphs give information, explanations and actions about how to do, achieve or make something, and incorporate short command sentences, verbs such as ‘do’ and ‘use’ and, occasionally, lists in bullet points or numbered steps. These are found, for example, in cookbooks and ‘How to….’ Guides.

4. Persuasive paragraphs present a point of view on a controversial issue. They incorporate a clear point of view, supporting arguments and, usually, persuasive techniques such as emotive language. These are often found in the Letters to the Editor and Opinion pages of newspapers.

5. Narrative (story) paragraphs tell or summarise a story – fiction or non-fiction – and incorporate clear structure and linking words to indicate a sequence of actions.

ActivityWrite a descriptive paragraph about how the appreciation of multiculturalism and acceptance of diversity of others is a theme in the film Bend It Like Beckham.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Conventions for quoting text namesWhen we write more developed and extended pieces, the need often arises to quote from or refer to texts within our writing. There are two occasions when we may need to quote texts within our writing:

1) When referring to the name of a text. The rule for quoting the name of the text is to use either italics or ‘single inverted commas’ for the text name.eg. In his autobiography Boy, Roald Dahl explores key events in his formative years. ORIn his autobiography ‘Boy’, Roald Dahl explores key events in his formative years.

2) When quoting words from a text.The rule for quoting words from a text is to place them in single inverted commas (‘ ‘)eg. The setting of the story in Briar Rose is established in the words, ‘Oswego was on Lake Ontario, halfway between Rochester and Syracuse.’

Activities Refer to the examples above to assist you in writing the following sentences correctly:

1) The Great War was written by M Ferro in 1973.

__________________________________________________________________________

2) After reading The Clever Country, my perspectives about Australia changed.

__________________________________________________________________________

3) My favourite line in Finding Nemo was we learn that good friends can be family, that a little bit

of crazy is not such a bad thing.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4) The painting Woman with a fan by Pablo Picasso was reproduced in clay in 1978.

__________________________________________________________________________

5) In the hymn I Shall Dwell in the Lord’s House that The Lord is my Shepherd.

__________________________________________________________________________

9

6) In the novel Brave New World the words Machinery faintly purred conveys the idea that the

machinery is alive. __________________________________________________________

Subject – Verb AgreementThe subject of a sentence must agree with the verb in the sentence in:Person Number Tense

1. The verb must agree with the subject in person.Examples:

I am very fond of her.This sentence is in what is referred to as the ‘first person’ – subject ‘I’. The singular verb ‘am’ is therefore used.

You are my cousin.This sentence is in what is referred to as the ‘second person’ - subject ‘You’. – Therefore it uses the plural verb ‘are’.

It is a sunny day.This sentence is in what is referred to as the ‘third person’ - subject ‘It’. – Therefore it uses the singular verb ‘is’.

You run fast, but Mike runs faster.The first clause has the ‘second person’ subject ‘You’ in the present tense – therefore it uses the verb ‘run’. The second clause has the ‘third person’ subject ‘Mike’ in the present tense – therefore it uses the verb ‘runs’.

2. Verbs must agree with their subjects in number. A singular subject must take a singular verb. A plural subject must take a plural verb.

Examples:This dog has floppy ears.

This sentence has a singular subject ‘This dog’, therefore it has a singular verb ‘has’.

Those dogs have curly tails.This sentence has a plural subject ‘Those dogs’, therefore it has a plural verb ‘have’.

This orange tastes sweet.This sentence has a singular subject ‘This orange’ therefore it has a singular verb ‘tastes’.

These oranges taste bitter.This sentence has a plural subject ‘These oranges’, therefore it has a plural verb ‘taste’

10

3. Verbs must also agree with their subjects in tense: Past, Present, Future.

Examples:Jenny bakes cakes often.

This sentence is in the present tense so it uses the present tense verb ‘bakes’.

Jenny baked cakes yesterday.This sentence is in the past tense so it uses the past tense verb ‘baked’.

Jenny will bake cakes tomorrow.This sentence is in the future tense so it uses the future tense compound verb ‘will bake’.

Some tricky examples Two or more singular subjects joined by ‘and’ require a plural verb.

Example:Steven and his brother Allan were late.

Samantha and her friend Nicole were going to the performance.You and I are invited to the party.

Two or more singular subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ require a singular verb. (The words ‘neither’ and ‘either’ indicate a singular subject)

Examples:Neither Jeffrey nor his brother was present at the picnic.

Either the television or the radio has been causing the noise.

A compound subject qualified by ‘every’ requires a singular verb.Example:

Every boy and girl at the formal was given a certificate.

A subject separated from the verb by a phrase beginning with ‘of’ can cause doubt. (The words ‘each’ and ‘one’ indicate a singular subject)

Examples:One of the suspects is guilty.

Each of the boys was here on time.

Mistakes are sometimes made if the subject follows the verb.Examples:

There are several mistakes in your writing.In this sentence the plural verb ‘are’ agrees with the plural subject ‘mistakes’.

There is nothing to fear.In this sentence the singular verb ‘is’ agrees with the singular subject ‘nothing’

11

Activities

Choose the correct verb (is or are) and write it in the space.

1. Patrick __________ playing golf today.

2. The boys __________ in the gymnasium.

3. The doctor __________ checking her heartbeat.

4. The geese __________ in the yard.

5. A stale loaf of bread __________ hard to eat.

Choose the correct verb (was or were) and write it in the space.

6. His feet __________ sore after the long run.

7. The ducks __________ attacked by the hungry wolf.

8. A foal __________ beside the mare.

9. We __________ listening to him when we heard the bell.

10. Fifty dollars __________ all I had.

Cross out the ‘incorrect’ verb in each sentence.

11. Do you think he (has, have) heard the news?

12. Nobody (has, have) seen Edward today.

13. I’m afraid it (isn’t, aren’t) here now.

14. Each of the apples (was, were) wrapped in paper.

15. (Do, Does) she go to the gym too?

16. Anybody (has, have) a chance of winning the prize.

17. I was sorry to hear you (was, were) ill.

18. One of the boys (is, are) not telling the truth.

12

19. It (don’t, doesn’t) look like it will rain.

20. (Do, Does) anyone know the new baby’s name?

Clause – Main and Subordinate

A clause is a complete message or thought expressed in words.It is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate. A complete sentence always contains at least one clause. The essential component of a clause is a verb or verb group. A clause always has a finite verb – a verb that has a subject.Example:

Joe likes readingHere ‘Joe’ is the subject and ‘likes reading’ is the predicate.

Joe likes reading so he often goes to the library.Here ‘he’ is the subject and ‘often goes to the library’ is the predicate.

There are two major types of clauses:

A MAIN (or PRINCIPAL) Clause A main clause (also known as principal or independent clause) is a clause that can stand alone

as a complete sentence. It makes sense all by itself. It is a complete message. Examples:

It was raining.

The main clause is the one that contains the important statement of a sentence.Example:

When the rain came, the painters went home because they could not paint in the rain.The statement ‘the painters went home’ is the most important piece of information in the sentence. It is the main clause. The other two statements are of lesser importance. One tells when the painters went home; the other tells the reason for their going. They are dependent clauses.

There can be more than one main clause, joined with words such as ‘and’ and ‘but’Example:

The party stopped and the guests complained.When you have two (or more) main clauses like this, they are called coordinate clauses.

A SUBORDINATE (or DEPENDENT) ClauseA dependent clause (also known as subordinate clause) is a group of words that cannot usually stand alone as a sentence but provides extra information. It depends on a main clause. It does not make sense all by itself. It does not give you a complete message. A subordinate clause is less important than the main clause in a sentence. An introductory word such as: if, that, when, because begins a subordinate clause.Example:

While it was raining…

13

When the rain came, the painters went home because they could not paint in the rain.Using the same example as above, the dependent clauses are: ‘When the rain came’ and ‘because they could not paint in the rain’.

ActivitiesPut brackets around the main clauses and underline the subordinate clauses.Example: (My dog is timid) because my cat is so aggressive.

1. The batter hit another century while the selectors watched admiringly.

2. This is the house where my dad was born.

3. Unless people give to charity, poor families will suffer.

4. Jenny was sure that Sarah was planning a surprise party for her.

5. I decided to take a taxi home since it was getting late.

6. Because the standard was high, the students sat a practice test.

Each sentence has two main (or coordinate) clauses. Put brackets around each clause and underline the word that joins them.Example: (The bells were ringing) and (the lights shone brightly).

1. I like ice-cream but my sister prefers chocolate.

2. The spaceship took off slowly and then it suddenly vanished.

3. I will read the paper but you can have the sports section.

4. The ferry docked and most of the passengers disembarked.

5. Lightning struck the power station and the whole area was blacked out.

Add a subordinate clause to the main clauses below.

1. This is the car ______________________________________________________________

2. I broke the bottle ____________________________________________________________

3. Switzerland is a country ______________________________________________________

4. I nursed the baby ___________________________________________________________

5. I do not know ______________________________________________________________

6. We ran for cover ____________________________________________________________

7. I thanked the honest girl ______________________________________________________

8. We must stay inside _________________________________________________________

14

9. The crops will die ___________________________________________________________

10. The bull, _____________________________________________________, gored the man.

Verbs - Tense

You may remember that a verb is the doing word in a sentence. Verbs require somebody or something to do an action. As well as an action, verbs can also express a state of being, or ownership within a sentence.

Action Verbs -He ran down the street. State of being verbs - He is sick today. Ownership Verbs - I have brown hair.

We are now going to examine what action takes place and when the action takes place. This is called the tense of the verb. There are three main tenses. They are the present, past and future.

Present TenseThe present tense is when an action is taking place now, or the action is going on at the time of speaking.Example: My dog is digging a hole in the garden.In this sentence the ‘dog’ is digging the hole right now. Therefore the verb ‘is digging’ is in the present tense.

