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TITLE PAGE

EFFECTS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CONCEPT MAPPING AND

DIGITAL VIDEO INSTRUCTION ON STUDENTS

ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY

BY

SANI, ISAH DANTANI

PG/PhD/2008/48467

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS

EDUCATION IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

(Ph.D) IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

OCTOBER, 2011.

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Approval Page

This project has been approved for the Department of Arts Education,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

Prof. Q.J. Nwoji Supervisor Internal Examiner

--------------------------------- -----------------------------------

Prof. U.C. Umo

Head of Department External Examiner

-------------------------------------

Prof. S.A. Ezeudu

Dean of Faculty

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Certification

Sani, Isah Dantani a postgraduate student with registration number

PG/Ph.D/08/48467 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for research

work for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Technology. The

work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part full

for any other diploma or degree in this or any other university. We accept it as

conforming to the required standard.

------------------------------------ -----------------------------------

Sani, Isah Dantani Prof. Q.J. Nwoji (Student) (Supervisor)

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Dedication

-To my children, Victoria, Franklyn and Favour that they may aspire to and

attain heights even greater than the one I attained.

-To God almighty for His guidance and providence.

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Acknowledgements

In executing this study, I received invaluable assistance from a number of

people which I am bound to acknowledge. In this regard, my thanks are due to

my supervisor, Prof Q. J. Nwoji who saw me through this work. Her willingness

to offer suggestions and guidance at all times helped greatly to the completion

of this work. I am greatly indebted to Dr I. Gambari with whom I first discussed

the viability of this study. My discussion with him helped to sharpen my focus

on the study and his encouragement as well as assurance of the viability of the

study remained a source of courage to me.

I am equally indebted to Dr (Mrs) T. Ofoegbu, Dr K.O Usman and Dr U. Eze

for their interest and invaluable assistance which helped a lot in the completion

of this study.

I am grateful as well to my wife Mrs M.N Dantani, my children, Victoria,

Franklyn and Favour for their constant encouragement and support. Lastly, to

the computer operator Miss Angela who produced this work and many others

who helped in one way or the other in the execution of this work but whose

names I cannot mention here, I express my gratitude.

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Table of Contents

Title Page……………………………………………………………………………..ii

Approval Page……………………………………………………………………….iii

Certification………………………………………………………………………….iv

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………v

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………vi

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………….vii

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………ix

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………x

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………............1

Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………9

Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………..10

Significant of the Study……………………………………………………………..11

Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………………..13

Research Questions………………………………………………………………….13

Research Hypotheses………………………………………………………………..14

CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………………15

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………………………………………….15

Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………..16

The need for science and technology education in Nigeria………………………...16

Concept of Chemistry……………………………………………………………….19

Importance of Instructional Media in education…………………………………….23

Information and Communication Technology and Education………………………25

Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction………………………………..31

Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping……………………………………………..42

Computer Assisted Concept Mapping as an Instructional Media…………………..47

Digital Video Disc as an Instructional Media……………………………………….47

Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology………………………………51

Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………63

Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning……………………………………………………..63

Application in CAI…………………………………………………………………..65

Cognitive Theories…………………………………………………………………..66

Empirical studies on Computer Assisted Concept Mapping, Digital Video Instruction

and Gender influence on Academic Achievement in

Science……………………………………………………………………………….72

Summary of Literature Reviewed……………………………………………………91

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CHAPTER THREE………………………………………………………………………….95

RESEARCH METHOD……………………………………………………………..95

Design of Study……………………………………………………………………...95

Area of Study………………………………………………………………………..96

Population of the Study……………………………………………………………...97

Sample and Sampling Techniques…………………………………………………..98

Instrument for Data Collection………………………………………………………99

Development of the Learning Instrument for the Treatment……………………….100

Validation of the Instrument/Packages……………………………………………..102

Item Analysis……………………………………………………………………….104

Reliability of Instrument……………………………………………………………105

Control of Extraneous Variables……………………………………………………106

Experimental Procedure…………………………………………………………….107

Method of Data Collection………………………………………………………….110

Method of Data Analysis……………………………………………………………110

CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………………..112

RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………..112

Summary of Findings……………………………………………………………….122

CHAPTER FIVE……………………………………………………………………………122

DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS,IMPLICATIONS,

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY………………………………………123

Discussion of the Results…………………………………………………………...124

Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry…………………..124

Findings on the effect of DVI on students Achievement in Chemistry……………125

Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry by Gender………125

Findings on the effect of DVI on Achievement in Chemistry by Gender………….126

Findings on the treatment-gender interaction effect on students Achievement in

Chemistry…………………………………………………………………………...126

Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………127

Educational Implications……………………………………………………………127

Recommendations…………………………………………………………………..129

Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………………….130

Suggestions for further Studies……………………………………………………..130

Summary……………………………………………………………………………131

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..134

APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………...151

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List of Tables Pages

1. Means and Standard Deviations of Students in CACM………………112

2. Mean and Standard Deviations of Students in DVI……………………114

3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Students in CACM by gender………116

4. Mean and Standard Deviations of Students in DVI by gender………….118

5. Analysis of CoVariance (ANCOVA) of posttest scores of Students in

CACM ,DVI & LM………………………………………………………….120

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List of Figures

1. Cognitive Learning theory model…………………………………….68

2. Research Design Layout………………………………………………..96

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Abstract This study determined the effects of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping (CACM)

and Digital Video Instruction (DVI) instructional strategies on student‟s achievement

in chemistry. It also sought the effects of CACM, DVI on gender academic

achievement of students. The performance of students taught with CACM and DVI

were compared with those students taught with lecture method (LM). To carry out the

study, four research questions were asked and three hypotheses, were formulated and

tested. Related literatures were reviewed. A quasi experimental design specifically

the non-randomized control group design involving three intact classes was used. The

sample of the study consisted of 210 senior secondary two (SSII) chemistry students

from three government owned secondary schools drawn using purposive and simple

random sampling techniques from 16 government schools that offer chemistry in

Chanchaga and Bosso local government areas of Niger State. The three schools were

assigned to the two experimental groups CACM and DVI and one control group

(LM). One instrument, the Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was developed and

validated. An internal consistency of CAT was computed and found to be 0.95 using

Kuder –Richardson formular 20 (KR 20). Before treatment commenced, the CAT

typed in white coloured paper was administered as pre-test to the three groups in the

sampled schools. The treatment lasted for one month of seven lesson periods for each

group. The actual teaching was done by the regular chemistry teachers who were

given special training for both experimental and control groups. After treatment

session, the same instrument (CAT) which was retyped in yellow coloured paper and

the questions reshuffled was re –administered to the subjects to obtain posttest scores.

Means and standard deviations were used to answer the research questions.

Hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), at 0.05 level of

significance. The result of the analysis indicated that CACM and DVI had significant

effects on student‟s achievement in chemistry, but students in the CACM group

achieved more. Gender was a significant factor in the student‟s achievement in

chemistry when treated with CACM and DVI. These findings imply that there is the

need for chemistry teachers to adopt the use of CACM as well as DVI in teaching

since they are effective in improving student‟s achievement in chemistry. Thus, it is

recommended among others, that state governments or their ministries of education

and professional associations should organise workshops, seminars and conferences to

train teachers on the use of CACM and DVI techniques. Finally, the limitations of the

study, conclusions of the study and the summary of the study as well as suggestions

for further studies were highlighted.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The growth and development of most nations are dependent on science,

technology and mathematics education. Science is that organized body of

knowledge, which enhances the ability to acquire skills. It is a search for

meaning or exploration of events in nature (Ifeakor 2006). Science and

technology related subjects that would enable students have a substantial

understanding of science and be able to apply scientific knowledge in solving

problems in their ever changing society are Mathematics, Physics, Biology,

Health Science, Introductory technology and Chemistry.

Chemistry is one of the compulsory subjects for one to study science/

technology related courses in tertiary institutions. It is the science that deals

with the properties of different atoms, the ways in which they join together to

form molecules, the interaction of various kinds of molecules with one another

and the accompanying energy changes. It is the heart or nucleus of science

(Adeyemo, 2005). The science of chemistry includes properties, composition

and structure of matter as well as structural, compositional and energy changes

involved in chemical reactions. From the foregoing therefore, the major

objective of teaching chemistry in our schools is to enable the students interpret

the universe, since the great variety of materials in the universe can be classified

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into two great entities: energy and matter. Chemistry has developed knowledge

in all these areas of energy and matter which will significantly help in achieving

the objective of interpreting the universe (Adeyemo, 2005).

The technological development of any nation lies in the study of science

especially chemistry. The role of Chemistry in national development is

acknowledged in the whole world (Udofia and Udo, 2006).The significance of

chemistry in all fields of science and technology has made chemistry imperative

to be included in the curriculum of senior secondary school to be offered by

science oriented students. The Nigerian secondary school Chemistry curriculum

has the following objectives:

(i) Facilitate a transition in the use of scientific concepts and techniques

acquired in Integrated Science with Chemistry.

(ii) Provide the students with basic knowledge in chemical concepts and

principles through efficient selection of content and sequencing.

(iii) Show Chemistry in its inter-relationship with other subjects;

(iv) 12Show Chemistry and its link with industry, everyday life, benefits and

hazards;

(v) Provide a course which is complete for students not proceeding to higher

education while it is at the same time, a reasonably adequate foundation

for post-secondary Chemistry courses. (FME & CESAC, 2009p.

With the importance of chemistry and provisions made by the Federal

Government of Nigeria for effective teaching and learning of chemistry, the

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objectives of its teaching and learning as stated in the Nigerian secondary

school chemistry curriculum is yet to be achieved. Chemistry is one of the

science subjects which have been taught using different methods for instance,

Ifeakor, (2005) used commercially produced Computer Assisted Instructional

package to teach chemistry, while Olorundare, (2009) used Concept mapping

and analogy to teach chemistry yet student‟s performance in chemistry is not

encouraging. The reasons for poor performance in chemistry as identified by the

following researchers include: poor instructional strategies (Bajah, 2000;

Olorukooba, 2007); abstract nature of science concepts (Nsofor, 2006; Ojiaku,

2003); lack of qualified teachers (Biodun, 2004); poor infrastructure and

inadequate laboratory facilities (Shalw, 2003); and non-availability and

utilization of instructional materials (Yusuf, 2004). Their findings are similar to

that of Olorundare, 2007 who found that inadequate laboratory facilities and

non-availability and utilization of instructional materials affect the teaching and

learning of chemistry in the secondary schools. Also the chief examiner, West

African Examination Council (WAEC, 2007), identified some areas of

weaknesses of the students/candidates which were reported as a contributing

factor to student‟s poor performance. The areas identified include: Poor

understanding of general principles and concepts, heat, energy changes, rates of

chemical reactions, reversibility of reactions and chemical equilibrium.

The federal government of Nigeria made special provisions and

incentives through the provision of laboratory facilities, instructional materials,

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training and retraining of teachers, provision of research grants and adoption of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to improve the teaching and

learning of science chemistry inclusive in our secondary schools. Since as part

of the requirements for any school to be enrolled for WAEC and NECO is that

the school must have science laboratories and with the importance of ICT in

nation building, schools have been provided with computer systems through the

school net programme. Furthermore, the federal government stated that “In

recognition of the prominent role of information and communication technology

in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in the

modern world, there is an urgent need to integrate information and

communication technology into Education in Nigeria (FGN, 2004:17). In

furtherance to government support for science education, information and

communication technology is adopted by the policy to apply to all levels of

education. Such provision for secondary level of education is contained in

section 5 number 30. She further states that “Science shall be taught in an

integrated manner in the schools to promote in the students the appreciation of

basic ideas”. For instance, schools in Minna are no exceptions as government

have provided the computers in almost all senior secondary schools in Minna.

Despite all the effort made by the Federal government, chemistry teachers and

researchers, students perform very poorly. In order to improve the teaching and

learning of chemistry the researcher is of the view that the use computer assisted

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concept mapping and digital video to teach chemistry may lead to better

performance by the students.

Computer assisted instruction refers to instruction or remediation

presented on a computer. Computer assisted instructions are interactive and can

illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound and demonstration. It

allows students to progress at their own pace and work individually. Computers

provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is

correct or not. If the answer is not correct, it shows how the students can get the

correct answer. So many researchers have used computer assisted instruction in

different subject areas to improve effective teaching and learning. For instance

Hall, Hughes, and Filbert, (2000), examined the effect of computer assisted

instruction in reading by students. Their findings indicated an improvement in

reading when computer assisted instruction is used for students. Also, Tapscott

(2008) investigated the effect of computer assisted instruction on academic

achievement in sciences; the result was also positive. Also Ifeakor (2005)

examined the effects of commercially produced computer assisted instructional

package on student‟s achievement and interest in secondary school chemistry.

In her study, she found that the commercially produced computer assisted

instructional package had positive effect on the students‟ achievement and

interest.

Concept maps are forms of graphical organizers which allow learners to

perceive the relationships between concepts through diagramming of keywords

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representing those concepts. These concepts are usually enclosed in circles or

boxes of some type and relationships between concepts indicated by connecting

lines linking two or more concepts. The process of using these graphical tools

for organizing and presenting knowledge is referred to as concept mapping. For

some years now, the researches on the effectiveness of using concept mapping

instructional strategy to teach chemistry has been in place. These studies

includes that of Czerniak and Haney (1998) who used concept mapping to

improve achievement in physical sciences which includes chemistry, Nicoll,

Francisco and Nakhleh (2001) investigated the effect of concept mapping on

general chemistry achievement. Their findings showed a positive effect.

Concept mapping has been found to be a good instructional strategy used by

teachers to teach chemistry yet students fail the subject, this is evident in the

results of students in the WAEC and NECO, hence the researcher used

computer assisted instruction which incorporates concept mapping for teaching

chemistry concepts anticipating that it may improve the teaching and learning of

chemistry.

Computer assisted concept mapping is an instructional strategy that

incorporates the use of computer instruction with concept mapping. Not much

work known to the researcher have been done using these instructional strategy

to improve teaching and learning, even where it has been used, it is outside the

shore of Nigeria and no study has been found for chemistry. For example,

Chien-hsun Tu (2006), conducted a study on the effect of computer assisted

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concept mapping learning in social studies. There was a positive effect on the

students‟ achievement in social studies.

Digital video instruction is an instruction presented through the use of a

television monitor and a digital video disc or digital versatile disc (DVD).

Digital video disc is an optical disc with storage media format. Its main uses are

video and data storage. The digital video disc has a player which it uses to

retrieve what has been stored into it. Both the digital video player and the

television monitor require electricity to power them. The influx of home

video‟s/CD‟S is an issue of great concern that needs to be addressed. The

situation is such that parents and even youths of school age go after home

videos instead of getting/purchasing educational DVD/CD; S. These students

are allowed to watch these home videos for hours. It is therefore, the intention

of the researcher to see how this ability to watch home videos can be utilized to

achieve academic excellence in the classroom setting. Most researches that have

been conducted are on videotape instruction. For instance, Osokoya, (2007)

investigated the effect of video instruction on secondary school students‟

achievement in History. The findings showed a positive effect on student‟s

achievement. Also, Orisabiyi (2007), who determined the effect of videotaped

package on students achievement in biology found videotape instruction to be

effective. Furthermore, Gbodi and Laleye (2006), found videotape instruction to

be effective on students‟ achievement in Integrated Science. Digital video

instruction has been found to be effective in the learning of mathematics

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(Adebayo, 2008) and so the study considered its effectiveness when used to

teach chemistry. From the studies made so far, no research known to the

researcher has been carried out on the comparative effects of computer assisted

concept mapping, digital video instruction and lecture method of teaching on

student‟s achievement in chemistry.

Historically, in most countries of the world the educational provision for

boys and girls was clearly differentiated. This difference in treatment through

education created and sustained gender gap, which also became visible in the

science, technology and mathematics education provided. The historical

background of the provision of education in Nigeria serves to give a picture of

how tradition and culture has placed women and girls at a disadvantage, and

restricted them to a narrow range of occupation and careers. Njoku (2009), in

his study on enhancing the relevance of chemistry curriculum delivery using

science, technology and society (STS), stated that female students under-

achieve in science, technology and mathematics education relative to their male

classmates. Gender has been identified as one of the factors influencing

student‟s achievement in the sciences at senior secondary school level

(Anagbogu & Ezeliora, 2007 and Nsofor, 2007). Researchers (Ifamuyiwa, 2004;

Iwendi, 2009) have shown that males achieve higher than females in science

and technology concepts. It has been noted that males perform better than

females in chemistry (Ifeakor, 2005). No gender difference in student academic

achievement has also been observed (Yusuf and Afolabi 2010). The

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contradictive evidences in academic achievement due to gender had necessitates

the need to verify how computer assisted concept mapping and digital video

instructional strategies can influence student‟s achievement in chemistry. This

study therefore, examined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping and

digital video instruction on students achievement in chemistry.

Statement of the Problem

The performance of students in science generally and chemistry in

particular has been quite unsatisfactory over the years (Olorukooba, 2007;

WAEC, 2010, NECO, 2010). The external examining bodies such as West

African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council

(NECO) have repeatedly reported poor performance in chemistry.

The report of the chief examiner, West African Examination Council

2004-2005 revealed that candidate‟s performance was poor. For the years 2006

and 2007 the report is that there is no improvement in the performance of

candidates who sat for Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) in

chemistry. Furthermore, a critical look at the statistics of candidates‟ enrolment

and performance in chemistry in Nigeria between 2002 and 2007 (appendix A),

and candidates enrolment and performance in chemistry in Niger state for the

years 2000 to 2007 (appendix B), shows that the performance of the candidates

was poor. The percentage failure of chemistry students in the secondary school

certificate examination (SSCE) for the years 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and

2005 are 67.42, 60.99, 53.67, 41.40, 53.28 and 46.40 respectively while the

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years 2006 and 2007 recorded 50.73 and 70.77 percentage failure. Also, WAEC

chief examiners report for 2008-2010 indicated poor performance. In the report,

2008 recorded 77% failure, 2009 recorded 79.67% failure while 2010 recorded

80% failure. The persistent poor performance, according to the chief examiner

for the years 2008- 2010 was as a result of: Poor understanding of general

principles and concepts, heat, energy changes, rates of chemical reactions,

reversibility of reactions and chemical equilibrium. This poor performance as

indicated by the results can be attributed to many factors which includes lack of

appropriate and effective use of media. This is evident from the results of the

senior secondary school certificate examination for chemistry in Niger state. See

appendix B. Despite all that has been done to improve students‟ achievement

especially in chemistry, students still perform poorly. Therefore, as a result of

this evident poor performance by students, the study determined the effects of

computer assisted concept mapping and digital video instruction on student‟s

achievement in chemistry.

Purpose of the Study

This study determined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping

and digital video instruction on secondary school students‟ academic

achievement in chemistry.

Specifically, the study determined, the

i. Effect of computer assisted concept mapping on secondary school

students‟ academic achievement in chemistry.

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ii. Effect of digital video instruction on secondary school students‟

academic achievement in chemistry.

iii. Effect of computer assisted concept mapping on secondary school

student‟s achievement in chemistry by gender.

iv. Effect of digital video instruction on secondary school student‟s

achievement in chemistry by gender.

Significance of the Study

Theoretically, the findings of this study will help teachers to give students

task in hierarchical order. It will help teachers to move from simple to complex

task. Since learning new knowledge is dependent on what is already known,

curriculum planners will always consider the entry behaviour of students as they

plan the curriculum.

Also, it is expected that the teaching and learning process, students,

teachers, teacher trainees, curriculum developers, policy makers, parents,

government and the nation at large would benefit from the findings of this study

in the following ways:

The result of this study will have positive impacts on teaching and

learning of chemistry in secondary schools, as it will re-emphasize the need for

teachers to always enrich the teaching and learning process with instructional

media. This will encourage head, hand and heart co-ordination and promote

harmonious interaction between learners and materials to be learnt. This in turn

would relieve passivity, monotony, excessive verbalism, thereby preventing

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chemistry from being taught in a manner that produces in the mind of learners a

feeling of boredom and distaste for chemistry.

The results of this study is expected to be useful to the learners as it will

provide opportunities for students to practice basic skills, learn some basic

concepts on their own and at their own pace. Also it can lead to arousing

students interest in science especially chemistry, make them to be creative and

help in the generation of ideas to solve world problems. By the use of digital

video instructional package, the interest of the learners for irrelevant movies and

entertainment programs could systematically be transferred to a more

productive and educative pursuit. Also the learners listening skill which is vital

to efficient learning would be improved upon.

Since students learn differently and at different pace, abstract concepts

are simplified and individualized learning will be encouraged. The result will

encourage teachers to use multiple media in presenting instructions to students.

It will also help teachers to vary their instructional approaches, develop creative

skills and help in making their lesson interesting as well as making their

instructional objectives to be achieved.

The findings could hopefully assist curriculum planners to include in the

curriculum for secondary level instructional materials/strategies that would help

in bringing about meaningful learning. It may also provide locally produced

computer instructional package, the use of which would consequently build up

teacher‟s and learners confidence in the subject matter and to be information

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and communication technology (ICT) compliant. This is to give direction and

confidence to the teacher whose job it is to put the curriculum into use and to

ensure the attainment of specific objectives of learning science.

The findings of this study would be of immense benefit to the nation as it

could lead to the turnout of learners with solid foundation in science (chemistry)

to meet the demands of science and technology of the new millennium. This

study may be a spring board for future researchers who might wish to embark

on a similar study in chemistry or other discipline such as biology or physics.

Scope of the Study

This research examined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping

and digital video instruction on the academic achievement of students in

chemistry. Minna metropolis was used and three schools were covered. Two

schools served as the experimental while the remaining one served as the

control. The study was limited to Senior Secondary II (SSII) of the Senior

Secondary Schools selected in Minna. The topics or subject matter covered are

energy effects Chemical equilibrium, reversibility of reaction and le chatelier‟s

principle which are topics in Senior Secondary II Chemistry syllabus.

Research Questions

The study was guided by the following questions

i. What is the effect of computer assisted concept mapping instructional

strategy on secondary school student‟s achievement in chemistry?

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ii. What is the effect of digital video instructional strategy on secondary

school student‟s achievement in chemistry?

iii. What is the influence of gender on secondary school student‟s

achievement in chemistry using computer assisted concept mapping

instructional strategy?

iv. What is the influence of gender on secondary school student‟s

achievement in chemistry using digital video instructional strategy?

Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses were formulated.

HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores

of students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept mapping,

digital video instruction and lecture method.

HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male

and female students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept

mapping, digital video instruction and those taught using lecture method.

HO3: There is no significant treatment-gender interaction effect on the

academic achievement of students in chemistry as measured by their

mean achievement scores in Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT).

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviewed the relevant literature. It is carried out under three

broad sections namely, conceptual framework, theoretical framework and

empirical studies.

Conceptual framework

The Need for Science and Technology Education in Nigeria

The Concept of Chemistry

Importance of Instructional Media in Education

Information and Communication Technology and Education

Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction

Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping

Computer Assisted Concept mapping as an Instructional Media

Digital video Disc as Instructional Media

Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology

Theoretical Framework

Behaviorism/S-R theory of learning: Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning

Cognitive theories of learning: Gagne and David Ausubel‟s theories

Empirical Studies

* Empirical Studies on Computer Assisted Concept Mapping

Empirical Studies on Digital Video Instruction and

Gender influence on Academic Achievement in Science.

Summary of reviewed literature

26

Conceptual Framework

The need for Science and technology education in Nigeria

Science and technology education are critical to national development

and the sustenance of such development. The world of today is dominated by

science and technology, so much so that almost everything is now scientific and

technological in nature. Technological artifacts and processes have so

dominated the home, workplace, and indeed the totality of the environment that

everybody needs at least, basic knowledge of science and technology to

contribute to development efforts and to at least, survive if not succeed in the

society of today. This implies that science and technology education should be

accessible to all citizens for conducive living in the modern society of today

(Njoku, 2007).

Nigeria is a developing nation with a vision to be one of the 20th

largest

economy nations in the world by the year 2020 (Yar‟adua, 2008). The

knowledge and application of science, technology and mathematics are

indispensable for the transformation of Nigerian economy into an industrial and

self-reliant one (FRN, 2004).

According to Nsofor 2006), for any nation to achieve the above and attain

the status of self-reliance, science and technology must be an important

component of the knowledge to be given to all citizens of that nation

irrespective of tribe/ethnicity, creed, or sex. She added that no nation can

develop technologically and otherwise as rapidly as she wants if her citizenry do

27

not have solid foundation in science. Oludare, Bajulaiye and Abiodun (2007),

opined that for any nation including Nigeria to attain sustainable development,

there is the need to recognize science education as a priority area of education

for her citizens. According to them, a scientifically literate person has an

adequate understanding of the nature of science including concept, principles,

theories and processes of science, technology and mathematic; and an

awareness of the complex relationships between science, technology and the

society with the ultimate purpose to describe and explain natural happenings

from their everyday life experiences. Nigerian government realized this facts

and stated the goal of science education thus

(i) Cultivate inquiring, knowing and rational mind for the conduct of a good

life and democracy,

(ii) produce scientists for national development,

(iii) service studies in technology and the cause of technological development,

and

(iv) Provide knowledge and understanding of the complexity of the physical

world, the forms and conduct of life (FRN, 2004).

The former South African President Nelson Mandela echoed similar

sentiments at the inauguration of the Science Academy of South Africa. He

remarked that the impact of science and technology was so glaring that no one

needed to be persuaded to behold its awesome utility to national growth and

prosperity (Mandela, 1994). Abilu (2005) expressed the opinion that Nigerian

28

citizens should pursue science, technology and mathematics education to

prevent Nigeria from being a perpetual slave to the developed world. Therefore,

Nigerian curriculum should be geared towards this mission.

In the new edition of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004), the

policy statement expresses an acknowledgement that we are living in a modern

age of science and technology where basic knowledge and the application of

science, mathematics and technology are very important for any meaningful

development.

Also, every successive Federal and State Governments in Nigeria had

made frantic efforts to improve the status of science teaching in Nigeria.

Presently, science and technology education is one of the seven point agenda of

Yar‟adua‟s Administration. Salami (2003), summarized government efforts to

integrate and intensify science and technology values in Nigeria education

system to include

(i) Establishment of several unity and special science schools, vocational and

technical schools in some states.

(ii) Establishment of technical workshops in secondary and technical schools.

(iii) Establishment of Federal Universities of Technology and Agriculture.

(iv) Establishment of the National Agency for Science and Engineering

infrastructure, to collate and distribute relevant research findings in

science and technology.

29

(v) Establishment of Technical Teacher‟s Training Colleges and Colleges of

Education for NCE (Technical)

(vi) Distribution of Science Equipment worth millions of naira to various

secondary schools.

(vii) Enforcing an admission policy into universities of 60:40 ratios in favour

of science and science related disciplines.

(viii) Popularization of science and technology through the formulation of the

Junior Engineers, Technicians and Scientists (JETS) clubs in post-

primary institutions all over the country.

(ix) Annual investment into teacher-in-service training, workshops, seminars

etc

(x) Payment of science allowances to science teachers and

(xi) Creation of Ministry of science and Technology are all aimed at

promoting science and technical education and Nigeria‟s technological

progress.

Concept of Chemistry

Chemistry is one of the science subjects taught at the senior secondary

school level of Nigeria‟s educational system. After the Junior Secondary School

three (JSSIII

) examinations, all students found suitable to study science in the

SSS class are enrolled to study chemistry at least during the first and second

year of the three years duration. The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)

stated that chemistry can be taken as one of the “cores” among science subjects

30

(i.e. Biology, chemistry, physics or health science) with other one vocational

elective and two non-vocational elective subjects. Ihuahi, (2007) viewed

chemistry as the study of the properties, composition and structure of matter, the

changes in structure and composition which matter undergoes, and the

accompanying energy changes under different conditions. According to Njoku

(2009), chemistry is the study of matter, its structure transformations,

interactions and the energy consequences of the interactions and

transformations.

Chemistry is a basic science whose concerns are

(i) The structure and behaviour of atoms

(ii) The composition and properties of compounds.

(iii) The reactions between substances with their accompanying energy

changes.

(iv) The laws that unite these phenomena into a comprehensive system.

Chemistry deals extensively with energy changes which occur in

chemical processes, elucidation of the structure of materials and

identification of constituents of substances. Today, more than ever before,

the study and application of chemistry is essential to the scientific,

industrial, technological and social advancement of societies or nations.

The secondary school chemistry curriculum developed by the Federal

Ministry of Education (FME) in conjunction with Comparative Education Study

and Adoption Centre (CESAC) in 2009, has the following objectives.

31

(a) To facilitate a transition in the use of scientific concepts and techniques

acquired in integrated science with chemistry.

(b) To provide the students with basic knowledge in chemical concepts and

principles through efficient selection of content and sequencing.

(c) To show chemistry in its interrelationship with other subjects.

(d) To show chemistry and its link with industry, everyday life benefits and

hazards.

(e) To provide a course which is complete for students not proceeding to

higher education while it is at the same time a reasonably adequate

foundation for a post-secondary chemistry course.

According to Hordson, 1992, the main goals of chemistry education are

to engage students in scientific knowledge of chemistry, the nature of chemistry

and how to do chemistry that is scientific inquiry in chemistry. The nature of

chemical knowledge, how knowledge growth occurs in chemistry and how this

knowledge is structured and explained, that is chemical epistemology, are as a

central part of chemistry education (Erduran, 2001:Erduran and Scerri, 2002).

Chemistry has various unique features (Scerri and Mcintyre, 1997), but

also shares many features with other sciences. The philosophy of chemistry

describes the nature of chemistry for example, how different classification

schemes help explain qualitative aspects of matter, how different class concepts

for example acid, salt and element, are used as a means of representation, how

some concepts play very specific roles in chemistry explanations, such as

32

chemical compositions molecular structure and bonding and how electrons in

particular orbital are employed in “level specific explanations (Erduran and

Scerri, 2002).

To promote scientific understanding of chemistry (meaningful chemistry

learning), requires an increased focus on secondary school level students higher-

order thinking skills (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001) that is, applying,

analyzing, evaluating and creating or synthesizing. Inculcating meaningful

learning in chemistry can help students understand basic principles of chemistry

that they also encounter in everyday life. Meaningful learning can occur when

students not only remember, but also make sense of and are able to apply what

they have learned (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001). An authentic chemical

education, which conforms closely to the actual practice of science, is realized

through an approach to meaningful learning (Crilbert, De Jong, Justi, Treagust

and Van Driel, 2002).

According to Minzes, Wandersee and Novak, (2000) meaningful learning

occurs when students seek to relate new concepts and propositions to relevant

existing concepts and propositions in their cognitive structure. Thus, meaningful

learning is knowledge construction, in which students seek to “make sense” of

their experiences. According to Jonassen (1999), meaningful learning is an

active, constructive and cumulative, goal-directed, authentic, and takes place in

a technology-rich environment. To improve and encourage meaningful learning

which can lead to not only students remembering the concepts and principles

33

taught in chemistry, but that will lead to greater achievement in chemistry

appropriate instructional material/strategies has to be employed in teaching and

learning of chemistry especially at secondary school level.

Importance of Instructional Media in Education

Lagoke, (1999) opined that in view of the importance of science to

mankind, efforts have been made to improve the quality of its teaching and

learning in secondary schools both by government and professional

associations. Also, Ezenwa, (1999) suggested that the quality of science

especially chemistry teaching and learning can be improved through the use of

appropriate instructional media. In science most of the concepts are acquired

during instruction. The instructional strategy employed by the teacher plays an

important role in concept acquisition and meaningful learning.

According to Ajelabi, (2000) media are channels through which

messages, information, ideas and knowledge are disseminated. They are

collection of materials equipment and approaches or strategies that can be used

effectively for communication. Whenever such materials, equipment and

strategies are used for teaching and learning, they are referred to as instructional

media.

Effective teaching and learning in any subject at any institution are

dependent on the instructional strategies used. The instructional method,

strategies and or material used is a major factor responsible for the level of

achievement as well as retention in any subject by students (Mahajan, Singh,

34

2003). According to Ofoegbu, (2008) teaching is changing and in many ways

becoming a more difficult job because of increasingly numerous contradictory

expectations which according to her as stated in Fox, (2005) include that

We are living in an age of information overload with the expectations that

students will learn higher level skills such as how to access, evaluate,

analyze and synthesize vast quantities of information.

Teachers are expected to teach students to solve complex problems that

require knowledge necessary across many subject areas even as they are

held accountable for the teaching and learning of isolated skills and

information.

Teachers are expected to meet the needs of all students and more than

toward fulfillment of their individual potential.

According to Ofoegbu, (2008), technology, can assist with some of these

expectations and make teachers and their students more successful.

Technological progress impacts on our everyday life with an ever increasing

frequency and effect. How advances in technology might influence teaching and

learning must be of special importance to all chemical educators. According to

Hollingworth, (2002), there is the need to adopt a proactive and informed

attitude towards our teaching to make most effective use of emerging

technologies. The effective use of these emerging technologies will lead to an

improved teaching and learning in our schools. Such technologies as computer

35

and digital video when used effectively, will lead to the improvement of

teaching and learning process.

Information and Communication Technology and Education

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined as

computer based tools used by people to work for the information and

communication processing needs of an organization. It encompasses the

computer hardware and software, the internet and several other devices such as

video, audio, photography, camera etc, that convert information, images, sound,

motion, and so on into common digital form (Milken Exchange on Education

Technology, 1999) as quoted by Yusuf and Onasanya (2004). It is an eclectic

application of computing, communication telecommunication and satellite

technology (Yusuf, 2005).

Information Technology (IT) which is a component of ICT refers to the

creation, storage and processing of data including hardware system and software

application. Rahman (2002), defined Information Technology as the technology

of creating, processing, storage, retrieval and transmission of data and

information. These include telecommunication, satellite technologies, electrical,

and electronic computing which allow users to communicate and manipulate

information electronically.

Yusuf (2005) suggested that ICT can help students to

(i) Ask questions, predict and hypothesize

(ii) Observe, measure, record and manipulate variables

36

(iii) Interpret their results and evaluate scientific evidence and

(iv) Present and communicate their findings in a variety of ways. The use of

ICT can extend and enhance students understanding of science through -

simulations and modeling. It will help students to understand phenomena which

may be too slow, too fast, too dangerous or too expensive to carryout in the

school laboratories (Owen, 2003). The National Policy on Education of Nigeria

(FGN, 2004), and with particular reference to Science and Technology,

considered ICT as an important tool for laying a solid foundation of Science,

Technology and Mathematics Education at all levels of the Nigerian Education

System. ICT includes radio, television, videos, computers sensors, satellite

connections, internet and all the software which are used by teachers for

teaching and learning in order to achieve a meaningful learning by the students

(Ajagun, 2003).

Literature dealing with technology and pedagogy attests to the powerful

impact ICT can have on the teaching and learning process (Akudolu, 2003). ICT

has three positions in the curriculum and these are:

i. l Learning about ICT.

ii. Learning with ICT and

iii. Learning through ICT. Learning about ICT refers to ICT concept as a

subject of learning in the school curriculum while learning with ICT is

concerned with the use of ICT as a medium to facilitate instruction. While

sharing this view Pelgrum and Law (2003) maintain that learning through ICT

37

refers to the integration of ICT as an essential tool into a course curriculum,

such that the teaching and learning of that course/curriculum is no longer

possible without it.

The use of information and communication technology is becoming an

integral part of education in many parts of the globe. Nigeria is not left behind

as ICT is gradually finding its way into the educational system (Olaofe, 2005).

Despite the limitations brought about by economic disadvantages (Nwachukwu,

2006). It is observed that the influence of ICT on education is to enhance the

ability of each learner to generate access, adopt and apply knowledge and

information to solve complex problems (Ajayi, 2001).

Liverpool (2002) discussed the uses of ICT in teacher education and

divides them into four forms: ICT as object, ICT as assisting tools, ICT as a

medium for teaching and learning and ICT as a tool for organization and

management in schools.

(a) ICT as object: It refers to learning about ICT, mostly organized in

specific courses such as “computer education. Learners familiarize

themselves with hardware and software. Here what is being learned

depends on the types of education and the level of the students. The aim

is computer literacy.

(b) ICT as an assisting tool: ICT is used as a tool, for example, while

carrying out assignments, collecting data and documentation,

38

communicating and conducting research, typically, ICT is used

independently from the subject matter.

(c) ICT as a medium for teaching: ICT serves as a medium through which

teachers can teach and learners can learn. It may be in form of drills,

simulation, practice tutorials, exercises and educational networks.

(d) ICT as a tool for organization and management: This refers to the use

of ICT in handling school records, like timetabling, attendance, fees

collection, examination result and general communication.

Barton and Haydn (2004), opined that the new ICT facilities could allow

teachers and learners to move into the role of guidance and facilitator in

assisting students to gain the required skills and utilizes the knowledge available

in various forms. Shehu, (2006) highlighted the following benefits of ICT in the

classroom environment.

(i) Providing students with chance of studying, investigating and practicing

complex skills, procedures and concepts in a realistic but non-risky

situation. Complex skills at a realistic level can be tried by the students

without actual risk to people, capital or other sources.

(ii) Increasing student‟s access to information. Access to instruction is so

flexible and ensures broad viability and availability of educational

opportunities. It is a cost-effective system of instruction and learning

materials can be accessed irrespective of time and space.

39

(iii) Adapting instruction to the abilities and preferences of the individual

students and increasing the amount of personalized (individualized)

instruction a student receives. Many students benefit from the immediate

responsiveness of computer interactions and appreciate the self-paced and

private learning environment.

(iv) ICT helps teachers to supplement their lessons using drill and practice

software and provides primary instruction in learning centers through

tutorial or simulation software.

(v) It also helps teachers to improve upon their performance and enable them

to enhance the achievement of their students. This will result in

improvement of teachers overall efficiency and saves valuable time.