Another form of the present tense is when the ‘action’ being described, happens continually.Example: The Earth revolves around the sun.In this sentence the ‘Earth’ continuously revolves around the sun, therefore the verb ‘revolves’ is in the present tense.

Past TenseThe past tense is when the action of the verb has already taken place.Example: Megan played netball yesterday.In this sentence ‘Megan’ has already played netball. We know this because the verb ‘played’ is the past tense form of the verb ‘play’. We also have a strong hint that this sentence is in the past tense by the use of the word ‘yesterday’. If something happened ‘yesterday’ it must have already happened.

Future TenseThe future tense is when the action has not taken place yet, but is going to take place in the future. It is really a planned action.Example: Anton and Ingrid will be leaving for England next week.In this sentence Anton and Ingrid have not left for England yet. They plan to go next week. The verb ‘will be leaving’ indicates the future tense. The word ‘will’ always is associated with a planned action.

Summary Present tense refers to actions happening NOW. Eg ‘I kick the ball.’ Past tense refers to actions that have ALREADY happened. Eg ‘I kicked the ball.’

15

Future tense refers to actions that WILL happen in the future. Eg ‘I will kick the ball.’

Irregular Verbs - Some verbs change their form when they change their tense.Example: I eat cereal for breakfast. (present) Last night I ate a whole pizza. (past)

ActivitiesComplete the table with the correct tenses of the verbs.

VerbSeemBecomeLoseDrinkWorkPlayGoWalk

Present________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Past________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Future________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Look at the verbs in the past tense column in the table. Write down the irregular verbs.

_________________________________________________

In the space below, explain to someone who knows nothing about the rules of English grammar how you change the ending of a regular verb when it is used in the past tense.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Circle the verb (or verbs) in each sentence and write down its tense.

1. My dad walks to work most days. _____________________________2. Tara and I swam two kilometres during training yesterday. _________________3. After all that practice, the school band will sound outstanding at the concert. _________4. Dan only wrote ten lines for his essay. ___________________________5. I will fix my bike at the weekend. _____________________________6. You look for her in the kitchen, and I will look upstairs. ___________________

Rewrite these sentences in the past tense. They involve irregular verbs.1. Today I choose an apple for lunch.

Yesterday ____________________________________________2. Today I swim three lengths of the pool.

16

Yesterday ____________________________________________3. Today I teach my puppy to stay.

Yesterday ____________________________________________Make the past tense of each verb in the brackets. Write in the space.

1. We ____________________ to work before the sun rose. (start)

2. I ____________________ Jill for helping. (thank)

3. We ____________________ to leave early this morning. (decide)

4. The workers ____________________ freely in the hot sunshine. (perspire)

5. I _____________________ the letter after I had sealed the envelope. (address)

6. The car ____________________ across the slippery road. (skid)

7. We ____________________ by train to Sydney yesterday. (travel)

8. The accident ____________________ last night. (occur)

9. The dog ____________________ the bone in the garden. (bury)

10. Mike ____________________ all my spelling words. (copy)

11. My coach ____________________ me how to do the breaststroke yesterday. (teach)

12. It was so cold last night the water in the tank ____________________ . (freeze)

13. When I was little, I ____________________ a story about a dinosaur. (write)

14. I ____________________ the sugar before I drank the coffee. (stir)

15. The paper was ____________________ daily. (supply)

16. Last weekend Maria ____________________ her bike to her grandparents. (ride)

17. This morning Carol ____________________ to school early. (goes)

18. I ____________________ up very early this morning. (wake)

19. Last week I ____________________ a cricket bat for my birthday. (choose)

20. Phillip ____________________ his football to school this morning. (bring)

21. This morning the boy ____________________ taking the money. (deny)

22. Yesterday I ____________________ on Marek to help me. (rely)

17

23. The fortune-teller at last ____________________ to my question. (reply)

24. Yesterday in class we ____________________ the effects of pollution. (study)

Verbs – Compound and AuxiliaryAuxiliary verbs are extra words which help us to make a complete verb (Compound Verb) in a sentence. They are very important in the formation of the different tenses: Past Present Future

The most common auxiliary verbs are: be was will have would couldam had can were being shouldis are has does might mustdo did may been shall done

Examples: He was calling to me. (Past)

In this example the compound verb is ‘was calling’. The auxiliary verb is ‘was’. The word ‘was’ indicates the action took place in the past so it is past tense.

They are finishing their work. (Present)In this example the compound verb is ‘are finishing’. The auxiliary verb is ‘are’. The word ‘are’ indicates the action is taking place now so it is present tense.

Mrs Taylor will be going home soon. (Future) In this example the compound verb is ‘will be going’. The auxiliary verbs are ‘will be’. The words ‘will be’ indicate the action will take place in the future so it is future tense.

Note 1:Compound verbs consist of an auxiliary (or helping) verb and a verb participle. Participles that end in ‘ing’ are called present participles. Regular past participles end in ‘ed’.

Note 2: Sometimes the compound verb can be ‘split’. The word in-between is often an adverb modifying the verb.Example:

Amy could not understand the lesson. In this example the compound verb is ‘could understand’. The auxiliary verb is ‘could’. The word ‘not’ is an adverb modifying the verb ‘could understand’. In this example this adverb changes the meaning completely.

Note 3: The following examples indicate the correct usage of can (could); may (might): can implies ability; may permission.Examples:

Can you drive a car? – (an ability that has been learned) Parliament can change our laws. - (has the power to) I can carry the suitcase myself. – (have the physical ability) May I see the photos of your holiday? – (polite requesting of permission) Might I borrow your ruler? – (polite requesting of permission)

18

The rain may spoil the wedding. – (the power of possibility) The damage might have been worse. – (the power of possibility)

ActivitiesComplete these sentences using an auxiliary verb and a participle.

1. Yesterday I _________________________ (do) my homework when the fire alarm went off.

2. At last I _________________________ (finish) all my assignments for this term.

3. Next weekend, we _________________________ (go) camping.

4. The teacher said that I _________________________ (work) really hard on my assignment.

5. Sam _________________________ (brush) his teeth extra well because he is going to the dentist.

6. The Youngs _________________________ (live) in the same house for 30 years.

7. Ella _________________________ (have) that bike for so long that she

_________________________ (grow) out of it.

8. My cousin _________________________ (arrive) home before I appeared.

9. My whole family __________________________ (decide) to go on an overseas trip.

10. Jacques and I _________________________ (share) the prize.

11. The surfboard I saw yesterday _________________________ (paint) bright green.

12. I _________________________ (learn) new things every day.

13. He _________________________ (run) in the cross country tomorrow.

14. We _________________________ (go) to the film, but we are not sure yet.

19

15. He is __________________________ (annoy) me.

Direct SpeechUse of quotation marks in direct speech

Direct speech refers to words that are actually spoken by someone. The words spoken are indicated by the use of quotation marks. “ ”Quotation marks are sometimes referred to as: “inverted commas”, “talking marks”, or “speech marks”. However they all have the same meaning.

1. Actual Words SpokenWhen the characters in a novel or short story speak, quotation marks are needed to enclose the actual words of the speaker. Capital letters are required for the first word inside the quotation marks.Examples:• “I would like to go with you,” said Michael.• “Would someone please help me with the dishes,” called John, “otherwise we will be late for the movies!”• Dad asked, “Does anyone want to go shopping with me?”• “Yes please,” said the old man. “I’m trying to find out where my relatives live. I understand you might know where they are.”

In the examples above, the quotation marks are only placed around the actual words spoken. The actual words spoken are in bold. In the last example, notice that there are no quotation marks after the word ‘live’ – they are not placed at the beginning of the next sentence either. This is because the actual words spoken are not interrupted by, he said or they replied, for example.

Note 1: Sometimes single quotation marks ‘ ’ are used for direct speech.Example:‘Tom, write down the players’ scores,’ the captain requested.However, single quotation marks may appear confusing to read when apostrophes (players’) are used, so we recommend using double quotation marks. Generally, double quotation marks make direct speech easier to read.Note 2: Quotation marks normally enclose all other punctuation marks.

2. Introduction of another speakerQuotation marks are also used when another speaker enters the conversation.Example:“It’s a good day for fishing,” said Richard.“Yes, but it’s an even better day for golf,” replied his friend.“Well, we could do both if we leave early enough,” said Richard.Note: A new line is used when another speaker is introduced. This makes it so much easier to identify each speaker.

Indirect or Reported SpeechSpeech in a text that reports what someone has said and gives the content of the speech BUT without repeating the exact words is indirect or reported speech. It does not require quotation marks.Example:

20

The teacher said that John could go home now. The exact words the teacher used are not given.

Activities

Add the quotation marks and other punctuation marks where they are needed:

1. It’s my turn now stated the boy waiting next in line.

2. Those who want to go, raise your hands said the teacher. If you don’t go, you will be given additional study, he said.

3. Excuse me sir said the flight attendant, I believe you have the wrong seat.

4. Hurry up Samantha called or you will miss your bus.

5. What time is it asked Alistair.

6. Your dinner is ready yelled Hayley.

7. Please let me come pleaded the little girl.

8. Matt has more apples than me grumbled Jean.

9. What a stormy night exclaimed Joel.

10.Come here Brodie Let’s hide behind this bush whispered Brendan.

11.Why is the baby crying so loudly inquired Brooke.

12.Get down commanded the sergeant.

13.Christopher said I may be late tonight.

14.Annie asked who owns this dear little puppy?

15.Do you often watch television asked Nathan.

16.In a loud voice the father demanded who used up the hot water?

17.James, who knew the way asked does the Genie live here?

18.Putting the bottle down on the table Olivia gasped I just can’t drink anymore!

19.Going up to her mother the small girl whispered please Mummy can I have that dress?