(vi) ICT to some extent helps to minimize the problem of teacher‟s scarcity in

certain areas of socialization. Many teachers can make use of computer-

assisted software as an aid to interact with a group or the whole class of

students.

ICTs are one of the major contemporary factors in shaping the now global

economy and producing rapid changes in the society. They have fundamentally

changed the way people learn, communicate and do business (UNESCO, 2002).

Considering the important role played by ICT, Ajagun, (2003) strongly

recommended that Nigeria should do something to overhaul its educational

sector or it would continue to produce “analogue graduates” who cannot fit into

the practice of modern technology.

40

However, in recognition of the prominent role of information and

communication technology in advancing knowledge and necessary skills, it is

stated in the national policy on education that for effective functioning, in

modern world, there is an urgent need to integrate information and

communication technology into Nigeria Education System (FRN, 2004). In fact,

it was observed by mac-Ikemenjima (2005) that, Information and

Communication Technologies (ICT) have become key tools that have had a

revolutionary impact on how we see the world and how we live. ICT is having a

revolutionary impact on educational methodology globally. However, this

revolution is not widespread and needs to be strengthened to reach a large

percentage of the population. Therefore, there is need for Nigeria to borrow a

leaf from developed countries like the United States of America and Australia

on the type of modern methods of delivery they adopt and use in teaching and

learning processes.

The Federal Government realized the need for ICT and approved the

National Information Technology Policy. This policy focuses on the use of IT

for education, creation of wealth, poverty eradication, job creation and global

competitiveness. Thus, it is important to note that the rapid growth of ICT in

Nigeria presents a number of prospects for the advancement of the industrial

sector in Nigeria by providing more effective ways of developing human

resources that lubricate the machinery for industrial growth and development

(NITDA, 2003).

41

Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction

The computer is an electronic automatic machine which is capable of

receiving, storing, recalling or retrieving information put into it. It is the fastest

processing machine ever invented by man. According to Ezeliora (1997),

Computer is useful in almost all spheres of life such as in hospitals for keeping

records of patients, drugs, staff and accounts, instruments for diagnosis and

treatment. It facilitates the banking system and help in rendering quick banking

services to clients. It is very useful in professional services such as engineering,

chartered firms and business. Thus computer is regarded as an all-purpose

machine.

Brightman and Dunsdate (1986) defined a computer as a combination of

hardware devices and programs assembled to accomplish some specific tasks.

Computer is a technological information process device which can be used to

present instructional events that are designed, developed and produced for an

individualized learning situation. The computer has been adopted and adapted

for this purpose because it can perform numerous mathematical and logical

operations without the intervention of a human operator during the run.

Computer has been found to be the most suitable, reliable and versatile medium

for individualizing instruction. It is able to deal simultaneously with large

number of students on individual basis and this tends to lower the cost, in the

long run (Becta, 2005). From the foregoing, the application of computer

42

technology to classroom environment has a significant role in the present

dispensation. However, adequate consideration should be given to Computer

Assisted Instruction (CAI) software for the upliftment of frontier of knowledge

of science. Abimbade (1998) asserted that “since this is the era of instructional

technology where computer is playing an important role in industry and

commerce, attention should be focused on the use of computer in school

settings” (p.34).

With the advent of computer-based learning, instructions are shifting

from traditional methods of instruction to computerized methods of instruction

in developed nations. As new ideas and methods of doing things are changing,

majority of educators are increasingly being faced with the challenges of using

modern technology (computer) for teaching in their institutions (Hennessy,

Deaney, & Ruthven, 2005). Through the use of computer, the roles of many

teachers are changing from the traditional lock-step giver of information to that

of presenter, manager and facilitator of learning. For instance, in the United

States, computers have been described as “the new basic” of education and the

internet as “the blackboard of the future” (Becta, 2003). Today, teachers are

expected to make use of modern instructional methods which are appropriate for

the students and which contribute to the development and employment

conditions, and can assist them to carry out swiftly, efficiently and effectively

what has to be done in the teaching-learning environment (Mohammed &

Ekpunobi, 2003). Yusuf (2005) and Maruf (2007), noted that the full potential

43

of computers is yet to be exploited within the Nigerian school system.

Successful implementation of computer education can only be assured through

teachers who have acquired necessary knowledge and skills. If computer

education is to succeed in Nigerian schools, teachers must be competent in the

use of computers.

Computer has wide application in education. Computer-Based Education

(CBE) and Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can

refer to virtually any kind of computer used in educational setting, including

drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, instructional management,

supplementary exercise, programming, database development, writing; using

word processors, and other applications. These terms may refer either to stand-

alone computer learning activities or to computer activities which reinforce the

materials introduced and taught by teachers (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik,

1985).

Onasanya and Adegbija (2007) identified some of the ways the computer

can be effectively used in instructional system as an instructional tools, as a tool

for providing payrolls for teaching and non-teaching staff, as a managing

administrative and library records tools, and as a tool for automation of some

simple level of instruction (drill and practice, tutorial, animation, simulations,

demonstration etc). Actually, the use of computer in education is an extension

and a rather sophisticated level of programmed instruction.

44

Batey (1986) viewed Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) as a narrower

term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities

offered either by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacher-directed

instruction. Abimbade (1998) defined CAI as an automated instruction in which

the computer is used to deliver instruction to the learner through interactive

process. Several researchers (Amanda, 2005; Kini, 1994; Schacter & Fagnano,

1999; Xin, 2000) have compared the effects produced by all forms of computer-

assisted instruction sometimes alone and some other times as a supplement to

traditional instruction. Here, results are too mixed to permit any firm

conclusion. Some have found CAI superior, some have found conventional

instruction superior, and still, others have found no difference between them.

For example, Edwards, Norton, Taylor, Weiss, and Dusseldorp (1975) reviewed

research on the effects of CAI on achievement, retention and learning rate and

its effects on students of different ability levels. CAI, as a supplement to

traditional teacher-directed instruction, was found to be very beneficial. On the

contrary, Campbell, Peck, Horn, and Leigh (1987), compared the mathematics

performance of third graders using a commercial computerized drill and

practice program with that of similar students using a conventional print drill

program. There were no statistically significant differences between the groups.

Yaakub (1998) summarized from his meta-analysis that on the average higher

gains are produced when using CAI rather than just traditional teaching

45

methods. His findings revealed that the effect size is likely to double from 35%

to 64% when CAI is utilized.

In general, the literature reveals that the use of CAI as a supplement to

traditional teacher-directed instruction produces achievement in most cases

superior to those obtained with traditional instruction alone (Dalton & Hannafin,

1988; Fletcher-Flinn & Gravatt 1995, Schacter & Fagnano, 1999). These

findings are relevant to students of different ages and abilities learning in

different curricular areas.

According to James and Barbara, (2002) CAI promotes intrinsic

motivation to learn for graduate students. This is in line with the classrooms of

developed nations where students utilize interactive technologies which

encourage active learning to take place in most of their classrooms. They learn

with modern technology, as opposed to what is being practiced in Nigeria

(Egbezor, 2004).

Several researchers (Batey, 1986; Capper & Copple, 1985; Fletcher,

Flinn, & Gravatt, 1995; Liao, 2005; Xin, 2000) have also found that CAI

enhances learning rate. Students‟ learning rate is faster with CAI than with

conventional instruction. In some research studies, the students learned the same

amount of material in less time than the traditionally instructed students; in

others, they learned more material in the same time. While most researchers

don‟t specify how much faster CAI students learn, the work of Capper and

46

Copple (1985) led to the conclusion that CAI users sometimes learn as much as

40 percent faster than those receiving conventional, teacher-directed instruction.

If students receiving CAI learn better and faster than students receiving

conventional instruction alone, do they also retain their learning better? The

answer, according to researchers (Akpinar, 2006; Kulik, 1985 & Rupe, 1986)

who have conducted comparative studies on learning retention, is „yes‟. In their

findings, student‟s scores on delayed tests indicate that the retention of content

learned using CAI is superior to retention following traditional instruction

alone. Kulik (1985) reported the results of three meta-analysis of research on

Computer-Based Education at the elementary, secondary, and post secondary

levels. He found CBE superior to traditional instruction in its effects on

achievement, retention, learning rate, and attitudes toward computers and

courses.

Much of the research that examined the effects of CAI and other

microcomputer applications on student learning outcomes also investigated

effects upon students‟ attitudes. This line of inquiry has brought most

researchers to the conclusion that the use of CAI leads to more positive

students‟ attitudes than the use of conventional instruction. This general finding

has emerged from studies of the effects of CAI on student‟s attitudes toward

computers and the use of computers in education, course content/subject matter,

and quality of instruction, self-as-learner, and the school in general (Batey,

47

1986; Bialo & Sivin 1990; Dalton & Hannafin, 1988; Mahmood, 2004; Kulik,

1985; Rupe 1986; Yusuf, 2006).

The effects of CAI on other students‟ outcomes have not been as

extensively researched as CAI‟s effects on achievement, learning rate, retention,

and attitudes. Some researchers have, however, investigated CAI‟s influence on

other variables and found it to confer benefits on learners‟ control, large class,

learners‟ ability levels, disabled learners, gender, and various disciplines.

Capper and Copple (1985) and Kinnaman (1990) found that CAI students have

more of an internal locus of control/sense of self-efficacy than conventionally

instructed students. CAI students had better attendance to class in Capper and

Copple‟s (1985) study, Liao (2005) meta-analysis and Rupe‟s 1986) review

study.

Is CAI more effective with some students‟ population than others? Many

researchers have conducted comparative analyses to answer this question and

have produced findings in several areas. Similarly, most comparative studies

have shown that CAI is more beneficial to younger students than to older ones.

While research shows CAI to be beneficial to students in general, the degree of

impact decreases from the elementary to secondary and to post-secondary levels

(Becker 1992; Bracey 1987; Fagbemi, 2004).

Becker (1992) summarized the result of his research to determine the

nature, extent, and effectiveness of computer use in public schools. He showed

disappointing results and attributed these to individual and institutional

48

resistance to the kinds of changes that would lead to more productive use of

computer technology. Other researchers (Mevarech & Rich, 1985; Ragosta,

Holland & Jamison, 1982) noted that CAI confers greater benefits on

economically disadvantaged students than those from more privileged

backgrounds. Lower achiever students, too, benefited greatly from opportunities

to interact privately with CAI drill-and –practice and tutorial programs.

Computer can, therefore, be seen as a tool for effective teaching and

learning of cognitive structure, psychomotor and affective abilities. When

taking into account cognitive growth, some studies have shown an increase in

this learning when CAI was infused with the instructional delivery. One

particular study analyzed the incorporation of interactive media to aid students

in a science course. At the end of the six-week unit, there was an overall

improvement of 24% in the number of correct responses, mainly higher level

thinking skills between pre and posttests. The findings revealed observable

growth in both students‟ social and thinking skills. By providing media enriched

examples of plant and animal fossils, students were able to better identify and

classify them (Henderson, Eshet, & Klemes, 2000). That the use of CAI

software increases the cognitive domain of higher-order thinking skills were

also reported. Adeniyi (1997) found that students taught mathematics and

physics with computer achieved higher cognitively than those taught without

computer. This was supported by Gambari (2004) who found that students

taught physics with CAI package performed better than those taught without it.

49

Fagbemi (2004) found that pupils taught social studies with CAI performed

better than those taught with conventional teaching method.

Closely related to the above are the findings by Ehman and Glen (1987)

and Hasselbring (1984) that CAI is more effective for teaching lower-cognitive

materials than it is for teaching higher-cognitive materials. This research makes,

essentially, the same point that CAI is particularly effective for reinforcing the

basic, fact-oriented learning most often engaged in by younger and low achiever

students. Also, Ong (1999) investigated the effects of a computerized drill- and

practice program on the achievement and attitudes of third and fourth grade

students of different ability levels. Participants outperformed control, and low-

ability students gained more than middle-or high-ability students. No attitude

difference was noted.

CAI is also useful for disabled students. For example, Bahr and Rieth

(1989) compared the effects of conventional instructions, computerized drill and

practice, and computer games on the mathematics achievement of learning of

disabled junior and senior high school students. Students in the drill-and-

practice condition outperformed other students to a modest degree. Similarly,

Hall, McLaughlin, and Bialozor, 1989) reported the results of a study in which

computer-assisted instruction was used with mildly handicapped elementary

students. The spelling achievement scores of CAI participants were significantly

greater than the scores of conventionally instructed students, and half the CAI

students had scores equal to those of their non-handicapped peers. Other

50

researches (Bialo & Sivin, 1990; Kinnaman, 1990; Roblyer, 1988) conducted

with learning disabled, mentally retarded; hearing impaired, emotionally

disturbed, and language-disordered students indicated that their achievement

levels are greater with CAI than with conventional instruction alone. In some of

these researches, handicapped CAI students even outperformed conventionally

taught, non-handicapped students.

Research on gender is always inconclusive because this comparison was

not addressed by enough researchers to draw firm conclusions. The 1988 meta-

analysis of 82 studies of CBE conducted by Roblyer, Castine, and King

concluded that effective differences slightly favour boys over girls, with

differences falling short of statistical significance.

Research evidence showed that CAI enhances students‟ performance in

all areas of discipline. A few researchers (Kulik, Kulik & Bangert-Drowns,

1985, Rodriguez & Rodriguez, 1986) compared the effectiveness of CAI in

different curricular areas. Their findings, though not conclusive, indicated that

CAI activities are most effective in the areas of science and foreign languages,

followed, in descending order of effectiveness, by activities in mathematics,

reading, language arts, and English as a second language, with CAI activities in

ESL found to be largely ineffective. Many of these studies point to students‟

appreciation of the immediate and positive feedback provided by computer

learning activities in comparison with teacher-directed activities. While cost

considerations are not a major focus of this report, it is worth noting that some

51

of the research on effectiveness also addressed the cost-effectiveness of CAI

and other computer applications. Ragosta, Holland, and Jamison (1982)

concluded that equal amounts of time of CAI reinforcement and the more-

expensive one-to-one tutoring produced equal achievement effects. Niemiec,

Sikorski, and Walberg (1996) also found CAI activities significantly more cost-

effective than tutoring and suggested that computers be used more extensively

in schools and in their 1999 study of costs, effects, and utility of CAI, Hawley,

Fletcher, and Piele noted that the cost differences between CAI and traditional

instruction were insignificant and concluded that “the microcomputer-assisted

instruction was the cost effective alternative of choice” for the grades addressed

in the study (p.22).

Cotton (1991) summarized various researches on CAI and found that:

(i) Computer-Based Education (CAI and other computer applications)

produced higher achievement than conventional instruction alone. Also,

students learn material faster with CAI than with conventional instruction

alone and retain better what they have learned with CAI than they do

what they have learned with conventional instruction alone.

(ii) The use of CAI is associated with other beneficial outcomes, including

greater internal locus of control, school attendance, cost effective,

motivation/time-on-task, immediate feedback and student-student

cooperation and collaboration than the use of conventional instruction

alone.

52

(iii) CAI is more beneficial with lower-achieving students than with higher-

achieving ones and there were no significant difference in the

effectiveness of CAI with male and female students.

From the literature reviewed on computer assisted instruction (CAI), it

shows that CAI is beneficial to the lower-achieving students than the higher-

achieving ones and its effect on gender is inconclusive. It is therefore,

imperative to consider the possibility of having an instructional medium/

strategy that will benefit all the groups of students.

Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping

Concept mapping is a type of knowledge representation. It is a technique

for representing the structure of information visually (Schie, 2002). According

to Novack, (1983) concept mapping is a technique for visually representing the

structure of information.

A concept map is a graphical representation where nodes (points or

vertices) represent concept, and links (arcs or lines) represent the relationships

between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links are labeled on the

concept map. The link between the concepts can be one way, two-way or non-

directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept

may show temporal or causal relationship between concepts. Novack‟s work is

based on Ausubel‟s theory of meaningful learning which stresses that learning

new knowledge is dependent on what is already known. More specifically, new

knowledge gains meaning when it can be substantively related to a framework

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of existing knowledge rather than being “processed and filed” in isolation

according to more or less arbitrary criteria.

A concept map consists of hierarchically arranged nodes or cells that

contain a concept, item or question and labeled links. The relationship between

nodes/ concepts is indicated by “linking” words and an arrow to describe the

direction of the maps. Concept mapping supports the visualization of such

conceptual framework and stimulates prior knowledge by making it explicitly

and requiring the learner to pay attention to the relationship between concepts

(Jonassen, 1996). Concept maps are particularly useful for representing

networks of concepts, where links do not only connect adjacent concepts but are

often linked to concepts in different sections of the concept map. The resulting

web of concepts increases the number of relationships that connect new

information to existing concepts increasing the stability of the new information.

This type of structural flexibility makes concept mapping highly suitable for

hypermedia environments, since the type of linking employed in concept maps

is an excellent representation of hypermedia‟s non-linear paradigm. Concept

maps can be useful as a tool for conceptual development of hypermedia,

navigational structures within hypermedia applications, and interfaces for the

indexing and retrieval of hypermedia objects (Plotnick, 1997).

According to Okafor and Okeke, (2006), concept mapping is a

pedagogical strategy/meta-cognitive tool based on Ausubel-Novack-Gowin

theory of meaningful learning. It is based n the idea that meaningful learning

54

occurs when new knowledge is consciously, explicitly and deliberately linked

with relevant concepts which the learner already knows. That is, teaching from

known to unknown concepts and from concrete to abstract concepts. It

encourages students to learn difficult concepts. Concept map is a schematic

representation of a set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of

propositions. Concept mapping is a tool that promotes meaningful learning as

opposed to rote learning. The hierarchical order of concept mapping integration

therein as well as its explicitness makes it an approach that concretizes abstract

knowledge. Its application therefore in linking the principles and concepts in

science is a welcome departure from algorithmic methods and conventional

methods in solving problems in science.

Concept mapping has become increasingly useful as an instructional and

meta-learning tool to facilitate meaningful learning that results when students

consciously and explicitly tie new concept to relevant knowledge they already

possess (Chen, 1998). Wang, (2007) opined that concept mapping can be use to

organize classroom teaching in order to achieve a three-dimensional objectives

of teaching and help teachers to understand students knowledge structure,

evaluate students development and also promote students self reflection,

knowledge construction and make them grasp the knowledge structure entirely

and form the strategy of cognition and meta cognition. Concept maps have been

used successfully over a range of ages and educational levels from children as

inexperienced as kindergarten (Stice and Alvarez, 1987) to sophisticated adult

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graduate students. They proposed that if students begin the use of concept maps

at a younger age before their learning pattern are firmly established, mapping

will be easier and more influential in their achievement and attitude.

Concept mapping puts concepts into perspective, analyzes relationships

and prioritizes information (Landsberger, 2001). Since mapping promotes

meaningful learning rather than rote learning, the information will likely be

retained longer (Rafferty and Fleschner, 1993). Gabel, (2003) sees concept

mapping as a successful technique that improves the understanding of science.

That concept maps are schematic diagrams that use words to show the

relationship of one concept to another. Concept mapping helps students focus

on the relationship among concepts so that students‟ long-term memories will

accord with the scientific view. Concept mapping can be very boring, but it can

be effective when used with other teaching techniques.