20.Simon heard peals of laughter, then some cries saying Surprise Surprise

21

Rewrite the following extract from a Newspaper article, inserting all necessary punctuation including: quotation mark, taking a new line when needed, capitals for proper nouns if left out, apostrophy of possession if needed and beginning a new paragraph where required.

Prize-winners magnetic charms draw a crowd (SMH 11/12/09)

Architecture should speak of its time and place, but yearn for timelessness says Frank Gegry, the Pritzer Prize-winning architect based in los angeles. I think my best skill as an architect is the achievement of hand-to-eye co-ordination Gehry once said. I am able to transfer a sketch into a model, into the building. Like the australian architect harry seidler, gehry studied at the harvard graduate school of design, yet their paths – in aesthetics or business – seldom crossed. Architecture is not an inspirational business, it’s a rational procedure to do sensible and hopefully beautiful things; that’s all seidler once remarked. Procuring Gehrys services, even for projects that are unprepossessing in scale, is seen as a badge of honour.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

22

First, Second and Third Person

All forms of writing can be described as being written in the first, second or third person. This refers to the ‘voice’ of a piece of writing. A person is either:

Doing the speaking (First person) Being spoken to (Second person) Being spoken about (Third person)

First Person (Doing the speaking)Texts written in the first person use the personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’. ‘I’ writing is personal. Also ‘we’ is often used collectively as well. First person writing is very immediate but can be more difficult than 3rd person writing as sometimes the writer can overdo direct speech.Examples:I attend Mass every Sunday. I go with my family and we always sit in the same pew.

Second Person (Being spoken to)Texts written in the second person use the personal pronoun ‘you’. This is both singular and plural. In second person writing the writer will talk directly to the reader using ‘you’ language. The second person is used extensively in advertising and also to provide information. It is very rarely used in narratives.Examples:You are going to regret your behaviour tonight. You have disgraced yourselves. You will be delighted with this product.

Third Person (Being spoken about)Third person writing uses the personal pronouns: ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’ and ‘they’. The 3rd person is the most used. Reports are always in the 3rd person. Most narratives are written using the 3rd person. It is easier to use. The writer tells or recounts what happened but the writer is not part of the action.Examples:He decided to spoil his wife and book a holiday to the Gold Coast, where they could relax. John and Anne walked slowly into the house. They were feeling scared but also excited.

Point of ViewIn a third person narrative the narrator may be omniscient (all seeing) and relate the entire story leaving the reader to make sense of what is happening. Alternatively the author may comment ot interpret as the story progresses. At times writers move the narrative voice from one character to another, so there are a number of points of view.Narratives can be told in the first person from the point of view of one of the characters involved in the action, making it become more intimate. Skilful writers help readers identify with the protagonist and follow his or her expeiences with interest.

23

Activities1. Write a newspaper report (2 paragraphs), using the first person, of a description of a house

fire you covered as part of your job as a reporter.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Write a newspaper report (2 paragraphs), using the third person, on a topic of your choice. (suggestions – sporting contest, visit of famous person, performance, motor accident)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Write a brief advertisement, using the second person, to try and sell a product of your choice.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

24

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Verbs - VoiceActive Voice

An active verb (active voice) is one where the subject of the verb is performing the action of the verb. Often it occurs when the arrangement of the sentence is:

SubjectThe dog

Verbcaught

Objectthe ball.

Ask who or what caught? – The dog caught. Therefore ‘The dog’ is the subject. The verb is ‘caught’. What does ‘The dog’ catch? – ‘The dog’ catches ‘the ball’. So ‘the ball’ is the object. Therefore the sentence is written in the active voice.

SubjectKate

Verbwashed

Objectthe window.

Ask who or what washed? – Kate washed. Therefore ‘Kate’ is the subject. The verb is ‘washed’. What does ‘Kate’ wash? – ‘Kate’ washed ‘the window’. So ‘the window’ is the object.Therefore the sentence is written in the active voice.Most sentences in English are active.

Passive Voice

A passive verb is one where the subject of the verb is NOT performing the action of the verb. Rather, it is being acted upon; someone, or something else is performing the action of the verb. Often it occurs when the order of the arrangement seems reversed, but we still have: subject – verb – object. (Sometimes, we want to put the emphasis on the object of the action)Note the use of an auxiliary verb when the passive voice is used. You can often recognise the passive by the structure is/are, was/were, will be + (past participle) + by.

SubjectThe ball

Verbwas caught

Objectby the dog.

In this example ‘The ball’ is the subject BUT it is not performing the action. The dog, which is the object, performed the action. Therefore the sentence is written in the passive voice.

SubjectThe windows

Verbwere washed

Objectby Kate.

In this example ‘The windows’ is the subject BUT it is not performing the action. Kate, which is the object, performed the action. Therefore the sentence is written in the passive voice.

25

Note: The active voice is more common in writing because it is simple and direct. Often in order to create a mood: excitement, urgency, danger, passion etc, writers use active voice verbs in preference to passive voice verbs.

ActivitiesCircle/bold the subject and underline the verb in the sentences.

1. William Shakespeare wrote the play.

2. The chef cooked the fish on the barbecue.

3. The parents’ association reminded the state government to spend more money on education.

Rewrite the sentences above in the passive voice. The beginning of each sentence is done for you.

1. The play _____________________________________________________________________

2. The fish _____________________________________________________________________

3. The state government ___________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

Underline the sentences that are in the passive voice.

1. New economic priorities were announced by the government.2. The government announced new economic priorities.3. The border is patrolled by guards.4. Guards patrol the boarder.5. Trespassers will be prosecuted.6. The winners will be announced on Friday.7. The principal will announce the winners on Friday.8. Acid was added to the liquid.

These sentences are in the passive voice. Rewrite them in the active voice.

1. He was seen immediately by the doctor. ____________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

2. The acid was added to the beaker by the anxious students. ______________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

3. The rubbish is collected by the council twice a week. __________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

4. A line of trees was planted by the students to form a windbreak. _________________________

26

___________________________________________________________________________________

Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses, Brackets

The Hyphen - The hyphen (-) marks the division between syllables when a word is broken between lines.

The hyphen is placed on the upper line and ONLY between syllables.Example:The children were fascinated by the crea-ture gazing at them over the fence.

You must never split words of only one syllable. Also, when dividing words, it is desirable to leave at least three letters on each line, ensuring that the syllable(s) on the second line begins with a consonant. (With the use of word processors, which automatically take whole words to the next line, this use of the hyphen has become less common.)

The hyphen separates two or more words in many compound words. These, as you can see, have meanings different from the original words.

Examples:merry-go-rounddo-or-die-effortmother-in-law

forty-fourone-quarterseven-tenths

vice-presidentclear-cut two-storey

oil-based anti-war pre-historic

Sometimes a hyphen is used to avoid confusion, when the addition of a prefix brings together two vowels that should be pronounced individually.

Examples:co-operateco-ordinate

re-employre-erupt

re-explanationco-op

The Dash – The dash ( – ) is not the same as a hyphen, it is a longer mark. It replaces the comma when

a stronger, more emphatic pause is required. A dash is a very distinct break in a sentence. It should be used sparingly in most forms of writing.

Example: They were – and still are – the best vocal group.

It replaces the colon for a less formal approach when introducing a list of specifics.Example: Gossip is the end result of thoughtless comment – a snide remark, a repeated rumour, an unanswered question.

It is used when an intrusive sentence is inserted into an existing sentence, both completely independent of each other. This is often an aside. The dashes clearly mark the aside which is contained within. They act like parentheses.

Example: The guilty man would not admit his crime–which of us would? –and hopefully relied on a sympathetic jury.

27

Note: When using a computer word processor, to insert a dash, place a space before and after a hyphen. The program will automatically extend the hyphen into a dash.

28

Parentheses ( )

Parentheses enclose words that give additional explanation or information. They should be used sparingly in most forms of writing.

A word, phrase, clause or sentence may be inserted or added to an existing sentence. Often these are asides that are added as an afterthought to enhance a statement. When inserted or added, it may be enclosed within parentheses.

Examples:The bride (not the actual bride, but a model hired for the occasion) looked stunning in the dress.Jane Smith (not her real name) is fighting for justice.

Numbers or letters can be enclosed within parentheses to separate them from the text when presenting items in a list.

Example: She has two aspirations: (1) to achieve executive status, and (2) to be voted businesswoman of the year.

In reports and instructions reference information is often given in parentheses.Example: The instructions for operating the equipment are important (see page 87 of the manual).

In scripts, parentheses are used to indicate stage directions.Example:Christine: Sorry I’m late Miss Allan. (Looking down at the ground)Miss Allan: Sorry is not good enough! This is the third time this week! (Moves towards Christine)

Brackets [ ]Brackets are square shapes and are sometimes called ‘square brackets’. They should be used sparingly but can be used in the following situations:

Text inserted by someone else other than the writer.Example: Maria Santos said that she [Santos] was responsible for the mistake.

To note that a mistake was made in the original version of the statement. [sic]Example: He wrote that he stayed in Sidney [sic] for a while.

To enclose information that is separate from the body of the text.Examples: [Continued next page] [turn to page 62]State Rail states that the Newcastle service is an efficient service [my italics], but is it?

To enclose an explanation within a quotation.Example: “Poverty will not exist in this country if we are elected. Poverty [this was the key issue of the election] must be eliminated,” he told us repeatedly.

When parentheses occur within parentheses.Example: The Prime Minister (on his fact finding mission to rural New South Wales [the New England region] and Newcastle) found no areas that had not been devastated by the drought.

29

ActivitiesRewrite these sentences using hyphens where you think they are needed.

1. Russell Crowe is a well known actor.

________________________________________________2. This is my ex husband.

________________________________________________3. Please do not use a non native plant in the garden.

________________________________________________4. I will be turning twenty seven on Thursday.

________________________________________________5. A self motivated student will succeed when others will not.

________________________________________________

Rewrite this sentence using a dash where you think it would emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment.

1. To some of you, my proposals may seem radical even revolutionary.

________________________________________________________________________________________________

Rewrite this sentence using parentheses where you think words that give additional explanation or information are.

1. Before arriving at the station, the old train someone said it was a relic of frontier days caught fire.

________________________________________________________________________________________________

Rewrite this sentence using brackets where you think they may make things clearer.

1. Bob Hawke (he was the prime minister of Australia 1983 to 1991) used to be the president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

30

________________________________________________________________________________________________

Symbolism

A symbol is something that represents something else, either by association or by resemblance. Language itself is a system of spoken or written symbols that we use to communicate. For example, the four letters that form the word “desk” represent the sound and the object.

Some types of symbolism include:

Religious symbolism eg. The cross in Christianity; the Star of David in Judaism

QuickTime™ and a decompressorare needed to see this picture.

Political symbolism eg. The Australian Flag; the Swastika

Colour symbolism eg. Traditionally green symbolises envy, but it has also come to symbolise anything which is environmentally friendly

Architectural symbolism eg. The inside of traditional churches are built in the shape of a cross; the roof of the Sydney Opera House resembles the sails of boats on the harbour

Advertising symbolism eg. Actors wearing white lab coats discussing the merits of a product symbolises that the product has been researched and has the support of the scientific and/or medical professions

Symbolism in literature In literature, symbolism is used to provide meaning to the writing beyond what is actually being described. An example might be the occurrence of a storm at a critical point, when there is conflict or high emotions. The storm might symbolize these. Similarly a transition from day to night, or spring to winter, could symbolize a move from goodness to evil, or hope to despair. A river in a scene could represent the flow of life, from birth to death. Flowers can symbolize youth or beauty. In the novel Animal Farm, the entire story is a symbol for the evils of communism, with the main animal characters representing key figures in the Russian revolution. The novel can be read entirely as a children's story, but when you come to realize what the various elements and characters in the story symbolize, the novel takes on a whole new meaning. That's why this particular work has become such a classic. This kind of story is called an allegory. In The Lord of the Flies, Ralph with his conch shell represents order and democracy, while Jack symbolizes savagery and anarchy. The island symbolizes the world in which we live, and the actions of the characters symbolise the way different people conduct their lives. The beast represents the darker side of human nature.

31

Activity

Match the object (symbol) to what it symbolises.SYMBOL SYMBOLISM

Axe death/mourning/evilCupid’s arrow bird of the devil/darkness/death/terrorAss lifeBat nourishment/hospitalityBread strength/enclosureCandle joy/celebrationCastle evil/supernatural/chaosCircle stupidityDance truthDoor new lifeDragon light/illumination/spirit of truthEgg hell/purification/cleansingFish royalty/justice/imperial powerFire death/sacrificeFive sudden illuminationKey kingly power and mightKnife transition/change/metamorphosisLightening Christ/”fisher of men”Lion perfectionPearl earthPen loveRainbow power of opening and closingRose envyRing wholenessSerpent perfectionSun eternityTree temptation/devilTsunami love/angerUnicorn centre of existence/glory & splendourBlack chaos/destructionBlue Purity & strengthBrown purity/friendshipGreen battle and workPurple life/knowledgeRed bridge between heaven and earthWhite cowardice

32

Yellow learning and knowledge

InterjectionsAn interjection is a short exclamation expressing some emotion - excitement, surprise, fearExamples: Oh! Is that the time? Hooray! Our team won the match. Aha! Now I understand.Phew! I’m glad that’s over.Interjections may also occur within a sentence and be punctuated with a comma or a dash: Example: She has reached that - you know - awkward age.

Interjections are often used in speech. However, they are rarely used in formal writing.Some examples and their meanings:

Ah (Interjection, expressing pleasure, pain, etc.) H'm (Interjection, expressing doubt, hesitation, pleasure, etc.) Hum (Interjection, expressing again doubt, hesitation, uncertainty, etc.) Oh (Interjection, expressing surprise, pain, etc.)

(There are, of course, many more interjections)

These examples may help you understand how ‘Interjections’ work.

(Cough! Cough! Cough!)

When Reginald was home with flu, uh-huh-huh,The doctor knew just what to do-hoo.He cured the infectionWith one small injectionWhile Reginald uttered some interjections..

Hey! That smarts!Ouch! That hurts!Yow! That's not fair givin' a guy a shot down there!

Interjections (Hey!) show excitement (Yow!) or emotion (Ouch!).They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

Though Geraldine played hard to get, uh-huh-huhGeraldo knew he'd woo her ye-hetHe showed his affectionDespite her objectionsAnd Geraldine hollered some interjections...

Well! You've got some nerve!Oh! I've never been so insulted in all my life!Hey! You're kinda cute!

Interjections (Well!) show excitement (Oh!) or emotion (Hey!).They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

So when you're happy (Hurray!) or sad (Aw!)Or frightened (Eeeeeek!) or mad (Rats!)Or excited (Wow!) or glad (Hey!)An interjection starts a sentence right.

The game was tied at seven all, uh-huh-huh,When Franklin found he had the ba-hall.He made a connectionIn the other direction,And the crowd starting shouting out interjections...

Aw! You threw the wrong way!Darn! You just lost the game!Hurray! I'm for the other team!

Interjections (Aw!) show excitement (Darn!) or emotion (Hurray!).They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

So when you're happy (Hurray!) or sad (Aw!)Or frightened (Eeeeeek!) or mad (Rats!)Or excited (Wow!) or glad (Hey!)An interjection starts a sentence right.

Interjections (Hey!) show excitement (Hey!) or emotion (Hey!).They're generally set apart from a sentence by an exclamation point,Or by a comma when the feeling's not as strong.

Interjections show excitement or emotion,Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah... YEA!

Darn! That's the end!

ActivitiesWrite suitable interjections in the sentences given below. Remember to use the sign too.

1. _________ How come you are here?2. _________ The lady is no more.

3. _________ Everybody is sleeping.4. _________ I am so scared.

33

5. _________ I stood first.6. _________ Exclaimed the teacher.

7. _________ I’ve broken my ankle.8. _________ No more grammar sheet.

34

Parts of Speech ReviewNounsNouns are ‘naming words’. Often we say a noun is the name of a person, place or thing.

Another way of defining a noun is to say they are words that name:People – Places – Qualities – Objects - Things

There are four types of nouns: 1.Common 2.Proper 3.Collective 4.Abstract

1. Common nounsCommon nouns are words for things, places or objects. Example 1: Daniel is a boy who likes sport.You can see the words ‘boy’ and ‘sport’ are common nouns. They are non-specific words.

2. Proper NounsThere are many different Proper Nouns. They begin with a capital letter.Names of people – John BrownPeople’s titles – Doctor BrownFamily names - Uncle JohnTowns – CoomaCities - London

States or Counties or Provinces – Victoria, Kent, Countries – FranceMountains – Mount Everest Rivers – Murray River

3. Collective NounsA collective noun is the name given to a number of persons, animals or things considered as a group or one entity. The persons, animals or things are similar or have something in common.Examples of Collective NounPeople - A team of footballers, A crowd of spectators, A band of musiciansAnimals - A flock of sheep, A herd of cattle, A litter of puppies, A flock of birdsMiscellaneous - A bunch of grapes, A bouquet of flowers, A chain of mountains

4. Abstract Nouns Abstract nouns are the names given to ideas, feelings or qualities. They are things we cannot touch, hear, taste, smell or see. However, we can experience them – we can feel them in our hearts, or understand them in our minds. Abstract nouns name a quality, condition, action, feeling or a state of being.ExampleI have an idea. I am in love. They have a fear of the dark. Her hunger drove her mad.

VerbsA verb is the doing word in a sentence. Verbs require somebody or something to do an action. We can describe verbs as action or doing words. Most verbs describe physical or mental actions. As well as an action, verbs can also express a state of being, or ownership within a sentence. Remember all sentences must have at least one verb!

Action VerbsSimple action verbs are words like:walk talk write laugh speak catchExamples:

35

He ran down the street. I comb my hair. I drive a car. Come here!

State of being verbsVerbs also tell us about a state of being. They are words like:is are am was were be been being

Examples:He is sick today.I am a girl.

They are my friends.John was late for class.

Donna and Anne were late for class.

Ownership VerbsVerbs can also indicate ownership or show possession. They are words like: have, had, hasEg: I have brown hair.

AdjectivesAn adjective is a word that describes. Often adjectives are called describing words.Adjectives are words that give us more information about nouns or pronouns. We say an adjective qualifies or modifies the word it describes. It can tell us ‘what kind’, ‘what colour’, or ‘how many’.Hint – Firstly find the nouns in a sentence, and then look for other words that give you more information about them. Those words are adjectives.

‘What kind’ AdjectivesExample: It was a cloudy day.In this sentence, the word ‘cloudy’ gives us more information about the noun ‘day’. It describes the noun. It tells us what kind of day. Therefore, cloudy is an adjective.

‘What colour’ AdjectivesExample: I am wearing a red shirt.In this sentence, the word ‘red’ gives us more information about the noun ‘shirt’. It describes the noun. It tells us what colour the shirt is. Therefore, red is an adjective.

‘How many’ AdjectivesExample: There are three eggs in the nest.In this sentence, the word ‘three’ gives us more information about the noun ‘eggs’. It describes the noun. It tells us how many eggs are in the nest. Therefore, three is an adjective.

AdverbsAn adverb gives us more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. An adverb can tell us: ‘how’ something happened or ‘when’ something happened or ‘where’ something happened

1. How adverbsExample:Gregory ran quickly.Firstly find the verb. In this sentence it is ‘ran’. Then ask ‘ran’ how, when or where? Gregory ran ‘quickly’ so quickly is the adverb in this sentence.