Schie, (2002), highlighted several purposes that concept mapping can be

used,

(i) Creativity tool: Drawing a concept map can be compared to participating

is a brainstorming session. As one put ideas down on paper without

criticism, the ideas become clearer and the mind becomes free to receive

new ideas. These new ideas may be linked to ideas already on the paper,

and they may also trigger new associations leading to new ideas.

(ii) Communication tool: A concept map produced by one person represents

one possible way to structure information or ideas. This is something that

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can be shared with others. A concept map produced by a group of people

represents the ideas of the group. In either case, concept mapping can be

used as a communication tool for people to use to discuss concepts and

the relationships between the concepts. They may try to agree on a

common structure to use as a basis for further action.

(iii) Learning tool: Novack‟s original work with concept mapping dealt with

learning. Constructivist learning theory, argues that new knowledge

should be integrated into existing structures in order to be remembered

and receive meaning. Concept mapping stimulates this process by making

it explicit and requiring learner to pay attention to the relationship

between concepts. Jonassen (1996) argues that students show some of

their best thinking when they try to present something graphically, and

thinking is a necessary condition for learning. Experiments have shown

that subjects using concept mapping out perform non-concept mapping in

longer term retention tests (Novack, Gowin and jonassen, (1983).

(iv) Problem solving: Concept mapping is also gaining inroads as a tool for

problem solving in education. Concept mapping may be used to enhance

problem-solving phases of generating alternative solutions and options.

Since problems-solving in education is usually done in small groups,

learning should also benefit from the communication enhancing

properties of concept mapping.

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Despite studies results showing the effectiveness of CAI as well as

concept mapping , students still perform poorly in science especially chemistry.

This gap in knowledge calls for this study. Hence, there is the need to evaluate

the effectiveness of computer assisted concept mapping in chemistry.

Computer Assisted Concept Mapping as an Instructional Media

Computer assisted concept mapping is a relatively new strategy in

instructional design. It incorporates concept mapping into computer assisted

instruction. Computer assisted concept mapping is an instructional strategy that

incorporates the use of computer instruction with concept mapping. Not much

work have been done using these instructional strategy to improve teaching and

learning, even where it has been used, it is outside the shore of Nigeria and no

study has been found for chemistry. For example, Chien-hsun Tu (2006),

conducted a study on the effect of computer assisted concept mapping learning

in social studies. There was a positive effect on the students‟ achievement in

social studies. Also Wongsatit, (2001), examined the effects of computer-

assisted instruction lesson with different concept mapping presentation methods

on learning achievement and retention in science subject. The results of this

study show that there were no difference in learning achievement and retention

in the science subject.

Digital Video Disc as an Instructional Media

Digital video is one of the technologies that offer a great deal of

flexibility in imparting knowledge. It is a type of motion picture which uses

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films. Video technology has been in existence in industrialized societies for

decades now. Its notable characteristics include its ability to record a

performance instantly and display “live what it has recorded, portability, show

action mechanism and self-pacing for individual learning activities (Adebayo,

2008). Video package are instructional materials that use the stimuli of sight and

hearing. According to Isiaka, (2007), video is a powerful tool for instruction in

the classroom. By means of it, students could learn about lands and people they

can never visit. Video is a potential window that can expose the minds and heart

of students to scientific concepts. Video enhances comprehension and retention.

Real life activities,illustration, demonstration and specimen are brought into the

classroom in a neat and exciting package. Learning experiences that would have

cost much (in terms of field trip) could be recorded with a video camera and

shown on a television through VHS or VCD or DVD at much less cost. Video

package have the ability to motivate and sustain learners attention at high level

(Onyegegbu, 1999). According to Ayogu (2000), the use of video in instruction

stimulates learners and induces meaningful learning on them. Video package

can be used as core or supplementary learning materials and can be used to

teach difficult Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) concepts. Ayogu,

(2000) came up with evidence that there is hardly any subject matter, which

could not be taught effectively and learned when the individual considers the

subject matter interesting. Video package is an added advantage to teaching and

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learning in that, the video package could be used for distance learning

(Adebayo, 2008).

According to Olarewaju and Jimoh, (1995), a well recorded programme

help to meet the challenges of not only representing the event, but also offering

the viewer a functional equivalence of the experience.

The video package gives the learner the ability to see and hear an

instructor, offer opportunity for behaviour modeling, demonstration and

instruction of abstract concepts. It offers a popular easy-to-use format for

instructional materials. Almost all students have access to a video player in the

home and are also used in schools. Ayogu, (2000) stated that when video

package is used to compliment instruction they can

(i) reduce abstraction in class lesson

(ii) reduce boredom among students and teachers

(iii) conserve the teachers energy

(iv) Restructure the learning environment.

(v) Make learning interesting and motivating to students.

(vi) Minimizes the problems of large class size.

(vii) Promote students participation in Science, Technology and Mathematics

(STM) lessons.

(viii) Reduce the problem of insufficiency of learning resources and

(ix.) Encourage individualized learning: video package are not only used for

instruction in the classroom, but can as well be used for conferencing.

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Digital video provides visual illustration to supplement written

instructions or text and provides consistency of information to

supplement students note taking (MIC Science Educators Portal, 2009).

According to Mayer, (2002) the combination of visual and audio should

help create the most useful multimedia learning situation. Knowledge enters the

human brain mainly through two major senses of sight and hearing. Sight covers

between 75-90% and hearing 10-15% and that the percentage of knowledge

which enters the human brain through sight and hearing is such that we can

remember 30% of what we hear, and 50% of what we hear and see

simultaneously (Gbodi, 1998). Nwoji, (2000) opined that video and television

have the potentials of enhancing quality learning of science. According to her,

they can be used to arouse interest, modify attitude, clarify concepts, stimulate

thinking, summarize contents, demonstrate and concretize knowledge that could

otherwise only be talked about in abstract terms.

Also, according to Nwoji (2000) video instruction can transmit verbal and

non-verbal kinds of information since video instruction is a multi-media

instruction with the combination of Audio and Visual materials, and that video

offers a reality of experience that stimulates self-activities on the part of the

students. It develops the continuity of thought. Video instruction is a form of

non-directive teaching techniques. The teacher produces an instructional video

package which is played on a video player connected to a television monitor

which is put on, for the learner to view. At interval he may choose to stop

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playing and explain certain points or factors or probably wait till the end of the

lesson. Learners have the opportunity to view the production over and over

again (Orisabiyi, 2007).

However, in spite of the usefulness of video instruction, if not handled by

right personnel, video as an instructional technique could be misused. If it is not

properly used, students may enjoy just viewing as any other film or probably

documentary or entertainment rather than a learning experience. Content should

be selected, so as to ensure that it goes along with the line of instruction.

Emphasis should be placed on relevant facts or ideas.

Another major problem with the video instruction is that it is not easily

adapted to the rural areas especially where there is no electricity. Even in urban

areas the teacher/instructor is at the mercy of Power Holding Company of

Nigeria (PHCN), who may or may not provide electricity. Another problem is

cost in terms of purchase of the video machine and production of the video

instructional package. Video is also very fragile, that needs handling with care.

It should not be entrusted to an untrained person. Trained personnel are needed

in handling and use of video machine during classroom presentation. Lack of

spare parts is also responsible for its non-readily use in schools. Often, when

damaged, it is usually very difficult to put it to good use again.

Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology

The Concept “gender “ has attracted the attention on many researchers,

biologist, psychologist: as a result a lot of literature exists on different

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aspects such as gender and social role, gender and work role. In this study

the differential gender achievement in science was reviewed. The term “gender

was defined by Oakley (1993) as the amount of masculinity and feminity

found in a person and obviously while there are mixtures of both in most

human beings , the normal male has a preponderance of masculinity and

the normal female has a preponderance of feminity.

Gender difference is one of the factors affecting learning and many

researchers have focused their attention on studies relating to its effect on

students achievement in science. Studies on the influence of gender on

achievement have not produced conclusive results. Some findings indicated that

significant differences existed between the achievement of male and female

students while other findings showed that gender factor had no influence on

students achievement (Yusuf, 2004).

Jimoh (1992) carried out a research work on the influence of teacher, school

variables and gender on student‟s achievements in chemistry in Nigeria

Secondary schools. He used one hundred and ninety (190) final year chemistry

students and forty four (44) chemistry teachers randomly selected from twenty –

four (24) secondary schools in five (5) local government areas of Kwara State.

He used a 19-item questionnaire administered to the chemistry teachers while

30-items chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was given to the sampled

students. The statistical procedures used were mean, frequency, chi-square and

t-test in analyzing the data collected, the result revealed that

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I Laboratory facilities, teachers‟ qualification, school location,

teaching experience had significant influence on students „level of

Achievement

II Nature of the school and gender had no appreciable influence on

students level of achievement in chemistry.

Adebayo (1997) carried out a research work on gender, environment and co

education as factors of performance in the raven‟s standard progression

matrices”. He used a non-verbal figures test of reasoning called the raven

standard progressive matrices. The test was administered to a total of four

hundred and eighty (480) students comprising of two hundred and forty (240)

boys and two hundred and thirty six (236) girls all of Mean age of 14.5

years. They were selected from eight (8) secondary schools in Lagos State,

Nigeria. The schools were single sex and co-educational and were also located

both in rural and urban areas. The results obtained were analyzed with respect to

gender environment and type of school. The findings showed that:

i. The boys performed significantly better than the girls.

ii. Students from Urban areas had high mean than those from

rural areas.

iii. Students from single-sex school had higher mean scores than

those from mixed schools with the difference being statistically

significant. The result in Nigeria is comparable to the one from

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Britain. This is because geographical location and environment do

not have effects on ravens standard progression matrices test.

Awoniyi (2000) carried out a study investigate the relationship of gender

to academic achievements. Data were collected on six course offered at college

of Education Technical, Lafiagi using 1997/98 NCE III students. Proportional

stratified systematic sampling techniques were used and the data collected were

analyzed using mean score statistical method. The result revealed that there

was a significant difference between the academic achievement of male and

female students. Balogun (2000) carried out a research work to determine

whether gender has positive effects on achievement in the productive and

receptive skill among the secretariat students. He used proportionate satisfied

random sampling method to select a total of sixty-two (62) students

comprising forty –nine (49) female and thirteen male of first year secretariat

students of Auchi Polytechnics, Auchi , University of Ibadan Modified Needs

Analysis questionnaire (UIMNAQ) was used to collect relevant date. Mean

and standard deviation were used to analyze research question while the t-test

statistics was used to test the level of significance. The result revealed that

gender does not have positive effect on the performance of the skills.

Mohammed (2000) in his study titled “assessment of female student‟

performances in selected science courses” carried out a pilot study using

selected female students offering statistics and Science Laboratory Studies. In

65

his research he compared the performance of both sexes in the courses.

Statistical chart like multiple bar charts was used for the presentation while test

of significance of correlation, regression and time series were used. The result

shows that there was a significant difference between male and female

performance. In continued concern for influence of gender on student‟s

performance, Okeke (2001) observed that in Nigeria and many other countries,

women are grossly underrepresented in the science and technological fields.

In trying to find explanations for low participation of women in science,

Okeke (2001) attributed the trend to the following factors: biological factors,

environmental inputs, such as childrearing practices, societal expectations, and

instructional strategies. To add to this fact, Erinosho (1998), pointed out that

girls usually start with positive attitude and enthusiasm towards the

sciences, but their interest diminishes as they proceed in the programme.

This occurrence led many researchers to examine the possible factors that deter

girls; interest in science. Erinosho went further to state that girls do not

experience science activities and skills in the classroom to the extent boys

do. Oakes (1990) remarked that girls are treated differently from boys by

teachers in their instructional strategies and expectations. Teachers are harder

on boys than on girls and so boys learn better and faster. Also another factor is

the use of sex-biased text-book that girls read, with more examples and

illustrations focused on males in science careers and females on stereo typed

roles with the use of generic nouns or pronouns. This is commonly seen in

66

books illustrating engineers and technicians with “male pictures and using the

pronoun “He and a clerk or typist with a picture of a female and using the

pronoun She”. These brain – wash the girls, making them believe that science

related course are not for them. Odunusi (2001) observed that the role models

provided are more male science teachers and professionals, than females. They

observed that the males receive more from teachers and dominate classroom

activities moiré than the females most importantly , there every inequalities

occurring inside and outside the classroom. These include denying girls‟

access to some subjects and also subtle differences in treatment which may

also have cultural undertone or backing.

Annetta, Mangrum, Holmes, Colazo and Cheng (2009) examine students‟

learning of simple machines, a fifth-grade (ages 10 – 11) forces and motion unit,

and student engagement using a teacher created Multiplayer Educational

Gaming Application. This mixed method study collection pre-test/post-test

results to determine student knowledge about simple machines. A survey

ascertained the time spent using the computer for general purposes, and the time

spent playing computer games as a function of gender. The pre-test design

involved 74 students, 31 males and 43 females, who played the “Dr. Friction”

Multiplayer Educational Gaming Application for several days in the middle of

the unit. Results showed the females using the computer more than their male

counterparts and males played video games more than females. Analysis of

covariance suggested no significant difference between the factor gender (p

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greater than 0.05) but statistically significant differences in gain scores (p =

0.001).

Kost, Pollock and Finkelstein (2009) examine gender differences and

factors responsible for such in introductory physics. The collection of

background factors is analyzed to determine the extent to which each factor

correlates with performance on a conceptual post-test and with gender. It was

observed that males and females with similar pretest scores do not have

significantly different post-test scores (p greater than 0.2). The post-test data are

then modeled using two regression models (multiple regression and logistic

regression) to estimate the gender in post-test scores after controlling for these

important prior factors. These prior factors account for about 70% of the

observed gender gap. The results indicate that the gender gap exists in

interactive physics classes is largely associated with differences in previous

physics and math knowledge and incoming attitudes and beliefs.

Iwendi (2009) investigated the influence of gender and age on the

mathematics achievement of secondary students in Minna metropolis, Niger

State. 195 students intact classes selected by stratified random sampling from

purposefully selected schools were used. 50-item mathematics achievement test

(MAT) was administered to the students. Mean, standard deviation and t-test

were used to analyze the data obtained. The findings showed that: (i) younger

male students performed better than the younger female students, (ii) the older

male students performed better than older female students, and (iii) no

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significant difference in the performance of younger and older students

(overall).

Adeyemi (2008) investigated the effect of thee teaching strategies

(cooperative, problem – solving and conventional) on junior secondary school

students‟ achievement in social studies. Pretest, posttest control non-randomized

quasi-experimental design was used. The study made use of 150 students (80

boys and 70 girls) that were selected using stratified sampling technique from

three public secondary schools in Ife Central Local Government Area of Osun

State, Nigeria. The unit showed that students exposed to cooperative learning

strategy performed better and their counterparts in the groups. The results of the

study also indicated that the effect of teaching strategies were gender sensitive.

However, the study did not nation the type of cooperative learning strategy

employed.

Ifamuyiwa and Akinsola (2008) investigated the effects of self and

execrative instructional strategies on senior secondary school students‟ attitude

awards mathematics. The moderating effects of locus of control and gender

were also investigated. 350 SSS II students from six purposively selected

secondary schools in Edu-North Government Areas of Ogun State participated

in the study. Three comments were developed, validated and used for data

collection. Findings showed that the treatments had significant main effect on

students‟ attitude towards mathematics. The participants exposed to self-

instructional strategy had the highest post-test mean attitude score. The study

69

found no significant main effects of locus of control and gender on the

participants‟ attitude towards mathematics. Cooperative aiming strategies are

more effective in improving students‟ attitude towards mathematics than the

conventional method.

Geist and King (2008) reviewed the assessment data, literature and

research on gender differences in mathematics. The question of whether boys

are better at mathematics has been an issue in education for the past five (5)

years. The assumption is that there is a biological difference between boys and

girls that make boys predisposed to do better in mathematics. Data from the

National Assessment of Educational Progress disputes this assumption. The

NAEP shows a gap of only 2 points between girls and boys and that has

developed only in the last decade. Findings from the reviewed literature and

research on differences in boys and girls concludes that their differences in the

way boys and girls learn and process mathematics and that this difference is not

being taken into account by our educational system.

Anagbogu and Ezelira (2007) conducted a research to examine gender

differences in scientific performance of boys and girls in some selected

secondary schools in Awka Education Zone, in Anambra State using the study

of Anagbogu (1988). The boys and girls were assigned to experimental and

control groups respectively. The research instrument was a combination of three

level tests namely cognitive skills test, affective skills test, and psychomotor

skills test. The three levels were predominantly visual materials related to

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school science practical material capable of eliciting student‟s attention. In order

to test the hypothesis the scores of boys and girls were subjected to Analysis of

Covariance (ANCOVA) on the pretest and posttest scores. The study showed

that girls performed better than boys do using categories that are human

oriented.

Orabi (2007) examined the gender differences in student academic

performance and attitudes toward their education and themselves in an

introductory engineering course. Student academic performance was evaluated

by comparing course work scores between the two genders using assignments,

projects, exams and class participation. Analysis of the academic performance

and attitude of 52 male students and 49 female students enrolled in an

introduction to engineering course sight by the same instructor was carried out

in four semesters. The results showed that there were no significant difference

between mean scores in the academic performance of the genders in the course,

and this was evident in the coursework and examination performance analysis.

Average marks scored by students of either gender were almost equal. The

attitude survey showed that men reported higher gains than women on the

technical skills, including confidence on engineering knowledge as a career and

problem solving skills while women indicated higher gains in teamwork and

design skills. Female students were able to learn the material as effectively as

the male students.

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Rodger, Murray and Cummings (2007) investigate gender differences in

achievement for 80 female and 80 male university students who were randomly

assigned to either cooperative or competitive teaching methods. After viewing a

videotaped instruction on research design, participants completed a mini-

assignment either individually in the competitive or with a same-gender partner

in the cooperative condition. All participants individually completed a multiple-

choice test to assess achievement. Although no differences were found on the

multiple-choice test, on the mini-assignment, women scored significantly higher

in the cooperative than in the competitive condition, whereas men performed

equally in both conditions.

Ifamuyiwa (2004) examined the relationship between students‟

performance in JSS Mathematics and SSS Mathematics, Further mathematics

and physics. 288 senior secondary students comprising 164 boys ad 124 girls

selected from 4 public secondary schools in Eti-Osa Local Government Area of

Lagos State. Results of the analysis of collected data for the study showed that a

significant correlation exists between students‟ performance in JSS mathematics

and their performance in SSS mathematics, further mathematics and physics

respectively. A positive relationship was found between JSS Mathematics and

SSS Mathematics and SSS Physics (r = 0.59), Further mathematics (r = 0.52)

and Mathematics (r = 0.50) respectively. The study further found that while

there is no significant gender difference in students‟ performance in JSS

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Mathematics, their performance in SSS Mathematics is significant in favour of

the boys.