36

How adverbs are words like: quickly, happily, easily, softly, slowly. Notice they often end with the letters ‘ly’.

2. When adverbsExample:We are coming now.Again find the verb. In this sentence it is ‘are coming’. Then ask ‘are coming’, how, when or where? We are coming ‘now’ so now is the adverb in this sentence.When adverbs are words like: now, then, tomorrow, soon, always.

3. Where adverbsExample:I have been waiting here for half an hour.Again find the verb. In this sentence it is ‘have been waiting’. Then ask ‘have been waiting’, how, when or where? I have been waiting ‘here’ so here is the adverb in this sentence.

Where adverbs are words like: here, there, upstairs, inside, everywhere.Note: Sometimes adverbs add meaning to an adjective or another adverb.Examples: The music was too loud. She is very happy with the result.

ConjunctionsConjunctions are words that join words, phrases and clauses. They are commonly known as ‘joining words’.There are two main types of conjunctions:

1. Conjunctions that join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value.2. Conjunctions that join main clauses to dependent clauses.

1. Conjunctions that join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value. and both but for therefore or either–or neither-norExample: He received books and tools for his birthday. I’ll go by plane or by ship.

2. Conjunctions that join main clauses to dependent clauses. Conjunctions of time

after before now since until till when whenever whileExample: Make hay while the sun shines.

Conjunctions of placewhere wherein wherever whenceExample: That is the school where my mother went.

Conjunctions of cause or reasonas because lest since whereas whyExample: The baby cried because she was hungry.

Conjunctions of concessionalthough even if however though whether whileExample: Although it was raining, we played outside.

Conjunctions of conditionas except if unlessExamples: Julian will not make his bed unless he is forced.

so as thatExample: The politician speaks as if she knows all about the problem.

Conjunctions of purposeIn order that Lest So that thatExample: I sent him a letter so that he would know about the delay.

37

Conjunctions of consequenceas so so that that

38

Example: He called loudly so that the searchers would find him.

PrepositionsA preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relationship to some other word in the sentence. It introduces a phrase. Put another way a preposition begins an adverbial phrase or an adjectival phrase (indicating: time, place, manner, causality).Using the common noun ‘house’ as an example: in the house, near the house, under the houseThe words ‘in’, ‘near’, ‘under’ and ‘against’ are all prepositions showing a relationship of something with the house.Here are some example sentences showing prepositions beginning phrases:The children splashed in the puddles . Heavy rain beat against the window .

PronounsA pronoun is a word we use in place of a noun. A pronoun has the same function as a noun and can reduce unnecessary repetition.

Pronouns can be divided into three main groups:Personal Pronouns, Possessive Pronouns and Relative Pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns: Personal pronouns ‘stand in for’ nouns referring to persons. Personal pronouns can be used as the subject of the verb. A personal pronoun can be used to replace a noun if the person or persons it refers to has/have been identified either in the same sentence or paragraph. Personal pronouns include:

Iyou

heshe

itwe

theyme

himher

themus

Examples: My name is Janene. I have brown hair. Tony is a good swimmer. He won three races.Reflexive Pronouns: Reflexive pronouns are a particular type of personal pronoun. They include:myselfyourself

himselfherself

itselfourselves

yourselvesthemselves

Examples: I am going to treat myself to an ice-cream.

2. Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession. They include:mine yours his hers its ours theirsExamples: Greg’s hair is longer than mine. The new sports car is his. That fantastic blue bike is hers.Note of caution!Sometimes the following words are called ‘possessive pronouns’ however they are really ‘possessive adjectives’ as they modify nouns.my – my book

your- your car

his – his hat

her – her glasses

its – its button

our – our house

their – their dog

Examples: It is my hat.

3. Relative Pronouns Relative pronouns refer to a noun or pronoun used in another place in the same sentence, or sometimes, in a different sentence. They introduce clauses and relate them back to the noun to which they apply. They include: who, whose, whom, (relates to people) and which, that, whose (relates to animals, objects, things and abstract ideas). Examples:There is the man who owns the black dog.There is the man whose dog is black.There is the man to whom a black dog was given.There is the black dog which belongs to the man.

There is the black dog that is owned by the man.

Note:

39

When referring to people, always use ‘who’ or ‘whom’. Either pronoun ‘which’ or ‘that’ may be used. They are interchangeable.

40

Articles and DemonstrativesDefinite Article – ‘the’The definite article is expressed by using the word ‘the’. It comes before a noun which has already been referred to, or which is about to be identified in some way. We use ‘the’ when we are speaking of a particular one (singular) or ones (plural).Examples: Here is the book I was telling you about.Indefinite Article – ‘a’ and ‘an’The indefinite article is expressed by using the words ‘a’ or ‘an’. These words refer to someone or something without specifically identifying the person or thing. Examples: There is a girl eating an apple.Note: We usually use ‘a’ before words beginning with a consonant sound: a book a house a man a cup Also use ‘a’ before words beginning with the letter ‘u’, when it sounded with a long vowel as in:a union a unit a unicorn a university Use ‘an’ before words beginning with a vowel sound – ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’ as in: an apple an egg an idea an orangeUse ‘an’ before words beginning with the letter ‘u’ if they have a short ‘u’ vowel sound as in:an uncle an understanding an unusual an upwardUse ‘an’ before words beginning with a silent ‘h’ as in: an hour an honest an heir When nouns occur in an unspecified plural number, we do not use an article.

DemonstrativesDemonstratives are the words ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’. They are used to point out specific people or things, and can act as either adjectives or pronouns. Examples: Those apples are very sweet. (Adjective) Is this bag yours? (Adjective) That is my place. (Pronoun) These are the flowers I planted. (Pronoun)

ActivityWhy are horseshoes considered to be lucky? The ancient Romans believed that nailing a horseshoe to their front doors would cure and ward off bad luck and disease. During medieval times, horseshoes were thought to make each family immune from evil spells, and warn off the devil and witches. A horseshoe should be set with its points upwards, otherwise the good luck will run out!Find the following ‘Parts of Speech’ in this text. Find at least one of each.

Common Noun: __________________________________________________________________________________

Proper Noun: ____________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract Noun: ___________________________________________________________________________________

Collective Noun: _________________________________________________________________________________

Simple action verb: ________________________________________________________________________________

Verb – State of Being Verb: _________________________________________________________________________

Adjective: _______________________________________________________________________________________

Adverb: _________________________________________________________________________________________

Conjunction: _____________________________________________________________________________________

Preposition: ______________________________________________________________________________________

Pronoun: ________________________________________________________________________________________

Definite Article: ________________________ Indefinite Article: _____________________________________

41

Demonstrative: ___________________________________________________________________________________

42

Adjectives – Comparatives and Superlatives

You have already learnt that adjectives are describing words. This worksheet shows you how you can compare people, animals and things with each other.

Most adjectives can be used in three forms. These are called degrees of comparison.

1. The positive degree

This is the basic meaning of the adjective.Example:

Tom is a tall boy.

2. The comparative degree

This is what we use when we compare two things, one with the other. This is usually formed by adding the letters ‘er’ to the end of the word.Example:

Tom is taller than Susan.

Sometimes we use the word ‘more’ in front of the adjective to form the comparative degree. This is used when the word has three or more syllables. (Sometimes just two syllables)Example:

Tom is more competent than Allan.

Some adjectives are unusual and their comparative degrees are said to be formed irregularly. If the word ‘good’ is the adjective we use the word ‘better’ as the comparative.Example:

Tom read a better book yesterday.

3. The superlative degree

This is what we use when we compare three or more things. This is usually formed by adding the letters ‘est’ to the end of the word.Example:

Tom is the tallest student in the class.

Sometimes we use the word ‘most’ in front of the adjective to form superlative degree. This is used when the word has three or more syllables. (Sometimes just two syllables)Example:

Tom is the most competent student in the class.

Some adjectives are unusual and their superlative degrees are said to be formed irregularly. If the word ‘good’ is the adjective we use the word ‘best’ as the superlative.Example:

Tom read the best book he has ever read.

43

More Examples For words of one syllable the comparative degree is usually formed by adding the letters ‘er’,

and the superlative degree is formed by adding the letters ‘est’.Base word (Positive)bravedeepfastgreatlongslowsmallstrangestrongtough

Comparative Degreebraverdeeperfastergreaterlongerslowersmallerstrangerstrongertougher

Superlative Degreebravestdeepestfastestgreatestlongestslowestsmalleststrangeststrongesttoughest

Some adjectives of two syllables do use the addition of ‘er’ and ‘est’ to form the comparative and superlative degrees. Make sure you note that if the adjective ends in ‘y’ preceded by a consonant the ‘y’ changes to ‘i’.

Base word (Positive)easyheavylovelylonelysilly

Comparative Degreeeasierheavierlovelierloneliersillier

Superlative Degreeeasiestheaviestloveliestloneliestsilliest

Other adjectives, with two or more syllables, we put the word ‘more’ before the adjective for the comparative degree, and the word ‘most’ before the adjective for the superlative degree.

Base word (Positive)activebeautifulcompetentdeceitfuleagerhandsomeunusual

Comparative Degreemore activemore beautiful more competentmore deceitfulmore eagermore handsomemore unusual

Superlative Degreemost activemost beautifulmost competentmost deceitfulmost eagermost handsomemost unusual

Some adjectives are unusual and form their comparative and superlative degrees irregularly.Base word (Positive)badfargoodlittlemanymuch

Comparative Degreeworsefartherbetterlessmoremore

Superlative Degreeworstfarthestbestleastmostmost

NOTE: Some adjectives cannot be compared - they describe a state that cannot be changed. Some examples are: chief – most important, dead – without life, empty – containing nothing, equal – exactly similar in quantity, full – unable to contain anymore, right – correct, unique – only one of its kind.