Olson (2002) examined the effectiveness of cooperative learning in the

liberal mathematics course. He also examined gender-related differences in the

effects of cooperative learning in terms towards mathematics, attendance, and

retention. The quasi-experimental design compared a control section using

individualized learning methods with three treatment sections using cooperative

learning methods based on the learning together model. The finding revealed

that: (i) cooperative learning and composition of groups had no significant

effect on achievement, (ii) the differences between individual group grades

were insignificant, and the group grading method benefited the grades of only

five students, (iii) attendance had a large effect on achievement, and the

achievement score and the mathematics attitude posttest were significant

predictors of achievement, (iv) in each of the four research groups, the

individual course grades were higher for females than males, (v) females had a

larger increase in mathematics anxiety with a drop of 22 points compared to the

males drop of 10 points, (iv) also, female had smaller attitudes change than

males. All these constraints and misconceptions need to be removed and

corrected respectively in a learning situation in order to improve on female

participation and achievement in science, technology and mathematics.

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Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework that influences this study will examine two areas

of theories that contribute to the growth of computer –assisted instruction,

digital video instruction and concept mapping learning strategies. The

theoretical framework for computer-assisted instruction applies to digital video

instruction since both are seen as teaching machines.

Learning is a construct which is not directly observable but only inferred

from the behavior or activities of the learner. Learning can be defined as a

relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience in the

environment and is manifested in performance (Mallum and Haggai 2000).

Therefore, many psychologists have formulated theories meant to explain the

processes of learning. Learning theory is a tested model that explains the

process of learning in animals and human beings. These theories may be

broadly divided into two among others, namely:

Behaviorism/S-R theories of learning: Skinner‟s Operant

Conditioning

Cognitive theories of learning: Gagne‟s theory and David Ausubel‟s

theory.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Skinner‟s view grew out of observations of the performance of animals in

a device that he invented. It consisted of a small box with a lever at one side.

Whenever the animal depressed the lever, a pellet of food (positive

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reinforcement) was delivered. This came to be known as Skinner box, and has

been widely used in learning studies for more than 50 years.

Skinner concerned himself in the early years predominantly with the

study of low-level behaviours of animals, and as a result contributed

significantly to our knowledge of how simple behaviours are both learned and

weakened (extinguished). Skinner then applied these concepts to complex

behaviour and its modifications. His assumption was that high-level behaviour,

when properly analyzed, could be interpreted in terms of the complex interplay

of elementary concepts and principles. He entirely rejected cognitive

explanations of behaviour as well as any explanations attributing behaviour to

internal factors within humans or animals. Skinner‟s later years were concerned

with testing his theories concerning complex behaviour through the study of

learning in human subjects. He developed teaching machines and programmed

learning based on his response/reinforcement model.

Skinner (1968) strongly emphasized positive reinforcement throughout

his writings. Early studies indicated that punishment only temporarily

suppressed behaviour. Later studies did indicate that punishment can be

effective. In general, a combination of strong positive reinforcement for a

correct response and mild punishment for an incorrect response has been found

to provide optimal support for learning.

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Application in CAI

Skinner‟s views are directly applicable to the drill and practice and

tutorial forms of CAI, and have been used successfully in these areas for many

years.

Once mastery is reached, skinner emphasize that students must be

weaned from this approach in order to avoid rapid extinction (weakening) of the

response. To do this, he recommended shifting from continuous reinforcement

to a pattern of intermittent reinforcement. The most effective pattern yielding

the greatest retention of learning appears to be a shift first to a fixed-ratio

schedule (in which every fifth or tenth, etc, response is reinforced), and finally

to variable-ratio schedule (in which every nth response is reinforced with

delivery on a random basis). Skinner emphasized that through these methods,

behaviour could be maintained indefinitely on a very small number of

reinforcements. He concluded:

Through a proper understanding of contingencies

of reinforcements, we should be able to make

students eager and diligent and be reasonably sure

that they will continue to enjoy the things we teach

them for the rest of their lives (Skinner, 1968).

Application to Tutorials: Skinner‟s illustration of how to develop a

programmed learning sequence is directly applicable to the design of CAI

tutorial modules, as follows:

(1) Obtain a clear, detailed objective specification of what it means to know

the given subject matter.

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(2) Write a series of information, question and answer frame that expose

students to the material in graded steps of increasing difficulty and that

frequently retest the same facts from many different angles.

(3) Require the learner to be active i.e., require a response for each frame.

(4) Provide immediate feedback for each answer (response).

(5) Try to arrange the material and questions in such a manner that the

correct response is likely to occur and be reinforced (i.e., avoid errors, so

that learning is not accompanied by punishing failures).

(6) Permit students to proceed at their own pace.

(7) Provide ample backup reinforcement (praise, merits) for diligent and

effective work.

Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories are based on information-processing models. These

are concerned with how individuals gain knowledge and how they use it to

guide decisions and perform effective actions. These theories try to understand

the mind and how it works. To achieve this, they view the computer as a model

of the brain and employ much of the terminology and concepts of information

processing.

A cognitive learning theory is concerned with several key items such as

(1) effect of stimuli on the organism‟s receptors; (2) storage of information in

short-term memory (working memory); (3) storage of information in long-term

memory; 94) processes involved in encoding and decoding information; and (5)

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retrieval of the stored information, it‟s possible combination with other data,

and its ultimate effect on behaviour of the organism.

Cognitive theory recognizes the importance of reinforcement, but does

not give it the central importance accorded by Skinner. It indicates that learner

behaviour sets in motion a process that depends on external feedback, which

involves confirmation of correct performance.

An important concept contained in some cognitive theories is the

executive control process. This process controls cognitive strategies relevant to

learning and remembering in relation to such important activities as controlling

attention, encoding of incoming information, and retrieval of stored data. These

types of activities were not considered in traditional behaviourism, nor were

they given importance by Skinner. Their applications to computer-assisted

instruction, however, are critical. It is perhaps, in this area that cognitive theory

has contributed the most to CAI.

Considering cognitive learning theory overall, the following kinds of

processing during any single learning act could include:

(1) Attention-selection among incoming stimuli.

(2) Selective perception – encoding selected items for storage in short-term

memory.

(3) Rehearsal – maintaining data in short-term memory.

(4) Semantic encoding – preparing information for storage in long-term

memory.

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(5) Retrieval – searching and restoring information in working memory.

(6) Response organization – selecting and organizing performance.

(7) Feedback – the external event that sets in motion the process of

reinforcement.

(8) Executive control process – selecting and activating cognitive strategies

(Gagne and Briggs, 1979; Bower and Hilgard, 1981).

A graphical illustration of the above model is provided below:

Figure 1: Cognitive learning theory model

EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESS

(Awareness, Motivations, Emotions,

Thought Processes, Encoding, Search,

Retrieval, etc)

LONG – TERM MEMORY

SHORT– TERM MEMORY

Receptors (Eyes, Ears, etc)

Effectors (Speech, Muscle etc)

Stimuli from Environment

Reinforcement from Environment

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Application in CAI

Cognitive learning theories are most applicable to the design and

development of tutorials. This approach has been pioneered most actively by

Robert M. Gagne, a former follower of Skinner and the behaviourist model.

Gagne has emphasized the importance of identifying the goals of the learning

task followed by the development of specific instructional objectives to meet

these goals. He emphasizes that such objectives must be stipulated in concrete

behavioural terms. To develop instructional objectives, it is necessary to analyze

the criterion task into elementary behavioural components and to determine

their organization. The skill level of the students must then be assessed and

programmes designed to teach the skills.

In development and presentation of materials, Gagne has followed

Skinner in emphasizing that learning must occur in small steps, sequenced so

that lower-level learning required for performance on more complex task is

learnt first. Again, like Skinner, has emphasized the use of positive

reinforcement in a repetitive manner.

In regard to the role of teacher or adviser in CAI, he has again followed

Skinner‟s lead by emphasizing that hints and help needs to be adapted to the

individual learner. He has suggested that students be provided on a little help at

a time, thus permitting the students to use as much as he needs. The students is

thus placed in control of the learning situation. So far as the mastery is

concerned, Gagne has expanded Skinner‟s basic views on the topic to include

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more details related to human learning. He has defined mastery as materials that

have been learned to the level of which they are readily accessible to recall at

the time of learning.

Gagne‟s most significant contribution, however, relates to his application

of cognitive learning theory to the task of designing CAI modules. Thus, he has

brought to the topic some additional insights and emphases, such as his concern

with gaining the student‟s attention and developing expectancies. This can be

achieved in a CAI module by providing advance organizers in the instruction.

These organizers might take the forms of charts or graphs that reflect the

structure and organization of the lesson content.

Gagne (1982) identified five categories of learning outcomes that he

believes represent all types of learning. These include: (1) intellectual skills

(how to do something of an intellectual sort); (2) cognitive strategies

(capabilities that govern the individual‟s own learning, remembering, and

thinking behaviour); (3) verbal information; (4) motor skills; and (5) attitudes.

Within these various types of learning, Gagne (1982) expressed his belief

that there must be nine events of instruction. The internal learning processes

(expressed in terms of cognitive theory) and external instructional events that he

has postulated are listed below: The internal learning processes are

1. Alertness (2) Expectancy (3) Retrieval to working memory (4) Selective

perception (5) Semantic encoding (6) Retrieval and responding (7)

Reinforcement (8) Cueing retrieval (9) Generalizing

While the external instructional events are Gaining attention

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1. Informing learner of lesson objective

2. simulating recall of prior learning

3. presenting stimuli with distinctive features

4. Guiding learning

5. Eliciting performance

6. Providing informative feedback

7. Assessing performance ( 9 ) Enhancing retention and learning transfer

The implication of these theories and innovations on instructional

development are two folds. They stress the importance of entry behaviour that

will provide necessary cues in the instructional process and an instructional

programme that is activity oriented, both of which are preconditions for

effective performance. Attendant to this is the function of motivating the

willingness of the learner to play the leading role of reconstruction. An

attractive and interesting instructional device that will present challenging

learning tasks to the students in an innovative manner will promote effective

learning performance. This device is the computer.

The theoretical framework for concept mapping will be advanced using

the cognitive learning theory of David Ausubel. Ausubel, 1962, 1963, 1968,

1978, and 2000 proposed the idea of meaningful learning. Teachers can

encourage meaningful learning by using tasks that actively engage the learner in

searching for relationship between her/his existing knowledge and the new

knowledge. Cognitive theorists focus on how to engage learners‟ cognitive

processes during learning. The theory emphasizes the importance of individual

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knowledge construction. The consequence of this is the use of meta-cognitive

strategies. One of such strategies is concept mapping.

Constructivists viewed that knowledge is a construction of reality, that

learners are active and proactive in the process of learning. Learning should

involve many interconnected pieces of information. New pieces of information

are added to this connected set of ideas and become interrelated to the

information that is already there. This forms a massive web of ideas and leads

the leaner to related information that becomes integrated as personal knowledge,

(Novak and Gowin, 1984). The learner has to make the assimilation of new

concepts into existing cognitive structures in order for learning to be

meaningful. Therefore, to acquire meaningful learning, the learner requires a

deliberate effort to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts he already

possesses, concept mapping is one of the instructional strategies that can foster

meaningful learning.

Empirical studies on Computer-Assisted Concept Mapping

Not much research work known to the researcher has been carried out on

the effectiveness of computer-assisted concept mapping instructional strategy

for teaching chemistry in Nigeria.

Tan and Seng, (2000), investigated the effects of incorporating concept

mapping into computer-assisted instruction. The investigation was carried out

using tenth grade students in Singapore. The study also considers the chemistry

achievement of these students. The results show that concept mapping

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accompanying a computer assisted tutorial program can enhance students‟

achievement.

Wongsatit, (2001), examined the effects of computer-assisted instruction

lesson with different concept mapping presentation methods on learning

achievement and retention in science subject. The results of this study show that

there were no difference in learning achievement and retention in the science

subject.

Chien-Hsuntie, (2007), carried out a study on integrating Information

Technology into instruction and computer-assisted concept mapping learning in

social studies. Four seventh-grade classes were involved in a quasi-experiment

using the pretest-posttest non-equivalent group design. According to the results,

the conclusions are as follows

i. Integrating Information Technology Instruction (IIII) had positive and

significance effects on the students social studies learning achievement,

but didn‟t on learning retention.

ii. Computer Assisted Concept Mapping Learning (CCML) had positive and

significant effects on the students‟ social studies learning.

iii. The students had positive responses to the use of IIII and CCML in social

study learning.

Lou, Wen and Tseng, (2007) investigated the effects of integrating

concept mapping into computer assisted instruction in chemistry learning

achievement. Quasi-experimental design was adopted. Two classes of first

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grade students at a comprehensive high school were chosen, one as

experimental group and the other class as the control group. The time period of

the intervention was eight weeks. The study revealed that (1) the chemistry

achievement of the students in the experimental group was significantly better

than that in the control group, there was no significant difference in the

academic achievement and learning retention between genders in the

experimental group.

Also Pei-Lin and Chiu-Jung, (2004) investigated the effects of Computer-

Assisted Concept Mapping on English for Foreign Language (EFL) students

English reading comprehension. Ninety four freshmen who took the English

course were divided into low-level and high-level group according to their

English proficiency. Computer Assisted Concept Mapping strategy was

introduced to the learners in the class to improve their reading ability. Through

the analysis of ANOVA, the result showed that the effect of computer-based

concept mapping reading strategy has more benefit on the high-level group than

that on the low-level one.

Yusuf and Afolabi, (2010) investigated the effects of computer assisted

instruction on secondary school students performance in biology. Also the

influence of gender on the performance of students exposed to computer

assisted instruction in individualized or cooperative learning settings was

examined. The research was a quasi experimental involving a 3*2 factorial

design. The sample of the study comprised 120 first year senior secondary

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school students (SSS 1) sampled from three private secondary schools in Oyo

state, Nigeria. The students pre-test and post test scores were subjected to

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The findings of the study showed that the

performance of students exposed to CAI either individually or cooperatively

were better than their counterparts exposed to conventional classroom

instruction. However, no significant difference existed in the performance of

male and female students exposed to CAI in either individual or cooperative

settings.

Empirical studies on Digital Video Instruction

Gbodi and Laleye, (2006) examined the effect of videostaped instruction

on the learning of integrated science. Two hundred Junior Secondary School

(JSS) students took part in the study. Two schools were randomly assigned

experimental and control groups respectively. The findings of the study

indicated that the experimental group that was treated with video instruction

performed significantly better than the control group who had the traditional

lecture method.

Orisabiyi, (2007) in her study examined the effect of video taped package

on biology in Fiditi Oyo State. One hundred and twenty students were randomly

sampled and used for the study. Two schools were assigned experimental and

control groups respectively. The sampled students were pre and post-tested, the

data collected analyzed. The results showed that the experimental group taught

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using video instruction performed better than the control group. The

experimental group had a mean score of 70.27 while the control group had

54.20 as their mean score.

Osokoya, (2007) investigated the effect of video instruction on secondary

school students‟ achievement in History. The study adopted a quasi-

experimental research design using video instruction and conventional

strategies. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select 92 history

students made up of 40 males and 52 females. The result showed that students

taught with video performed better (X = 25.30) than those taught with

conventional method (X = 20.12). The result of the ANCOVA statistical

analysis revealed that gender was not a significant factor on students‟

achievement in history.

Yusuf, (2006) in his study investigated the influence of video and

Audiotapes feedback modes on student teachers performance, fourty student

teachers were assigned to two groups: videotape group twenty (20) and the

audio tape group twenty (20). The data analyzed using analysis of covariance

(ANCOVA) revealed no significant difference in the performance of the two

groups.

Adebayo, (2008) investigated the effect of combining lecture method of

teaching with digital video and computer assisted instructional packages on

students achievement in mathematics. Eighty (80) SSII

students were randomly

selected. The researcher adopted the pretest-posttest experimental control group

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design. Four schools were randomly selected. Twenty students were selected

from each of the four schools. Three experimental groups I, II and III and a

control group. The experimental group II was exposed to video instruction. The

results of the data analysis revealed that the experimental group II had mean

score (X = 78.00) while control group had (X = 54.50). This showed a

significant difference in the performance of the experimental and control group

with the experimental group performing better than the control group.

Thomas and Tinu, (2008) studied the effect of two programmed

instructional strategies on science students performance in chemistry in Nigeria.

The programmed instructional strategies are computer-assisted and videotape

mediated instructional strategies. The study employed a quasi-experimental

design. The result of the data analysis showed that the experimental group

exposed to video instruction performed significantly better than the control

group who were exposed to conventional lecture method.

Adeosun and Ayodele, (2008) examined the relative effects of

demonstration and videotape mediated instructional strategies on Nigerian

secondary school students achievement and retention in Yoruba language.

Quasi-experimental pretest, posttest control group design was employed. The

sample consisted of one hundred and thirty five junior secondary school class

two students-selected from three secondary schools used for the study. The

study had two experimental groups with the experimental group exposed to

video instruction. Pretest-posttest and retention test were used to collate data.

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The data collected were analyzed using ANOVA, ANCOVA and t-test. The

findings showed that the experimental group exposed to video instruction

performed significantly better than the experimental group exposed to

demonstration alone and better than the control group. The findings also showed

the same pattern of effectiveness on retention.

Isiaka, (2007) conducted a study on effectiveness of video as an

instructional medium in teaching rural children agricultural and environmental

sciences. Video instruction was compared with the use of realia, charts and

traditional lecture method. 240 pupils were randomly selected from three rural

primary schools selected for the study. The study revealed that the pupils taught

with video performed significantly better than those taught using chart and

traditional lecture method.

Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi, (2004) examined the effects of video and

audiotape instruction on cognitive learning outcomes in economics. The study is

a quasi-experimental design which assisted of 364 senior secondary two (SSII)

students as sample. The results showed that there was significant difference in

the students cognitive achievement through the use of video for instruction.

Nwoji, (2000) conducted a study on improving teaching through the use

of media (Video Instruction and Audiotape instruction). Two secondary schools

were randomly selected which consisted of four hundred and seventy two junior

secondary school one (JSSI) students. The data collected was analyzed using

mean and t-test. The results of the study indicated that video instruction

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enhanced performance than audiotape instruction as the total mean score for

video instruction is 122.60 while that of audiotape instruction is 70.70.

Boster, Meyer, Roberto, Inge and Strom, (2006) examined some effects

of video streaming on educational achievement. 3rd

and 8th grade students

participated in the study. A total of 913 students and 38 teachers from 13

schools were in the 3rd

grade science. also 558 students and 8 teachers from 4

schools in the 8th grade science. the schools were primarily rural. The results

showed that the experimental group student‟s improvement on achievement

tests exceeded the control group student‟s improvement by 12.6%. The

implication is that the experimental group who were treated using video

instruction performed better than the control group.

Pamela, Morgan, Doreen, Mcllroy, and Devitt, (2002) made a comparison

of experiential and visual learning for undergraduate medical students 144

students of medical school of the University of Toronto participated in the

study. The results of the study indicated that while scores for each group

improved significantly from pretest to posttest, there was no significant

difference in score between those who received video based education and those

who received simulation based education.

Empirical studies on gender influence on Academic Achievement in

Science

Although many empirical researches on the influence of gender on

students‟ achievement are conflicting and inconclusive, most of the literature

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reviewed showed that male students still perform relatively better than their

female counterpart in science.

Nwosu (2001) stated that girls are denied out of school and pre-school

experiences especially those involving visual activities-behaviour. This is a

problem as it inhibits the development of mathematics and science capabilities

in girls. He suggested the need to use activity experiences at home to acquire

science and technology skills. Inyang (1988), noted that boys achieve better

result in science and show more positive attitude to the subject than girls. He

went further to enumerate some factors that tend to contribute to this state of

affairs.

I. The preferential attention given to boys by teachers and less attention to

girls.

II. Teachers tend to reprimand boys more severely than girls, for poor

performance in science subject because they expected the boys to do better.

III. Many teachers are not bothered when girls contribute less to classroom

discussion because girls seem to be expectedly quiet in nature.

Njoku (2000), asserted that girls perform poorly relative to boys at all

levels of science education in Nigeria. Also Njoku (2001) opined that many

socio-cultural factors jointly and separately depress female interest,

participation, and achievement in science at all levels of education.

According to Gbodi (1998) and Olorundare (1998) there are stereotypical

disciplines associated with males and females, for example, the Spartans and the

Aristocrats of Medieval era taught the males military subjects while the females

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were taught to learn domestic subjects, all in an attempt to prepare them for

their roles in the society. Gender difference is one of the factors affecting with

learning and many researchers have focused their attention on studies relating to

its effect on pupils‟ performance in science. Studies on the effects of students‟

gender on achievement have not produced conclusive results. Some findings

indicated that significant differences existed between the performance of male

and female students while other findings showed that sex factor had no impact

on students performance (Yusuf, 2004).

Many past studies (Ifamuyiwa, 2004; Iwendi, 2007; Makrakis & Sawaba,

1996; Shashani, (1993) have pointed to the fact that male students are

academically superior to their female counterparts in science at the JSS and SS

levels. Contrary to the earlier assertion that male student perform better in

science than do girls, (Anagbogu & Ezeliora, 2007; Olson, 2002) observed that

female students performed better than their male counterparts. Other researches

(Iwendi, 2007; Ifamuyiwa, 2004; Joiner et al, 1996; Magone, 1997; Orabi,

2007; & Voogt, 1987) have revealed little or no gender differences in

performance of males and females in science subjects.

Olson (2002) examined the effectiveness of cooperative learning in a

liberal arts mathematics course in terms of achievement, composition of the

cooperative groups, mathematics anxiety, and attitudes towards mathematics,

attendance, and retention. The quasi-experimental design compared a control

section using individualized learning methods with three treatment sections

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using cooperative learning methods based on the learning together model. The

finding revealed that: (i) cooperative learning and composition of groups had no

significant effect on achievement, (ii) the differences between individual group

grades were insignificant, and the group grading method benefited the grades of

only five students, (iii) attendance had a large effect on achievement, and the

achievement score and the mathematics attitude posttest were significant

predictors of achievement, (iv) in each of the four research groups, the

individual course grades were higher for females than males, © females had a

larger decrease in mathematics anxiety with a drop of 22 points compared to the

males drop of 10 point, (vi) also, female had smaller attitudes changes then

males.

Magone (1997) carried out a study on gender differences in response to a

mathematical performance. Assessment instrument consisting of extended

constructed response tasks for an ethnically diverse group of middle school

students who reside in low communities was used. The students were enrolled

in innovative instructional programme in which mathematics was taught with

emphasis on problem solving, reasoning conceptual understanding and

communicating. Mathematically, gender difference was examined using a

performance assessment instrument consisting of 35 extended constructed

response tasks. From the study, the result suggested that males and females

seem to have the same response style to the assessment. However, females

attempted more tasks and displayed the work and justification more completely

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than males. Little gender difference existed in rubric scores of the 35 tasks, one

favoured male students and other one favoured females.

Voogt (1987) examined performance and engagement in computer

literacy of boys and girls (N=873). Performance and engagement in computer

literacy are established with CAST. Computer Alfabetisme Schalen Twente, a

Dutch version of the Minnesota Computer Literacy Awareness Assessment. The

results of the study show that girls perform lower and are less engaged in

computer literacy than boys. Research on sex differences in mathematics and

science education shows that three factors are important for the design of action

programs for girls, viz, the expectation and behaviour of significant others, the

perception of the usefulness of the subject for a future career and a positive

attitude towards the subject. This study shows that these factors seem to be

relevant for computer literacy too. It has been found that a positive attitude

towards mathematics and physics is positively related to a positive attitude

towards computer literacy. An examination of the relation between performance

in computer literacy and attitude toward mathematics and physics shows no

differences in performance between boys and girls with a negative attitude

towards mathematics and physics. For boys and girls with a positive attitude

towards mathematics and physics, however, a difference in performance in

computer literacy has been found in favour of boys.

Ifamuyiwa (2004), Examine the relationship between students‟

performance in JSS mathematics and SSS Mathematics, further- mathematics

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and physics. 288 senior secondary school students comprising 164 boys and 124

girls selected from 4 public secondary schools in Eti-Osa Local Government

Area of Lagos State. Results of the analysis of collected data for the study

showed that a significant correlation exists between students‟ performance in

JSS Mathematics and their performance in SSS Mathematics, further-

mathematics and physics respectively. A positive relationship was found

between JSS Mathematics and SSS Physics (r=0.59), further- mathematics

(r=0.52) and Mathematics (r=0.50) respectively. The study further found that

while there is no significant gender difference in students‟ performance in JSS

Mathematics, their performance in SSS Mathematics is significant in favour of

the boys.

Iwendi (2009) investigated the influence of gender and age on the

mathematics achievement of secondary school students in Minna Metropolis,

Niger State. 195 students‟ intact classes selected by stratified random sampling

from purposefully selected schools were used. 50 items Mathematics

Achievement Test (MAT) was administered to the students. Mean, standard

deviations and t-test statistic were used to analyze the data obtained. The

findings showed that: (i) younger male students performed better than the

younger female students, (ii) the older male students performed better than older

female students, and (iii) no significant difference in the performance of

younger and older students (overall).

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Demircloglu and Norman, (1999), examined gender effect on chemistry

achievement. The data collected when analyzed show no significant difference

in chemistry achievement of males and females. This finding is in contrast with

literature saying males ability and feelings related with science is more positive

than that of females.

Joiner, Messer, Littleton and Light (1996), investigated the effect of

gender, computer experience and computer-based problem solving. The study

involved 65 children (31 boys and 34 girls) aged between 10 and 11. It

examined the effect of software type by comparing children‟s performance on a

male stereotyped version of the software with their performance on a

structurally identical, but female stereotyped version of the software. It was

found that girls performed worse than boys on both versions of the software and

this effect persisted even when the effect of computer experience was removed.

There was also a gender difference in the children‟s preference. Girls preferred

the female version more than the boys and there was also a significant

relationship between the girls‟ preferences and their performance. There was no

relationship between the boys‟ preferences and their performance.

Makrakis and Sawada (1996) conducted a study on gender, computers

and other school subjects among Japanese and Swedish students. The study

focused on gender, computers and other major schools subjects. The sample

consisted of 773 ninth-grade school students both from the municipality of

Tokyo. Japan (204 girls and 266 boys) and from Stockholm, Sweden (144 girls

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and 159 boys). The measurement of gender-typing of computers and other

major school subjects has been done on the basis of three dimensions:

usefulness, aptitude and liking. The analysis focused upon the calculation of

descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis of variance. In general, regardless

of the country, males reported higher scores of usefulness, aptitude and liking to

computers and more positive attitudes toward mathematics, and science than

girls did. Girls consistently reported that computers, mathematics and sciences

were the subjects which were less liked and languages the most liked. The

persistence of gender differences in computers, despite a general rise in

computer awareness, indicates a failure in the way gender issues are addressed

and tackled in schools.

Orabi (2007) examined the gender differences in student academic

performance and attitudes toward their education and themselves in an

introductory engineering course. Students‟ academic performance was

evaluated by comparing course work scores between the two genders using

assignments, projects, exams and class participation. Analysis of the academic

performance and attitude of 52 male students and 49 female students enrolled in

an introduction to engineering course taught by the same instructor was carried

out in four semesters. The results showed that there were no significant

difference between mean scores in the academic performance of the genders in

the course, and this was evident in the coursework and examination

performance analysis. Average marks scored by students of either gender were

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almost equal. The results also indicated that academic performance in the course

was affected by several factors such as student ability, motivation, the quality of

secondary education obtained. The female students had a slightly higher overall

course grade average than men and outperformed the male students on all class

assignments except the final design project. The attitude survey showed that

men reported higher gains than women on the technical skills, including

confidence on engineering knowledge as a career and problem-solving skills

while women indicated higher gains in teamwork and design skills. Female

students were able to learn the material as effectively as the male students.

Shashaani (1993) carried out a study on gender-based differences in

attitudes of secondary schools students toward computers. Approximately 1750

ninth and twelfth grade students from five different school districts in

Pittsburgh, Pennslvania, participated in the survey. A significant sex difference

in attitudes towards computers was observed. Although both males and females

alike were aware of the value and benefits of computers in daily life, girls

showed less interest in learning about and using computers. Male and female

differences were mostly realized with respect to self-confidence in using

computers. Girls reported fear of using computers and feeling helpless around

computers. Nevertheless females strongly showed that women have equal

competencies in computer use. The results also revealed a strong relationship

between students‟ computer attitudes and their perception of their parents‟

attitude toward computers. The statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that

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the differences in attitude (interest, confidence and stereotyping) about

computers among girls and boys are significant and reflect gender-role

socialization.

Anagbogu and Ezeliora (2007) conducted a research to examine sex

differences in scientific performance of boys and girls in some selected

secondary schools in Awka Education Zone, in Anambra State using the study

of Anagbogu (1988). The boys and girls were assigned to experimental and

control groups respectively. The research instrument was a combination of three

level tests namely, cognitive skills test, affective skills test, and psychomotor

skills test. The three levels were predominantly visual materials related to

school science practical materials capable of eliciting student‟s attention. In

order to test the hypothesis the scores of boys and girls were subjected to

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on the pretest and posttest scores. The

study showed that girls performed better than boys do using strategies that are

human oriented.

The influence of gender on pairing (grouping) is another area which has

attracted attention. The majority of the research on computer assisted instruction

supported that when students are paired with others in a structured format,

students‟ performances are likely to increase, including the low achievers (Dee

& Henkin, 1999; Doran & Klein, 1996; Lane & Aleksic, 2002).

Adamson (1997) conducted a study on the effect of gender and group

gender composition experience of seventh and eighth grade students‟ work with

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multimedia programme in Loess Hills interactive. In the study, 127 middle

school science students (60 males and 67 females) from two schools

participated in the month long study. Students were randomly assigned to

cooperative instructional groups of 3, 4, and 5 with the following gender

composition (i) Same Gender (ii) Mostly males (iii) Mostly females and (iv)

Equal gender. The interaction categories included (a) Path/Pace (b) Task (c)

Socio-emotional (d) Technical (e) Off-task and (f) Uncodable. The attitudinal

survey administered at the end of the four weeks measured 5 factors. 1. Positive

emotional reaction to the group, (2) Presence of helping behaviour in the group

and (3) preference for small group learning. A 2-way ANOVA was used on the

verbal interaction and attitudinal data to determine if significant difference

occurred between male and female in the group varying gender composition.

The result of the study showed that gender did not have any significant effect on

either interaction or attitude of the students.

Underwood, McCaffrey and Underwood (1990), found that single gender

pairs of elementary school children showed improvement in task performance

when compared to the same children working individually. Mixed gender pairs

showed no relative improvement. In a subsequent study, researchers found that

girls tended to cooperate even when instructed not to organize or create roles for

each other. Mixed pairs tended not to cooperate, even when instructed to share

task work. Boys did not cooperate, unless so instructed specifically, after which

their performance improved (Underwood, Jindal and Underwood, 1994).

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Herschel (1994) examined group gender composition using a networked

group support system environment. Herschel studied 61 groups consisting of

269 university students. In his study, Herschel found no significant differences

between gender-based ideas generated using the networked group environment.

This study provided evidence of the leveling effect often seen within a

networked environment. When groups interacted on an electronic basis using a

networked environment, gender differences that typically occurred in a face-to-

face setting were minimized. This finding contrasted with the Underwood

studies cited earlier. The major differences between the findings of Herschel

(1994) and Underwood et al (1994) was the presence or absence of nonverbal

communication factors.

Yelland (1995) consistently, examined gender as a variable in her

research. In comparison of mixed and same gender pairs when performing Logo

tasks, Yelland found minor differences between all boys and girls pairs in

examining the efficiency of tasks performed. Mixed gender pairs took twice as

long to complete the task than did pairs of girls assigned to complete the same

task.

Contrary to expectations, other works showed that gender have no

bearing on the learning of science. Okeke (1986) tested 120 students in SS II, on

the understanding of the concepts like reproduction, transport mechanism and

growth, based on the piagetian psychological method, using videotaped

recording, oral interview and 27 open-ended questions, discovered that there is

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no significant difference in the performance of both male and female students.

Adeniran”s study (1991) showed that there was no significant difference in the

performance as related to gender when he used 80 students, exposing them to

video mediated instruction on ecological concepts. He showed that there was no

significant difference in their performance as related to gender. Olayemi (1991),

using video instruction, showed that there is no significant difference between

the mean scores of the males and females taught ecological concept. He showed

learning to be gender friendly.

Abolade (2000) also showed no significant difference in the mean

achievement scores of male and female when taught science concepts using

videotaped instruction. 40 students from two schools in Ilorin were used for the

study.

Summary of Literature Reviewed

The literature reviewed above revealed the conceptual framework of

science in which the need for science and technology education in Nigeria was

reviewed. The review further examined the concept of chemistry, the

importance of instructional media as well as the role of information and

communication technology in the teaching and learning process.

Studies on computer assisted instruction; concept mapping and digital

video instruction as they affect student‟s academic achievement were reviewed.

It was noted that results of these studies were contradictory and inconclusive.

Some authors reported that students taught with computer assisted instruction as

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well as concept mapping performed significantly better in some subject areas.

Also the review indicated significant performance of students when taught using

videotape than the conventional lecture method. On the contrary, other

researchers reported that students taught using computer assisted instruction did

not show significant difference in their academic achievement. Also because the

use of videotape for instruction has become obsolete, a gap was created which

calls for an investigation into the effectiveness of computer assisted concept

mapping and digital video instruction on student‟s academic achievement in

chemistry.

The area of interest in this study is the comparative effect of computer

assisted concept mapping as an instructional strategy, digital video and the

conventional lecture method. It is envisaged that the computer assisted concept

mapping and digital video instruction would go a long way in enhancing

achievement more than the conventional lecture method.

The theoretical framework on which the study is being anchored was

examined. The Stimulus-Response (S-R) as well as cognitive theories of

learning was reviewed. The theories are the skinner‟s operant conditioning

theory which support the use of teaching machine and David Ausubel‟s theory

of meaningful learning were looked into.

Evidences from various studies on gender-related differences in student‟s

achievement in sciences that were reviewed are inconclusive. Some researchers

reported that males are superior to females in science achievement while others

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found that females outperformed their male counterparts in the sciences. Yet in

some other reports, the researchers established that gender is not a significant

factor in student‟s achievement in the sciences.

However, from the review, it was observed that many of the studies were

focused on some part of science education, social studies and language. Not

many researchers have looked into the effect of computer assisted concept

mapping instructional strategies on student‟s academic achievement in

chemistry. In addition, most studies did not examine the comparative effects of

computer assisted concept mapping and digital video instruction and

conventional lecture method rather they compared either computer assisted

concept mapping or video instruction with traditional lecture method or with

other forms of instructional strategies.

In general, not much empirical studies have been done on computer

assisted concept mapping; talk less of comparing its effect with other

instructional strategies such as digital video instruction on student‟s academic

achievement. This underscores the need, not only to explore the comparative

effect of computer assisted concept mapping, digital video instruction and

lecture method in enhancing achievement in chemistry at secondary school

level, but also the extent to which these effects depend on gender influences.

Furthermore, there are areas of difference between various literature

reviewed and the present study. Such differences as geographical scope of the

study, sample size, subject area, instructional strategies, computer software,

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digital video presentation and method of statistical analysis. Most of the studies

were conducted in developed countries and those conducted in Nigeria were

carried out in towns different from where this current study was conducted. This

study therefore, examined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping and

digital video instruction on the academic achievement of students in chemistry.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

In this chapter, the techniques and procedures used in carrying out the

study was described. Specifically, this chapter examined the following:

The Design of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and

sampling techniques, instruments for data collection, development of learning

instrument for the treatment, validation of and reliability of the instruments,

control of extraneous variables, experimental procedure, method of data

collection and method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The research design adopted for this study is a quasi-experimental design.

It is a pretest, posttest, non-randomized, non-equivalent control group design

(Sambo, 2008). A 3 x 2, multiple treatment factorial design was used in this

study. This design represents three levels of treatment (computer assisted

concept mapping, digital video instruction and lecture method) and two levels

of gender (male and female). Factorial design allows the concurrent

manipulation of two or more independent variables in order to assess the effects

of their interaction on the dependent variable. (Kareem, 2003).

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Figure 2: Research Design Layout

Groups Pretest Treatment Posttest

Experimental

Group 1

O1 (CACM) X1

Experimental

Group 2

O1 (DVI) X2 O2

Control

Group 3

O1 X3 (LM) O2

Key:

O1: represents pretest observations on chemistry Achievement Test of

experimental groups 1, 2 and control group.

O2: represents posttests observation on Chemistry Achievement Test of

experimental groups 1, 2 and control group.

X1 represents treatment for Experimental group 1.

X2 represents treatment for Experimental group 2.

X3 represents control group without treatment

The study concerns itself with the following variables, independent

variable, moderating variable and dependent variable. The independent

variables in this study are the teaching methods and gender. The dependent

variable is students achievement in chemistry concepts.

Area of the Study

This study was carried out in senior secondary schools in the zone B

Educational zone of Niger state. Minna metropolis in the zone B educational

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zone was used. The reason for the choice of senior secondary schools in Minna

which is in zone B educational zone of Niger state for the study is because it is

an area where students‟ difficulty in senior secondary school chemistry has been

identified. (Sani, 2006).

Population of the Study

The population for this study consisted of all senior secondary two (SSII)

chemistry students in all the sixteen public senior secondary schools in Minna,

Niger state. (see appendix C). The target population is two thousand seven

hundred and eight senior secondary school chemistry students in SSII. This

population comprises one thousand six hundred and fourty eight males and one

thousand five hundred and fifty eight females. The choice of ssII was based on

the fact that the National curriculum for secondary school (Federal Ministry of

Education FME, 2009) provides that the aspect of senior secondary school

chemistry upon which the treatment was based be taught at the second year of

senior secondary. See Appendix L.