44

Activities

Choose the correct degree of the adjectives in brackets by crossing out the incorrect word.1. This is the (hotter, hottest) day we’ve had this week.2. This pig is (fat, fatter) than that one.3. Bill is (most honest, more honest) than Josh.4. This table is (heavier, heaviest) than that one.5. This is the (older, oldest) school in the city.6. His writing is (worse, badder) than mine.7. I think Sally is (pretty, prettier, prettiest) than Ingrid.8. This is the (best, goodest) room in the school.9. I think Australia is the (more beautiful, most beautiful) country in the world.10. Mike is the (worse, worst) writer in the class.11. Of the six children in our family, Maria is the (elder, eldest).12. This chair is (more comfortable, most comfortable) than that one.13. This is the (sweetest, sweeter) orange I’ve ever tasted.14. Abdul has (less, least) lollies than Susan.15. Ours is the (noisier, noisiest) class in the school.16. I think Lee is (luckiest, luckier) than I am.

Choose the most appropriate comparative or superlative form of the adjective to complete these sentences. Be careful that the meaning is clear!

1. I am pleased my breaststroke is getter ____________________ .

2. My cold was bad yesterday and, unfortunately, it is ____________________ today.

3. Our class raised the ____________________ money in today’s fundraiser; we felt terrible.

4. The teacher said I’m too loud and should make ____________________ noise in class.

5. Cathy achieved 100% - her ____________________ ever maths score.

6. She gave the ____________________ fascinating talk I’ve ever heard.

7. Hanako must have ____________________ books in her bag than I have; her bag weighs a tonne.

8. The ____________________ thing about listening to the radio is that the tunes stay in my head and I can’t get rid of them!

Challenge: Find out and explain the difference in meaning between these two tricky comparatives.

1. elder and older ______________________________________2. less and fewer _______________________________________

45

Apostrophe - PossessionThe use of an apostrophe - ’ – in nouns indicates ownership or possession. It shows that something belongs to a person or a thing.

1. In the singular (one of something) the apostrophe of possession is shown by ’s:Example:

The boy’s bike fell over.In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the bike?’ our answer is ‘the boy’. That is only one boy. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘boy’ and before the ‘s’. – boy’s

2. In the plural (more than one of something) and when the plural ends in s, es, or ies, the apostrophe is shown by s’:

Example:All the girls’ heads nodded in agreement.

In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the heads?’ our answer is ‘all the girls’. That is more than one girl. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘girls’ as it was all their heads that were nodding. – girls’

3. In the plural (more than one of something) when the plural does not end in ‘s’. Plural words like children or collective nouns like crowd.

Examples:The children’s toys were wrapped up for Christmas.

In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the toys?’ our answer is ‘the children’. That is all the children. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘children’ as the toys belonged to them. – children’s

The crowd’s cheering could be heard.In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the cheering?’ our answer is ‘the crowd’. That is the entire crowd. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘crowd’ as the cheering belonged to them or was made by them. – crowd’s

Note: The apostrophe always comes after who owns something.

ActivitiesInsert the apostrophe of possession in the correct places in these sentences.The childs clothes were lost in the house move.Rosss money had disappeared from his account.The mens jackets were no longer in the cloakroom.We have to pass our principals house on the way to school.The childrens bikes were left outside all night.

46

Rewrite these sentences in two ways: first with a singular noun as owner and then with a plural noun as owner.Example: The boys tents were soaked from the flooding.Answer 1: The boy’s tents were soaked from the flooding. (singular – The tents owned by one boy.)Answer 2: The boys’ tents were soaked from the flooding. (plural – The tents owned by a group of boys.)

The teachers notes were kept in the staffroom.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

The girls lunch wrappers littered the playground.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

What happened to the neighbours pets?

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

The ships sails were hoisted.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

It is the students responsibility to wear the uniform correctly.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

Insert the apostrophe for possession where appropriate in this description of a famous mansion in California once owned by a super-wealthy man called Randolph Hearst.

You must drive the winding roads five kilometres before you first glimpse Hearsts Castle. The multimillionaires outdoor pool was once a favourite recreation for Hollywoods movie stars who were invited to summer parties. As a generous host, Hearst provided almost everything, thus keeping the guests luggage to a minimum.

Explain what is strange (unlikely) about this sentence. ‘The teams’ football was missing.’

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

47

PrefixesA Prefix is a word part placed before (pre) other words to change the meaning. Prefixes come from Old English, French, Greek and Latin.

Negative PrefixesMany prefixes are sometimes called ‘Negative Prefixes’. This is because they change the meaning of a word to its opposite (antonym). For example, the Latin ‘dis’ – meaning ‘not’ changes like to dislike (not like).Other negative prefixes include: anti, de, il, im, in, ir, mis, non, and un.Examplesantibioticanti-warderailderegister

disagreedishonestillegitimateilliterate

immortalimpatientindirectinedible

irregularirrelevantmisinformmisunderstand

non-fictionnon-eventunableunintelligent

Other PrefixesThere are many other prefixes that also change the meaning of the base word. Here are further examples of prefixes that have come into English from Latin and Greek.Some common Latin and Greek Prefixes

PrefixLatina-, ad-ambi-bene-bi-co-,com-ex-mis-Greekaer-anti-auto-micro-peri-tele-

MeaningLatintoboth, twowelltwo, twicewithout of, formerlywrongGreekdenoting airagainstselfsmallaroundfar, distant

ExamplesLatinaside, addition, advanceambiguous, ambivalentbenefactor, benefit, beneficialbiennial, bicycle, bisectcooperate, combineexhaust, extract, expelmislead, mistakeGreekaeroplane, aerosolantiseptic, antidoteautomatic, automobilemicrocosm, microscopeperiscope, perimetertelephone, telescope

Some other common prefixes are:Prefixhypersupersubretripostpre

Meaningespecially, excessivelyabove, beyondless than, under, part ofagainthreeput off until laterbefore

Exampleshyperactivesupernaturalsubhumanrevisittripodpostponepre-arrange

Activities

48

Write the missing negative prefix.1. He plays football for fun, so he is a _______ -professional.2. She didn’t check the details before handing her letter to the newspaper. That is so

______professional.3. They had a huge _______agreement and now they’re not talking to each other.4. The president of our soccer club said it was _______-Australian not to support the bid for the

World Cup.5. I have an odd job yesterday; I had to ______frost the freezer.6. Freya didn’t enjoy reading the book because there were so many _______prints in it.7. The soldier stood shaking after he successfully _______fused the bomb.8. Our neighbour’s dog is very _______obedient. It rarely comes when it’s called.

Find four words for each prefix. Use a dictionary or thesaurus if needed.

1. non-____________________________________________2. de-____________________________________________3. dis-____________________________________________4. anti-____________________________________________5. mis-____________________________________________6. in-____________________________________________7. un-____________________________________________8. im-____________________________________________

Change the following words by adding a prefix meaning ‘not’._______substantial, _______sensitive, _______friendly, _______probable, _______represent_______emphasise, _______regulate, _______comfort, _______impressed, _______interested

Add an appropriate prefix to each keyword (in bold) to express the same meaning in one word.

1. vegetation that has grown again ____________________2. below standard ____________________3. an especially large structure____________________4. united again___________________5. extra big or successful star___________________6. too active_____________________

49

SuffixesSuffixes are word parts (letters) that are attached to the end of base words (or root words).

Suffixes usually don’t change the meaning of the word as much as prefixes do. Most often they indicate a change in the part of speech of a word. Example:The word “help” can be used as a noun or a verb. “Tom gave me some help with my assignment”. Here “help” is a noun.When I say, “Jacky is always a helpful student.” The word “helpful” is an adjective.

Changes in spelling are sometimes needed when adding a suffix.“Sudden”, add 'ly' to it and we have “suddenly”.“Imagine”, add the 'ing' and we have “imagining” (drop the ‘e’ before adding ‘ing’).“Spot”, add the 'ed', and we have “spotted”. (double the consonant before adding ‘ed’)“Fast”, add the 'est' and we make the word “fastest”. “Encourage”, add 'ing' to it and we have “encouraging”. (drop the ‘e’ before adding ‘ing’).“try”, add ‘es’ to it and we have “tries”. (change the ‘y’ to ‘I’ before adding ‘es’)

Sometimes we can form the antonym, not by adding a suffix, but by changing the suffix. Some examples are: “harmful”, “harmless”; “employer”, “employee”; “careful”, “careless”; “powerful”, “powerless”.

Suffixableibleacanainananceenceantentardartaryativeblecraftdomeereror ieretenetteenence

Meaningcapable of beingcapable of beingone whoone whoone connected withone connected withstate of beingstate of beingone whoone whohabitual meaninghabitualplace where a thing is kepttending tocapable of beingskillrank or conditionused to denote a person trade or profession:used to denote a person trade or professionlittlelittlelittlemade ofused in forming nounsafter the manner of

Examplemoveableediblemaniaccomedianchaplainpublicanrepentanceexistenceassistantstudentdrunkardbraggartgranarytalkativesolublehandicraftkingdommountaineerpaintersailorglazierpigletmaidencigarettegoldenpatience

Suffixesqueessfoldfulfyiciceicle, selion, tionise, izeishismivelentlesslinglymentnessory, toryousshipsionteentudetywardwise

y

Meaningafter the manner ofa female personmultiplied byfull ofto make, tobelonging or pertaining toforming abstract nounslittleindicating action –conditionto treat in a certain wayhaving the nature offormation of nounstending to full offree from, withoutlittlehaving the qualities of, repeatedforms a noun – result actionforms abstract nouns a place where, forabounding informing abstract nounsindicating action or conditionwith the addition of tena condition oftens, forming abstract nouns

used in indicating directionmanner or waystate of, can be added to words to make adjectives or abstract nounsExamplepicturesquecountessthreefoldusefulsimplifymetallicjusticeparticlecreationminimisechildishheroismactivefraudulentcarelessducklingmanly, monthlyemploymentdarknessfactorydangeroushardship

50

extensionsixteen

solitudeseventy

westwardclockwise

honesty

Activities

Add a suffix to make incomplete words into adjectives.

1. The story was wonder__________ .

2. That dog is so friend __________ , it would lick a burglar!

3. You need to be care__________ when lighting a campfire.

4. That website doesn’t tell you anything; it’s use_________ .

5. If Kevin says he’ll do it, then he will. He is depend__________ .

6. There are a lot of poison__________ creatures in Australia.

7. It is frightening on the boat during a storm; the seas were mountain__________ .

8. If the fire alarm goes off, walk to the front gate in an order________ fashion.

Make these words into nouns by adding a suffix. Use a dictionary or thesaurus if you wish. (You may need to change the last letter/s of the word)

1. determine ____________________

2. content ____________________

3. invisible ____________________

4. friend ____________________

5. happy ____________________

6. child ____________________

7. loyal ____________________

8. suggest ____________________

Change these nouns into adjectives by using suffixes.

1. hope _____________________

2. dread _____________________

3. respect _____________________

4. love _____________________

5. honour _____________________

6. picture _____________________

7. pain _____________________

8. marvel _____________________

Some suffixes are difficult to spell. Add the missing letter in each word.

1. complement__ry2. compuls__ry3. derogat__ry4. diet__ry5. disciplin__ry

6. element__ry7. introduct__ry8. mandat__ry9. obligat__ry10. revolution__ry

51

11. satisfact__ry12. solit__ry

52

Contractions

When we are speaking or writing, we often use contractions. Contractions are formed when we shorten two words into one. Using contractions is fine in day to day conversation. It is also correct to use them when using direct speech in our writing or in informal writing. However we should try to avoid using them in formal writing. To form a contraction we leave out one or more letters of the second word, and replace it/them with an apostrophe ( ’ ).

To form contractions of words using the word ‘have’. The contracted form is ( ’ve ).Examples:I have - I’vethey have – they’veyou have – you’vewe have – we’ve

might have – might’vewould have – would’vecould have – could’veshould have – should’ve

To form contractions of words using the word ‘will’. The contracted form is ( ’ll ).Examples:I will – I’llwe will – we’ll

he will – he’llshe will – she’ll

they will – they’llyou will – you’ll

To form contractions of words using the words ‘would’ and ‘had’. The contracted forms are ( ’d ).Examples:he had – he’dshe had – she’d

they had – they’dhe would – he’d

she would – she’dthey would – they’d

To form contractions of words using the word ‘are’. The contracted form is ( ’re ).Example:we are – we’re you are – you’re they are – they’re

To form contractions of words using the words ‘is’, ‘has’ and ‘us’. The contracted forms are ( ’s ).Example:it is – it’she is – he’s

she is – she’sit has – it’s

he has – he’sshe has – she’s

let us – let’swho is – who’s

To form contractions of words using the word ‘not’. The contracted form is ( n’t ).Examples:could not – couldn’t have not – haven’t did not – didn’t do not – don’t

Note: There are a few irregular contractions which do not follow the above rules. Examples:cannot – can’twill not – won’t

shall not – shan’tI am – I’m

53

Activities

Form contractions, where appropriate, in the following sentences.

1. I will be late for dinner. _________________________________________________________

2. You have worked very well. _____________________________________________________

3. I would do the same thing. ______________________________________________________

4. John will not stay out late. ______________________________________________________

5. The teacher said we cannot use calculators. _________________________________________

Form contractions from the following words.

he has ______________

we are ______________

let us _______________

they will ____________

we have ____________

he would ____________

it is ________________

they are _____________

has not _____________

is not _______________

had not _____________

would not ___________

do not ______________

did not _____________

are not ______________

have not ____________

Write the following contractions in full.

it’d ________________

we’ve ______________

he’s _______________

you’ve ______________

they’d ______________

who’ll ______________

they’ll ______________

I’ll _________________

we’re _______________

you’re ______________

she’d _______________

what’s ______________

Write an ‘informal’ email message to a friend about what you plan to do next weekend. Try and use some of the contractions above.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

54

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

The CommaThe comma is used to indicate a short pause in a sentence to help make the meaning clear. It helps to make your writing make sense.

1. Letters When you open and close personal letters. These are sometimes called the salutation and the complementary close.Examples:

Dear Tran, Your friend, John

2. The Date When you are writing the date, particularly in personal letters and hand written correspondence, a comma can be placed between the day of the month and the year. It can also be placed between the month and the year when the day is written first.Examples:

January 10th, 2006 10th January, 2006

3. Series of items A comma or commas should be used when separating three or more items.Example:

We saw seals, whales, sharks and dolphins at Sea World. Note: We do not need to use a comma before ‘and’ for the last item.

4. Separating Place Names A comma is used to separate place names such as:

A suburb from a city – Allan lives in St Kilda, Melbourne.A suburb from a state – Hillary lives in St Lucia, Queensland.A city from a state – I live in Sydney, New South Wales.A city from a country – Anna lives in Galway, Ireland.A state from a country – We enjoyed our visit to California, USA.

5. Clauses and Phrases Clauses and phrases give added information to the sentence. Sometimes a comma separates one part of a sentence from another to make the meaning clearer.

Often there is a natural pause.Example:

Before we have dinner, we must try to finish unpacking the boxes.

Insertion into the sentence to give added or incidental information.Example:

John, who owns the red bike, is coming to the party.My only brother, Doug, is very tall for his age.

55

To avoid confusion. Without the comma the meaning may change.Example: While Emma was washing, Neil was drying the dishes.6. Direct Speech (The actual words spoken)

We use commas in direct speech.Example 1:

“I am going home now,” said Dad.The words spoken by Dad were, “I am going home now,” – therefore they should be enclosed by quotation marks, and a comma is placed at the end of the actual words spoken, before adding said Dad.

Example 2:“I think I can do it,” said Dad, “but I will need some help.”

Note again the use of the comma at the end of the actual words spoken – after the word ‘it’. Note also the comma after the word ‘Dad’ as it separates who is talking from the next section of direct speech.

Example 3:David replied, “I am very well, thank you.”

In this example a comma is used to introduce direct speech.

7. Some other uses of the comma:

Use a comma after introductory or connecting words that can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Example:However , they were not late for the school bus.

Here are some words or phrases that can be used in this way:Yes No FurthermoreNevertheless

HoweverIn additionThereforeIn fact

Of courseLookNowWell

To mark off a person spoken to:Example:

“Ben, please come here.”

To separate adjectives and adverbs used together in a sentence:Examples:

Patricia was an intelligent, beautiful, blue-eyed, long-haired girl.She spoke clearly, concisely, effortlessly throughout the speech.

Used after a colon when specific items belonging to a group or theme are listed.Example:

Barbara was active in several sports: tennis, golf, squash, swimming and cycling.

56

ActivitiesPunctuate with commas to show the list of items in each sentence.

1. The hiker carefully checked her backpack for a water bottle jacket snack compass and map.2. The student dreamt about his holidays of sun swimming surfing sleep-ins and no homework.3. To make this stir-fry you need beef strips rice noodles mixed stir-fry vegetables roasted peanuts

and chilli jam.4. For the examination you will need writing paper pens and pencils a rubber a pencil sharpener a

compass and a calculator.

Punctuate with commas to separate non-essential information in these sentences.1. Smoking a dirty habit is prohibited in public buildings.2. The elderly man who was sitting down looked as if he had had a terrible fright.3. Sean Tan the author of The Arrival is a highly original artist.4. Brisbane the capital of Queensland is a vibrant and sophisticated city.

Punctuate the direct speech with commas.1. She called back to her friend “Thanks for playing today.”2. “Nicodemus come into my cave “ invited the hermit.3. “Can you cut up these onions “ Mum asked “and then fry them in a little butter?”

Insert commas where appropriate.1. I ate an apple a sandwich a cheese-stick and a pie for lunch.2. My brother Tom is older than me.3. The river is broad deep and fast flowing.4. We looked in the garden near the trees behind the shed and in the house but couldn’t find it.5. It is an old dilapidated broken-down vehicle.6. Our teacher Ms Mackenzie is not coming today.7. I missed the bus yesterday so I caught a train today.8. Ian is a bright happy carefree student.9. The locust a type of insect eats the foliage of trees.10. John chased the fox across the paddock over the channel into the den but he could not catch it.11. Jason had a bike a surfboard a skateboard and a tricycle.12. The novel Storm Boy was written by Colin Thele.13. I was going to play but I felt too ill.14. The workers loaded oats wheat barley rice and sorghum onto the ship.15. I saw our neighbour Mr Lim buy some eggs flour bacon milk and bread.16. Matthew who has just had his tenth birthday is showing me his present tonight.17. Mr Umble peered into a big murky weird bowl full of soft shimmering salty sea-green water.18. A small red jellyfish at the bottom of the bowl was moving here there and everywhere.19. “I don’t think I’ll go for a bike ride after all “ said Mandy.20. The teacher shouted “And make sure those assignments are on my desk in the morning.”21. I stopped in my tracks when I saw what was on the road in front of me but there was nothing for

it I had to pass it somehow.22. “You’re mistaken if you think I’ll let you stay up to watch that movie tonight “ said Mum.

57

23. “I would like one ham and cheese one tomato and one salad sandwich please “ requested Bob.24. Even though Tariq had asked his parents not to watch his performance they had secretly bought

tickets.25. Andrew Symonds who lives in Brisbane is a great cricketer.

Semicolon (;) The semicolon is a weaker pause than a full stop, but a stronger pause than a comma.