The choice of SSII students will be based on the following premises.

i. That the proposed students must have been selected and enrolled for

chemistry subject.

ii. that they have been exposed to the teaching of the SSCE chemistry syllabus

and are not pre-occupied with any major examination

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iii. That they are expected to have been exposed to some pre-requisite of

chemistry concepts at SSI level. This is important because certain pre-

requisite skills need to be acquired before the complex ones.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

A two-stage sampling technique was adopted. Firstly, a purposive

random sampling was adopted to obtain three secondary schools in Minna,

Niger State. The schools were purposefully sampled based on equivalence in

(laboratories, facilities and manpower), school location (urban area, Minna

metropolis), gender composition (mixed schools), well equipped computer

laboratories (under the school net programme) exposure (students and teachers

exposure to the use of computer in their schools).

Secondly, the three sampled equivalent and co-educational/mixed schools

were randomly assigned to each of the two experimental groups and control

group using simple random sampling technique. One school was assigned

experimental group one (1) and was treated using Computer Assisted Concept

Mapping (CACM), another school was assigned experimental group two (2) and

was treated using Digital Video Instruction (DVI) while the third equivalent and

co-educational school was used for control group and were taught using the

Lecture Method (LM). The three schools were co-educational schools that

consisted of both male and female students.

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The study adopted the use of intact class approach where all the students

in the class were involved in teaching and testing sessions. Therefore, the total

number that was sampled for this study from the three sampled schools is 210.

The distribution of sample for the study is as follows

SCHOOL MALE FEMALE TOTAL

A 42 26 68

B 40 24 64

C 48 30 78

TOTAL 130 80 210

Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument used in collecting data in this study is researcher adapted

Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT). The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT)

consisted of 50 multiple choice items adapted from past examination questions

of West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination

Council (NECO). The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was based on SSII

curriculum on the concept of (i) energy effects (ii) chemical equilibrium (iii)

reversibility of reaction and (iv) le chatelier‟s principle.

These chosen topics were selected from the senior secondary two (SSII)

chemistry syllabuses and scheme of work and correspond to what the students

should be taught in their schools at the time of the study. Each item of the

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instrument was a multiple choice question with four options (A-D) as possible

answers to the question. Only one of the four options will be the correct answer.

The students were made to respond to the instrument in two sections. The

first part (section A) elicited information on the students‟ personal data, while

section B elicited information on the achievement of the students in the

contents. This was administered to the experimental and control groups as

pretest and posttest. To reduce the effect of pretest and posttest, the questions

were reshuffled and administered in a different random order in the posttest. On

the scoring of the multiple choice items, two (2) marks were awarded for each

correct answer and zero (0) mark for each wrong answer. The instrument was

scored over 100 (2x50 items).

Development of the Learning Instrument for the Treatment

These are Computer Assisted concept Mapping Learning Package on

Chemistry (CACMLP) and Digital Video Instructional Package (DVIP) on

Chemistry usable at two different instructional learning settings developed by

the researcher and programmer. The need for researcher made computer

package and digital video package is based on the fact that the commercially

produced computer assisted and digital video instructional packages are not

common. When they are available, they may not be directly relevant to the topic

or objectives to be achieved in a lesson. Moreover, using imported software to

implement chemistry instruction in Nigeria may not be culturally relevant. As a

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result of this, developing instructional packages for use by the researcher is

inevitable.

The instructional packages consisted of the same topics which were

subdivided into two units. The CAI package was written in “Macromedia flash”

that utilizes the script symbolic instructional code (language) animation and can

accommodate interactive instructional process. The main menu consisted of

background, introduction instruction section, the topics, units under the topics

and then the exit. It adopted the drill and practice modes of the computer

assisted instruction. It is an individualized program in which the individual who

is reacting to the computer will have to make some entries. The computer takes

record of the performance and progress of the students separately.

The computer-based concept mapping instructional content on Chemistry

was presented through a server to client terminals with input and output display

devices on the computer and through which the learners responded to the

computer prompts. The computer presented information and display animation

to the learner on each of the sub units after which the students attempted some

multiple choice objective questions. Each of the units was presented by the

computer through interaction mode, that is, exposure to information, facts and

practice on the topic and immediate response/feedback to the application

questions. The students could only proceed further in the unit only if that the

questions are satisfactorily answered. The students must have 100% mastery of

one unit before moving on to the next. If after three attempts they do not have

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100% mastery, the package will log them out and they have to meet with the

instructor for tutoring before they can be reinstated.

The digital video instructional package on Chemistry was developed

through the use of a digital video camera. The package consisted of the

instruction on the topic which were presented by the researcher. This package

contained the background, introduction, and instruction section, the topic which

comprises of the units of the topic and then the end. The instructions were

burned (copy) into a digital video device plate. The Digital Video Device

(DVD) connected to a television set was used to present the instruction to the

experimental group (2) for each unit of the topic.

The production of the packages (CCACMLP) and (CDVIP) were effected

through a team of professionals and specialists including the system

programmer, digital video camera operator, and the instructional designer (the

researcher).

Validation of the Instrument / Learning Packages

i. Computer Assisted Concept Mapping Learning Packages on

Chemistry: The developed package was given to four educational

technology experts, the supervisor of this work and a senior lecturer in the

department of Science Education, Federal university of Technology Minna,

computer education specialists and three chemistry teachers from

secondary schools. They determined the appropriateness of the package for

teaching the chosen topics/units, clarity and simplicity of the package as

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well as its suitability for the level of the students, the extent to which the

contents cover the topics/units they are meant to cover, possible errors in

suggested answers and the structuring of the package. The test items and

content of the package were corrected or modified on the basis of

suggestions and recommendations of the experts.

ii. The digital video instructional package on Chemistry: was given to the

same educational technology experts and three chemistry teachers from

secondary schools. They also determined the appropriateness of the

package for teaching the chosen topics/units, clarity and simplicity of the

package as well as its suitability for the level of the students, the extent to

which the contents cover, possible errors in the structuring of the package.

iii. The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT): CAT was given to four

chemistry education experts and three senior chemistry teachers from

secondary schools. These experts assessed the face and content validity of

the instrument in relation to the background of Secondary School Students

(SSII). The experts specifically examined the instrument along the

following criteria

i. Clarity of questions asked

ii. Appropriateness of the questions to the students level of understanding

and experience and

iii. Agreement of the items with the test blueprint.

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In addition, the experts critically examined all the items in the test

instrument with reference to the appropriateness of the content, the relevance of

the test items to the content and the extent to which the contents cover the

topics/units they are meant to cover. Necessary amendments were made on the

instrument based on their suggestions.

Item Analysis

Each of the test items was analysed to obtain its facility and

discrimination index. Facility index refers to the item difficulty level because if

items are too easy or too difficult, then the item is no use in educational testing

of attainment of students. Discrimination index refers to power or ability of a

test item to distinguish between good student and a weak student. A good test

item or test instrument should be able to clearly discriminate or differentiate

between good and weak students.

The facility index of an item in a test is defined as the percentage of the

entire candidate or students that responded correctly to the item (Furst, 1958;

Wood, 1990). The facility index for CAT was calculated using the formula.

P=R/T

Where P= facility index

R= total number of candidates that responded correctly.

T= total number of candidates that attempted the item.

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Test item with facility indices in the range of 30-70% are usually

recommended for use (Wood, 1990). The facility index of all the CAT fell

between 30-70%.

The discrimination index of a test is its ability to discriminate between

high and low achievers in a test as a whole. The discrimination index of a test

item can be estimated from the difference between two percentages, one for the

higher group and the other for low group.

The formula is D= Ru-Rl

Where D = Discrimination index

Ru = Number among upper students that scored an item correctly

Rl = Number among lower students that scored an item incorrectly.

Discrimination index ranging from 0.30 to 0.49 are described as moderately

positive, those above 0.59 to 0.70 are highly positive or has high positive value

(Furst, 1958). Following the suggestion of Furst, the test item with

discrimination index which falls between 0.30 and 0.70 was included in the

CAT for this study. (see Appendix j).

Reliability of Instrument

A pilot test was conducted in the study to ascertain the reliability and

suitability of the chemistry achievement test instrument. The pilot test was

carried out using thirty (30) students which were randomly sampled from Bosso

Secondary School in Minna. Though this sample is in the population of this

study it is not within the sample for this study. The chemistry Achievement Test

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(CAT) was administered once. The result of the test was analyzed using the

Kuder-Richardson formula (K-R 20). A reliability coefficient of 0.95 was

obtained. This means that the test instrument is reliable.

Control of Extraneous Variables

The following measures were taken to control some extraneous variables

that may arise in this study.

i. Experimenter‟s Bias: - when researchers involve external students

(subjects) in their experiment, these students become sensitized that they are

being used for a study consequently they tend to behave mechanically and fake

most of their actions. This introduces experimenter‟s bias. In order to avoid the

bias in the study, the regular chemistry teachers in each of the schools used for

this study were trained; the researcher monitored these teachers so as to ensure

that they effectively adhere to the instructions.

ii. Teacher variable: - when different teachers are involved in an experiment,

the problem of teacher variable arises since different teachers possess

different standards in terms of knowledge of the content, methodology

and so on. In order to control this variable in this study, the researcher

prepared lesson plans (Appendix J) on the topics of chemistry which were

used to handle the control group. The researcher trained the teachers on

how to effectively use the lesson plans. The teachers were also trained on

how to use the computer (Appendix H) as well as the digital video

(Appendix D).

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iii. Variability of instructional situation: homogeneity of instruction across

groups was ensured through the following

a. The researcher trained all the teachers on the instructional

procedure involved.

b. These teachers were directed to follow strictly the detailed lesson

plans provided.

c. The CACM, DVI and LM groups will be taught the same topics

and within stipulated time for the lessons.

iv. Effect of pretest and posttest: - In order to minimize influences of

memory and forget fullness, the time lag between the pretest and posttest

was four weeks which is considered to be neither too short nor too long.

This relatively short experimental duration served to control pretest

sensitization as well as minimize the effect of maturation. The pretest

items were reshuffled through renumbering before it was administered as

posttest.

v. Subject interaction: - In order to avoid the students in CACM, DVI and

LM from interacting, the researcher made sure that the students are not

from the same school and that the schools are distant from each other.

vi. Training of teachers: - Teachers to administer the experimental treatments

to the students were trained based on the type of treatment. This is to

enable them acquire the necessary competencies required to effect the

implementation of uniform experimental conditions. The training lasted

for one week before the administration of pretest.

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Experimental Procedure

The researcher visited the schools to check the facilities available in the

schools. Also an approval was sought from the school authorities to carry out

the study. The cooperation of the students and the staff in all selected schools

were sought. The subject teachers were trained as research assistants in the use

of the computer assisted instructional package as well as the digital video

instructional package. The experimental group teachers received specific

training designed to equip them with necessary strategies for implementing the

treatments. The control group teachers were given instruction to coordinate their

students for the lecture method.

The study lasted for six weeks. There was orientation with the Chemistry

teachers, School Net Coordinators, research assistants and students in each of

the three schools that was involved in the study. This training and demonstration

sessions on the procedure for carrying out the experiment lasted for one week.

The training was done in each school according to the type of treatment that was

given to such schools. When the teachers, School Net coordinators and students

were adequately briefed, trained and have demonstrated competence in the

successful implementation of the Operational Guides to Instruction (OGI), then

the experimentation in the study commenced.

Pretest

During the second week before the commencement of the experiment, the

Chemistry Achievement Test was administered on the sample in the

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experimental and control groups for the study as pretest. The main objective of

administering the pretest was to ascertain the academic equivalence of the

students in Chemistry before the commencement of the experiment.

In carrying out these activities, one chemistry teacher from each of the

three selected schools were employed to administer the pretest. Also three

research assistants were employed to assist the teachers in administering the

pretest in each of the selected schools at the appropriate time for each of this

test.

Treatment

During the experiments, two different treatments were applied. The

treatment lasted for four weeks. The experiment was conducted using the

schools timetable and at their normal lesson periods.

Immediately after the treatment ended , posttest were administered to

measure achievement of the sampled students in each school. The posttest,

Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was reshuffled and administered on the last

day of the experiment. The test was conducted in all the selected schools for the

study at the same time and the scripts were collected immediately for marking.

Experimental Group I: The computer assisted concept mapping instructional

strategy was used here. The class was taught the concepts using the CAI

package. The computer presented instructions interactively with one student at a

time only. Students enter an individualized sequence, and then proceeded at

their own rate. Sets of questions were given to the students after each sequence

of instruction and individual members of the class were expected to provide

120

answers to the questions without any teachers or peer interactions. The teacher‟s

role was to monitor the activities of the students so as to ensure strict

compliance with instructions of non-interaction among members.

Experimental Group II: The digital video instructional package on Chemistry

was used here. The class was taught using a digital video device and a television

monitor. The instructions were presented by the digital video and the students

were required to answer certain unit questions relating to the concept taught

which were marked by their class teachers.

Control Group: The lecture method was used here. This took the shape of the

normal lesson lecture. The lecture was presented by the class teacher for the

control group. The contents of the lecture were be the same as in the case of the

computer assisted concept mapping instructional package on Chemistry and the

digital video instruction on Chemistry.

Method of Data Collection

The instrument for data collection in this study (CAT) was administered

to the students before the experimental treatment. The students‟ scores in this

first administration served as pretest scores of the study. After the pretest, the

treatment commenced and lasted for four weeks. At the expiration of the

treatment, the items of this instrument were reshuffled, produced in yellow

coloured question paper and were re-administered to the students.

The scores obtained from the second administration served as post-test

scores in the study. The essence of item reshuffling and change of the colour of

the question paper is to distract the students from realizing that they had

responded to items in the instrument before.

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Method of Data Analysis

The research question was answered using means and standard deviation.

Hypotheses for the study were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11. The

significance of the various statistical analyses was ascertained at 0.05 alpha

levels. Graphical representation was also drawn to indicate the mean gains in

mean scores of the students between pretest and posttest.

122

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

This chapter embodied the results of the study. All research questions

were answered using mean and standard deviations. All hypotheses were tested

at 0.05 level of significance using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The

results of the substantive analysis are presented according to the research

questions and hypothesis to which they pertain. At the end of the presentations,

a summary of the results obtained was made.

Research Question 1

What is the effect of computer assisted concept mapping on secondary

school students achievement in chemistry?

Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviations of Students Scores Using

Computer Assisted Concept Mapping (CACM) and Lecture Method (LM)

Pretest Posttest

Computer Assisted

Group

N 68 68

Mean 33.26 69.44

Std.

Deviation 3.22 3.89

Lecture Method Group N 64 64

Mean 33.81 65.28

Std.

Deviation 2.68 3.38

Total N 132 132

Mean 33.53 67.42

Std.

Deviation 2.97 4.19

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From table 1, it is observed that there was a significant difference in the

achievement of students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept

mapping (CACM) and lecture method (LM). This is because the mean gain

score of computer assisted concept mapping is 36.17 which is higher than the

mean gain score of lecture method group of 31.46. This is also shown using

graphical illustration to indicate the difference in the mean gain scores of

students taught chemistry using CACM and LM.

Figure 3: Graphical illustration of student‟s achievement when taught using

CACM and LM.

124

Research Question 2: What is the effect of digital video instruction on

secondary school student‟s achievement in chemistry?

Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Students Scores Using

Digital Video Instruction (DVI) and Lecture Method

(LM)

Pretest Posttest

Lecture Method

Group

N 64 64

Mean 33.81 65.28

Std.

Deviation 2.68 3.38

Digital Video

Group

N 78 78

Mean 34.07 55.69

Std.

Deviation 3.08 4.17

Total N 142 142

Mean 33.95 60.01

Std.

Deviation 2.90 6.13

From table 2, it is observed that there was no significant effect of digital

video instruction on the achievement of students in chemistry. This is because

the mean gain score of DVI group is 21.61 while the mean gain score of LM

group which is the control group is 31.46 greater than the mean gain score of

the students in the experimental group (DVI). The graphical illustration to show

the mean gain scores of the LM and DVI group is provided in figure 4

125

Figure 4: Graphical illustration of students achievement when taught using DVI

and LM

126

Research Question 3 What is the effect of CACM on secondary school student‟s achievement

in chemistry by gender?

Table 3: The Posttest Mean and Standard Deviations of Students in

CACM by Gender

Sex Pretest Posttest

Male N 42 42

Mean 33.19 70.04

Std.

Deviation 3.12 4.38

Female N 26 26

Mean 33.38 68.46

Std.

Deviation 3.43 2.73

Total N 68 68

Mean 33.26 69.44

Std.

Deviation 3.22 3.89

From table 3, it is observed that the male students had a mean gain score

of 36.85, while the mean gain score of the female students taught chemistry

using CACM is 35.07. The difference in the mean gain score is 1.78. This

indicates that CACM had effect on gender. The graphical illustration to show

the mean gain score of male and female students exposed to CACM is provided

in figure 5

127

Figure 5: Graphical illustration of male and female student‟s achievement using

CACM.

128

Research Question 4: What is the effect of digital video instruction on

secondary school student‟s achievement in chemistry by gender?

Table 4: Posttest Mean and Standard Deviations of students in DVI by

gender

Sex Pretest Posttest

Male N 48 48

Mean 33.37 56.45

Std. Deviation 3.03 4.17

Female N 30 30

Mean 35.20 54.46

Std. Deviation 2.85 3.95

Total N 78 78

Mean 34.07 55.69

Std. Deviation 3.08 4.17

From table 4, it is observed that the male students had a mean gain score of

23.08, while the female students had mean gain score of 19.26 using digital

video instruction (DVI). The difference in the mean gain scores is 3.82. This

indicates that DVI had effect on gender. The graphical illustration to show the

mean gain scores of male and female students exposed to DVI is provided in

figure 6.

129

Figure 6: Graphical illustration of male and female student‟s achievement using

DVI.

130

Hypothesis 1

H01; There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept mapping

(CACM), digital video instruction (DVI) and lecture method (LM).

Table 5: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Posttest Scores of the

Treatment Groups (CACM, DVI and LM)

Type 111 sum

of squares

df Mean

Square

F Sig

Corrected Model

Intercept

Pretest

Groups

Sex

Group x Sex

Error

Total

Corrected Total

7438.111

5961.246

5.027

6957.848

65.477

45.677

2962.956

845656.000

10401.067

6

1

1

2

1

2

203

210

209

1239.685

5961.246

5.027

3478.924

65.477

22.838

14.596

84.934

408.421

0.344

238.350

4.486

1.565

.000

.000

.558

.000

.035

.212

An examination of data in Table 5 revealed that an F(2, 203)= 238.350,

P= 0.000 for the main effect (treatment) was significant. The results imply that

the method of instruction produced a significant effect on the posttest

achievement scores of students when covariate effect (pretest) was controlled.

The result indicated that the treatment using CACM, DVI and LM probably

accounted for the difference in posttest achievement scores of the students. This

131

implies that a significant difference existed among the three groups of CACM,

DVI and LM

Hypothesis 2

HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male

and female students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept

mapping (CACM), digital video instruction (DVI) and those taught using

lecture method (LM).

Data inTable 5 revealed that F (2, 203) = 4.486, p= 0.035 for the main

effect (gender) was significant. The result implied that gender produced a

significant effect on the posttest achievement scores of students. The result

indicated that male / female is a factor that accounted for the difference in the

posttest achievement scores of the students. This implies that a significant

difference existed in the achievement of male and female students when

CACM, DVI and LM are used.