Example:1. He watched them as they ran up the hill; he took off his hat, and raced after them.

Note that the first word following a semicolon does not require a capital letter, as it is still part of the same sentence. You can see that the use of the semicolon indicated that the two parts of the sentence are related or connected.

A semicolon is generally used to separate parts of a sentence that make sense on their own. Examples:

1. The dog barked; the intruder quickly ran away.However, it is equally correct to write:

2. The dog barked. The intruder quickly ran away.In sentence 1, the semicolon indicates a stronger relationship than in sentence 2, where a full stop has been used.

Writers use the semicolon to create a different type of effect from that achieved by either a full stop or a comma.

Examples:1. It was beginning to rain, and soon it would be snowing.2. It was beginning to rain; soon it would be snowing.

Can you see the difference between the two types of punctuation marks? Use of the semicolon, as in the second example, produces a different perhaps a more dramatic effect.

Often a semicolon is used in a sequence of events. Example:

1. We finally arrived at midnight; there was no-one to meet us; we sat and watched the train disappear into the darkness.

A semicolon may be used where the second clause contrasts with the first part of the sentence.

Example:1. He thought the test was easy; everyone else thought it was very hard.

Colon (:) The colon may be used to introduce a list of items. (but not immediately after is or are)

Example:1. He made certain he had all his equipment: fins, mask, air-tank, weight belt, and wet suit.

Use of the colon indicates that what follows will be an explanation (or example) of what has been written. The first part of the sentence is a general statement; the second part is a specific explanation.

Examples:1. There are two different types of kindness: one is offered openly for all to see, the other

is anonymous. 2. Many sports cause injuries: netball, rugby, soccer, even horseback riding.

A colon can also be used to introduce quotations.

58

Examples: Famous writer Oscar Wilde once said: “Maturity is overrated.” A colon can be used before a subtitle.

Example: School Safety: Can Cameras Combat Crime?

Activities

Add colons where necessary.

1. The judge said “Order in the court!”

2. Shakespeare wrote “Parting is such sweet sorrow.”

3. Caleb is active in many sports soccer, tennis, volleyball and swimming.

4. Put the following on the shopping list eggs, milk, bread, butter and coffee.

Punctuate these sentences with semicolons.

1. He knew the game was up he could see them all waiting for him to come out.

2. The siren has sounded it’s time for lessons.

3. He stood outside the office for a long time someone told him to wait there.

4. I don’t like your tone of voice your attitude is offensive.

Punctuate these sentences using a colon or semicolon.

1. Here is the list of what I bought at the school canteen salad rolls, fruit and mineral water.

2. As my English teacher once said “Reading should be a pleasure.”

3. The coach appointed Bill as captain he is the best player.

4. Hamlet said “To be, or not to be.”

5. I was carrying too much maths books, sports gear, lunch and folders.

Correct each run-on sentence by inserting a semicolon where necessary to emphasise the connection between ideas.

1. It’s an exciting lesson plan I think it will work and the students will enjoy the fun role-plays at the end.

2. The coach chose a new player for the final he had just kicked 10 goals in the reserves and had been voted best player on the ground.

3. Biodegradable liquid soap is available at the camp site it is suitable as shampoo as well.

59

4. It was a day of extreme temperatures everyone was feeling sluggish.

5. I didn’t mean to break the glass it just slipped right out of my hand!Rewrite these sentences using correct punctuation. Add commas, colons or semicolons.

1. Madeleine is known for her fine qualities compassion friendliness humour modesty and loyalty.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Lleyton Hewitt hired a new tennis coach he thought he needed fresh direction.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. You may wish to bring the following optional items on the hike a camera binoculars insect repellent and sunglasses.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The Terminator was an invincible warrior he was like a one-soldier army.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. He could not scream he was paralysed by fear no-one could save him.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The installation of closed circuit televisions will make teachers and students more self-conscious school will no longer be a comfortable place.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

This text is quite complex. It requires a colon and 3 semicolons to separate complex items in a list.7. In the event of a fire all students must leave the building immediately not attempt to take any

materials with them assemble in the main quadrangle and assemble with their roll class.

60

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. One consequence is inevitable people will get hurt.

_________________________________________________Language Devices Review

A writer may choose to express ideas in a simple and direct fashion. This is using language in its literal sense. However, language devices (figurative language) employ techniques which enable the reader to visualise the richness of the writer’s thoughts. When used in writing devices like: similes, metaphors, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, personification and symbolism intensify the visual images created by the writer. (See lesson on ‘Symbolism’ earlier in this book)

SimilesA simile is where we make an imaginative comparison between two completely different or unlike things. To form a simile we use the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ to compare two things. Some similes have become part of our everyday speech. Sometimes they become over-used, and are now what we call a clichés.Examples of similes that have become cliché

61

as black as night, as cool ascucumber , as good as gold, like a bat out of hell, like a cat on a hot tin rooflike a house on fire, like water off a duck’s back

MetaphorA metaphor is also a comparison. However, it is a stronger comparison than a simile. Instead of saying one thing is “like” something else, it actually becomes that object. A characteristic that it is not literally true is assigned to a person or an object. It is more direct and powerful.Examples: The boys, the wolves of the playground, sat in a circle gulping their cake.

A metaphor vividly conveys an emphatic comparison, which powerfully denotes the writer’s concept.The teacher’s red pen was a sword, slashing words and leaving a trail of blood across my assignment.The massive, heavily laden ship ploughed through the turbulent waters.The mischievous boy was a little monkey when no one was watching.Gregory is a raging bull when he plays football.

PersonificationPersonification is a figure of speech in which animals, inanimate objects or abstract ideas are referred to as if they were persons (with human qualities). The use of personification enlivens the concept the writer presents to us.Examples:Truth is a valued companion; she is always by your side and gives you strength.The tree’s old bark slipped from her trunk as she discarded a gown no longer fashionable.The sun strolled casually through the heavens.

How Language ‘Sounds’When we ‘hear’ language we notice the sound it makes. Sounds are generated by the type of words used and the letters that are used. There are three figures of speech that are concerned with sound. They are: Alliteration, Assonance and Onomatopoeia.

AlliterationAlliteration is used when we write a series of words that begin with the same letter or the same sound. Most often it is the repeating of consonant sounds in word strings. They begin with the same letter or same sound.Tongue twisters are good examples of alliteration.

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers She sells sea shells on the seashore

62

Patience persistence perseverance paths the path to permanent prosperityAlliteration can be used in poetry, in slogans and jingles, in advertising to gain attention, to reinforce a thought or a feeling, to link related words, to suggest a mood or tone, or to add to a sense of design or pattern.Examples: The night breeze bathed the room and brought its soothing balm. The soldiers fired a volley of short, sharp shots.

AssonanceAssonance is the effect achieved by repeating the same or similar vowel sounds. It is a literary device used to create an effect of atmosphere as well as the picture the words convey.Examples: boom – doom, clean – dream, drown – crown, hall – wall, ride – side, sound - ground

Read the following example aloud, and listen to the repetition of the short vowel sound “i” which creates the effect of speed and tension.

Example: With deliberate intent and evil insight, Jim fixed the missile for maximum injury. In the following example, listen to the repeated “er” sound which echoes the actual noise the

girl heard. Example: The girl heard the early murmur of the earth as the first tremors began.

OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia occurs when the sound of the word actually echoes the sense or meaning of the word. It is possible to convey clear images of what is happening when using these types of words. You can use onomatopoeia words to intensify atmosphere and help to sustain imagery. The following are examples of words considered to be onomatopoeic:crackpuffbanggrunt

swishclapplopwhisper

purrgrowlsplashmurmur

hisstwitterbuzzwarble

swishingbashclankbeep

Onomatopoeia can be used quite effectively in descriptive writing, narrative and poetry.Examples: The tinder–dry leaves crunched beneath my feet. The fur sizzled as the branding iron seared the cow’s hide.

Activities

Identify the following similes, metaphors and personifications by writing Simile, Metaphor or Personification as appropriate at the end of each sentence.

1. Thunder echoed like a bowling alley. ___________________

2. Rain raced through the streets and spat angrily on the windows. _____________________

3. Our car is a rocket, shooting along the freeway. __________________________

4. The moon is a ghost, peeping from the clouds. ______________________

5. It was as cold as Alaska. _________________________

6. Unfortunately, the bus driver has a nose like a carrot and ears like cauliflowers. _____________

7. All night the wind has muttered profanities at our doors and windows. ____________________

8. The flock of gulls is an airforce squadron, manoeuvring in perfect unison across the sky.

__________________

Make up similes for the following.

1. As happy as _________________________________________________________________

2. As angry as _________________________________________________________________

3. As Bright as _________________________________________________________________

4. As gloomy as ________________________________________________________________

5. As tall as ____________________________________________________________________

6. As short as __________________________________________________________________

7. As loud as ___________________________________________________________________

8. As quiet as __________________________________________________________________

9. As funny as _________________________________________________________________

10. As serious as ________________________________________________________________

Write a metaphor for each element.

1. Earth: ______________________________________________________________________

2. Air: ________________________________________________________________________

3. Fire: _______________________________________________________________________

4. Water: _____________________________________________________________________

English poet William Wordsworth’s environment appreciation poem ‘I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud’ (1907) contains a combination of similes, metaphors and personifications. Underline the similes; circle the metaphors; & put a wavy line under examples of personification.

"I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD"

Written at Town-end, Grasmere. The Daffodils grew and still grow on the margin of Ullswater and probably may be seen to this day as beautiful in the month of March, nodding their golden heads beside the dancing and foaming waves.

I WANDERED lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: I gazed--and gazed--but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye

Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.Give 3 examples of the following of your own.

Alliteration1. ____________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________

Assonance1. ____________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________

Onomatopoeia1. ____________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________

Symbolism1. ____________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________