Hypothesis 3

HO3: There is no significant treatment – gender interaction effect on the

achievement of students in chemistry as measured by their mean

achievement scores in Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT).

The data in table 5, revealed that an F (2, 203) = 1.565, p= 0.212 for the

main effect (treatment-gender) was not significant. The analysis showed that

there was no significant interaction effect on student‟s achievement in chemistry

as shown in table 5. In other words, the treatment of the students had

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independent effect on the student‟s achievement. This implies that there was no

statistically significant joint interaction effect of the independent variables

(treatment-gender) on the achievement of the students. Therefore, the

hypothesis three was not rejected.

Summary of Findings

Results presented in this chapter reveal the following

1. The students taught with computer assisted concept mapping strategy

achieved higher than those taught with digital video as well as those

taught with lecture method.

2. The students taught with lecture method also achieved higher than those

taught using digital video instruction.

3. There was a significant difference in the achievement of male and female

taught with computer assisted concept mapping. Therefore, gender is a

significant factor on students achievement in chemistry when computer

assisted concept mapping is used.

4. There was no significant difference in the achievement of male and

female taught chemistry using digital video instruction

5. There was a significant difference in the achievement of students taught

using CACM, DVI and LM.

6. There was no significant treatment-gender interaction effect on the

achievement of students in chemistry.

133

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY

This chapter presented the discussion and interpretation of result

presented in the previous chapter. The discussion is organized under the

following:

Findings on the effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on

achievement in chemistry.

Findings on the effect of Digital Video Instruction on achievement in

chemistry

Findings on the effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on

achievement in chemistry by gender

Findings on the effect of Digital Video Instruction on achievement in

chemistry by gender

Findings on the treatment-gender interaction effect on students

achievement in chemistry

After the discussion, the rest of the chapter will embody conclusions from

the study, educational implications of the findings, recommendations,

suggestion for further studies, limitations of the study and summary of the

entire work.

134

Discussion of the Results

Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry

The findings of this study revealed that the use of computer assisted

concept mapping learning strategy had a significant effect on students‟

achievement in chemistry. The students taught using computer assisted concept

mapping achieved significant better than those taught using lecture method.

This result is in agreement with the result of Tan and Seng (2000). They found

out that computer assisted concept mapping enhanced students achievement in

chemistry. Tenth grade students in Singapore were treated with computer

assisted concept mapping and the students in these group performed

significantly better than those without computer assisted concept mapping. This

result is also in agreement with Lou, Wen and Tseng (2007), who investigated

the effect of integrating concept mapping into computer assisted instruction in

chemistry learning achievement. Their findings revealed that the students in the

experimental group who were treated with computer assisted concept mapping

achieved significantly better than those in the control group. The trend of higher

performance by the treatment (CACM) group could be as a result of self -

evaluation and remedial activities provided by (CACM) which helped students

to master the chemistry concepts without much difficulty than the (LM) group.

It could also be as a result of

i. Excitement over the new approach/handling of personal computers.

135

ii. Individualized learning by the students and the elimination of teacher

bias/strained relationship of teacher and student. Furthermore, the

pictorial representations and concept maps provided by the computer

which were absent in the LM can be a factor that contributed to the high

performance.

Findings on the effect of DVI on Students Achievement in Chemistry

The result of this study showed that the use of digital video for instruction

had no significant effect on student achievement in chemistry. The students

taught using digital video instruction did not achieve significantly better than

those taught using lecture method. This result is in disagreement with the

findings of Orisabiyi, (2007) who found out that videotaped package had

significant effect on students performance in science (Biology). The result is

also in disagreement with the findings of Adebayo, (2008). His study revealed

that the students who were exposed to the use of digital video instruction

achieved better than those that were exposed to lecture method. The experiment

was conducted in mathematics. It also disagrees with the findings of Thomas

and Tinu, (2008) and Adeosu and Ayodele, (2008) who variously found

significant difference in the achievement of students treated with video

mediated instructions.

Findings on the effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on

achievement in Chemistry by gender

Result of this study shows that CACM has effect on gender. The result

revealed that the male and female students taught chemistry using CACM

136

achieved better than those taught chemistry using LM. This finding is in

disagreement with the findings of Lou, Wen and Tseng (2007). Their findings

revealed a no significant difference in the academic achievement between

genders in the experimental group that were treated with computer assisted

concept mapping.

Findings on the effect of Digital Video Instruction on achievement in

Chemistry by gender

The findings of this study include that the use of digital video instruction

had significant effect on gender. This significant effect is in favour of the male

student within the experimental group who were treated with digital video

instruction. The male (experimental) outperformed their female counterpart.

This finding is in disagreement Anagbogu and Ezeliora (2007) who found that

female students performed better than their male counterpart. But when digital

video instruction is compared with lecture method, digital video instruction had

significant effect on gender. The finding here revealed there was significant

difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female taught chemistry

using digital video instruction and those male and female taught chemistry using

lecture method. This finding is in agreement with the findings of Iwendi (2007),

Ifamuyiwa, (2004) who variously found no significant difference in gender

achievement in science subjects which includes chemistry.

Findings on the treatment–gender interaction effect on students

achievement in chemistry

The result from this study revealed that there was no treatment-gender

interaction effect on the achievement in chemistry. This result is in agreement

137

with the findings of Gambari (2010) who found no significant treatment-gender

interaction effect on student‟s achievement in physics. The result is in

disagreement with the findings of Ifeakor (2005) who found a significant

treatment-gender interaction effect on students achievement in chemistry.

Conclusion

The study had shown that CACM had significant effects on the student‟s

academic achievement in chemistry. The CACM appeared to be outstandingly

more effective than the DVI. But DVI had no significant on achievement in

chemistry.

The influence of gender on academic achievement in chemistry was

significant. Male students tended to be superior to their female counterpart

when CACM is used. A significant effect was indicated in the study when DVI

was used for teaching.

The combined effect of CACM, DVI and gender on students academic

achievement was significant. The male students performed higher than the

female students.

Educational Implications

The findings of the present study have obvious educational implications

for students, teachers and ministries of education. The findings provide useful

feedback on the efficacy of CACM. This feedback will now provide the basis

138

upon which chemistry teachers could build, to enhance the efficacy of their

instructional practice.

In general, the study revealed that CACM is efficient in producing high

academic achievement in chemistry. This would suggest then that the use of

CACM in chemistry teaching will enhance student‟s achievement. The study

also indicated that the male students demonstrated higher achievement with the

use of CACM relative to their female counterpart.

The implication is that the male students are given more attention in our

societies and so a more conducive environment is given to the male students.

Hence, teachers and educational administrators should make the environment

and motivation to learning for male and female students similar.

The adoption of CACM will develop in the students an ability to learn on

their own in the absence of the teacher. Since it gives an immediate feedback, it

will enable the students to monitor their achievement. Also the adoption of DVI

in schools will reduce the rate at which students engages themselves with home

videos that will not improve their academic achievement. Inadequate supply of

human resources, especially technical support systems makes innovative

practices difficult. These innovations like CACM, demand well trained

personnel, and this makes training and retraining of staff imperative.

139

Recommendations

Based on the educational implications of the results of this study, the

following recommendations are made:

1. Since the use of CACM in teaching has been found to enhance the quality

of achievement in chemistry, chemistry teachers should be encouraged to

employ it more in the teaching of the subject. By so doing, the

achievement of students in the subject could be increased.

2. Enlightenment campaign, workshops and seminars should be organized

for teachers by Education Authorities – Federal and State Ministries of

Education, institutes and Colleges of Education to create awareness of the

efficacy of the strategies/methods and then sensitize the adoption of the

methods/strategies in their various schools.

3. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) should endeavour to

connect all secondary schools with electricity.

4. Governments should endeavour to include all schools in the on-going

school – net programme.

5. Standby generators with adequate storage and security should be installed

in all secondary schools in case of power failure.

6. There should be computer literacy/ basic skills for secondary school

students.

140

Limitations of the Study

The generalizations drawn from this study are subject to the following

limitations.

1. Initial differences across groups arising from the use of intact classes may

not have been completely taken care of by the statistical technique

adopted for this purpose. This condition will to the extent that it prevails

affect the validity of the findings.

2. The use of only SSII students and only one unit from their chemistry

syllabus may affect the generalizability of the findings.

3. The limited number of schools that have well equipped computer

laboratories as well as television monitors and DVD players made it

difficult for the researcher to use a larger sample. As such result which is

based on the sample of the study as compared to the population of SSII

student in Niger State, how much more in Nigeria should not be freely

generalized for teaching chemistry in the country.

Suggestions for further Studies

The findings of this study had generated some areas for further research.

Against this acknowledge, further research could be undertaken to.

1. Replicate the present study using a wider geographical area.

2. Ascertain how ability levels of the students will interact with CACM and

DVI to affect student achievement in chemistry.

141

3. Examine the effect of CACM and DVI on student achievement in other

units of chemistry.

Summary

The growth and development of most nations are highly dependent on

science, technology and mathematics. A number of studies done in Nigeria have

reported student‟s under-achievement in these subjects. This explains why some

science, technology and mathematics education researchers, among others, have

in recent times concentrated their research efforts on finding teaching strategies

that promotes teaching and learning of science so as to increase achievement

and enrolment in science. Consequent upon the foregoing, this study sought to

explore the effects of computer assisted concept mapping (CACM) and digital

video instructional strategies on student‟s academic achievement in chemistry.

The study also examined the influence of gender on student‟s achievement in

chemistry. To give a sense of direction to the study, four research questions

were asked and five hypotheses were formulated and tested at P 0.05.

The researcher reviewed many related literature. The review showed

among other things, that some works were done on CACM on other subjects but

none in chemistry. Also the review showed that works were done on video tape

and no work on DVI in chemistry.

A quasi – experiment, non- randomized and non – equivalent control

group design was used. In carrying out the research, the researcher treated all

the students in each of the intact classes used for the experiment. One hundred

142

and twenty (210) students from three senior secondary schools sampled, were

used as the sample for the study. The students in their intact classes were

randomly assigned to the two experimental (CACM), (DVI) and one control

(LM) groups, and separately taught by the regular chemistry teachers who had

earlier been trained for the purpose. Identified extraneous variables which could

pose potential threat to the validity of the study were controlled. All the groups

were pretested before the experiment and post tested after the experiment.

The instrument used for data collection was the Chemistry Achievement

Test (CAT). This instrument was adapted from the past examination to West

African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council

(NECO). The instrument was validated by chemistry teachers and measurement

and evaluation expertise. The instrument was pilot tested. Data collected were

used for test of reliability. An internal consistency reliability estimate of 0.95

using Kuder- Richardson formula 20 was computed for CAT. The data

generated from the study were analyzed using means and standard deviation

(SD) and Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test all the hypotheses

at 0.05 probability level.

The result from the data analyzed showed that:

1. The use of CACM as a teaching methods/strategies was a significant

factors in students overall achievement.

2. While CACM and DVI were significant factors in students achievements

CACM showed a higher significant factor in student‟s achievement.

143

3. Gender was a significant factor in the student‟s achievement in chemistry

when CACM was used for teaching chemistry. The male students tend to

perform better than their female counterparts in the CACM group as well

as the lecture method (CLM) group.

4. The use of DVI when compared with (LM), show no significant overall

achievement with the use of DVI, also no significant interaction effect

between the teaching method and gender.

Following the discussion of these findings, the educational implications

of those findings were pointed out and it was recommended that both teachers in

training and those in the teaching field should be made to understand how to use

CACM and DVI techniques. The limitations of the study were also highlighted

and suggestions for further areas of research were made. It was also suggested

that seminars, workshops and conferences should be organized by educators,

Ministries of Education and Professional bodies like science Teachers

Association (STAN) and Nigeria Association for Educational Media and

Technology (NAEMT) to acquaint and re-orient teachers with skills for CACM

and DVI. Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that CACM and

DVI techniques should be employed in chemistry teaching as a means of

improving the academic achievement of students.

144

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APPENDIX A

Table 1: Enrolment and performance of students in SSCE Chemistry by WAEC (2002-2007)

Number and percentage obtained grade

Subject Year Total

Entry

Total

that

SAT

Credit and above

Total

Credit

Pass

Fail No.

Abs &

AS %

of

Entry

Ch

emis

try

2002 311606 97.99%

301704

0.98%

1697

1.41%

3511

9.90%

24057

6.57%

13597

8.06%

20454

16.92%

46081

43.84%

109397

14.33%

39845

16.48%

41834

30.81%

81634

25.35%

110664

2.50%

9866

2003 271372 96.83%

262824

0.56%

451

1.16%

1829

7.97%

16738

4.50%

10942

6.77%

17433

15.27%

43095

36.25%

90488

13.20%

38132

13.86%

39348

27.06%

77480

36.67%

94856

3.18%

8548

2004 320332 96.85%

313332

0.17%

1631

0.69%

5132

6.36%

39033

4.16%

21704

6.63%

29756

16.39%

57658

34.42%

154914

14.50%

39027

14.97%

34358

2947%

73385

36.67%

94856

3.14%

7000

2005 334491 97.81%

327503

0.52%

1264

1.62%

25628

12.45%

25628

6.92%

22592

9.49%

21474

18.40%

49211

49.44%

124009

12.45%

43417

10.96%

40154

23.42%

83571

36.69%

67412

2.18%

0988

2006 357658 97.91%

349936

0.38%

6132

1.18%

10767

7.82%

51931

6.89%

21927

6.54%

23426

15.02%

64100

37.86%

178274

13.25%

30293

12.26%

35206

25.51%

65499

21.51%

107318

2.08%

7722

2007

363752

97.72%

355452

1.74%

6732

3.07%

11785

14.84

49935

6.26%

20995

6.69%

25485

18.31%

64642

50.94%

179574

8.65%

32493

10.06%

35480

18.71%

67973

27.28%

107905

2.15%

8300

Source: Test Development Division, West Africa Examination Council; P.M.B 1076, Yaba Lagos

APPENDIX B

162

Table 2: Performance of students in Chemistry for May/June WASSCE in Niger State between 2000 and 2007

Subject Year of

Exam

Total Students

Enrolment

Total No of

Credit Pass

(A1-C6)

% Credit

Pass (A1-C6)

Total No of

Pass (P7-P8)

% Pass

(P7-P8)

Total No.

of Failure

(F9)

%

Failure

(F9)

Mean

%

Failure

Ch

emis

try

2000 1378 190 13.79 259 18.80 929 67.42

53.41 2001 1420 217 15.28 337 23.73 866 60.99

2002 1759 295 16.77 520 29.56 944 53.67

2003 1285 378 29.42 375 29.18 532 41.40

2004 1325 239 18.04 380 28.68 706 53.28

2005 1515 305 20.13 507 33.47 703 46.40

2006 1715 361 21.05 484 28.22 870 50.73

2007 3,938 469 11.9 682 17.32 2,787 70.77

Source: Niger State Ministry of Education (2008).

153

APPENDIX C

NAMES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MINNA THAT OFFERS

CHEMISTRY

1. Bosso secondary school Minna

2. Day secondary school Maitunbi

3. Government Day secondary School Maikunkele

4. Army Day Secondary School A Minna

5. Army Day Secondary School B Minna

6. Government Day Secondary School Minna

7. Day Secondary School Tunga, Minna

8. Hill-Top Model Secondary School Minna

9. Federal Government College Minna

10. Zarumai Model School Minna

11. Ahmadu Bahago Senior Secondary School, Minna

12. Women Day College Minna

13. Government Girls Secondary School old Airport Minna

14. Maryam Babangida Girls Science College Minna

15. Government Girls Day Secondary School Minna

16. Government Secondary School Minna

154

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE SCRIPT WRITINGS FOR THE DEVELOPED DIGITAL VIDEO

INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE

SCRIPT 1

ENERGY AND FORMS OF ENERGY

STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME

STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins

STEP 2 The Subject and topic on focus Hello Students you are welcome to this class.

The subject before us is chemistry. Under this

subject, we will be looking at the topic,

Energy and forms of energy. Today we shall

start with Energy.

3 mins

STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should

be able to:

1. Define Energy.

2. State the Law of

conservation of Energy

3. List the different forms of

energy.

Before we commence the lesson we shall look

at the instructional objective. They are the

expectation from you at the end of the lesson.

They include the following:

5mins

STEP 4

Objective 1

(Energy)

Energy is one of the fundamental and

universal concepts of physical sciences. It is

an attribute of matter that exists by itself. It is

defined as the ability to do work or produce

heat. It can be served and measured indirectly

through its effects on matter that acquires,

loses or possesses it. Energy cannot be

created nor destroyed but can be transformed

from one form to another. This is the

statement of the law of conservation of

energy.

10 mins

STEP 5 Sketch drawings of different forms

of energy on focus

Energy can take many forms namely:

1. Mechanical (potential and kinetic

energy)

2. Chemical energy

3. Electrical

4. Light energy

5. sound energy

6. Nuclear energy and

7. Thermal (heat) energy

5 mins

STEP 6

Summary

and

Evaluation

Sketch drawings of different forms

of energy on focus

This brings us to the end of the lesson. In this

lesson we have looked at what energy is the

law of conservation of energy and the

different forms of energy. In order to assess

your understanding of this lesson, you have

these sample questions to answer in your

book. I will mark them.

1. What is energy?

2. State the law of conservation of

10 mins

155

energy

3. List four forms of energy

SCRIPT 2

THERMAL ENERGY

STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME

STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins

STEP 2

Introduction

Hello students you are welcome

back to our chemistry class. Today

we are going to continue with our

lesson by picking one of the forms

of energy. As a revision, answer this

question.

List the seven forms of energy.

Hello Students you are welcome to this class.

The subject before us is chemistry. Under this

subject, we will be looking at the topic,

Energy and forms of energy. Today we shall

start with Energy.

3 mins

STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should

be able to:

1. Define thermal (heat) energy.

2. Differentiates between heat

energy and temperature.

3. Explain the process of heat

transfer.

We shall look at thermal (heat) energy today.

Thermal energy also known as heat energy is

the sum total of all the randomized kinetic

energy within a body. It difference in

temperature. Temperature is the degree of

coldness or hotness of a body. It is measured

using an instrument called thermometer. Heat

is transferred from a warmer body to a colder

one through contact. When a warmer body is

brought into contact with a cooler body,

thermal energy flows from the warmer body

to the cooler one until their two temperatures

are identical.

2 mins

156

STEP 4

Summary

and

Evaluation

We have come to the end of lesson two. In the

next lesson we will start with thermal

reactions. Answer these questions to evaluate

yourselves on how far we understood the

lesson

10 mins

STEP 5 1. Define heat energy.

2. Differentiate between heat

and temperature.

3. How is heat transformed

from one body to another.

5 mins

SCRIPT 3

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME

STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins

STEP 2

The board containing the script for

the lesson on focus

Hello students you are welcome to chemistry

class. In this lesson we shall consider the topic

Endothermic Reaction.

3 mins

STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should

be able to:

1. Define endothermic reaction.

2. Give examples of

endothermic processes.

3. Identify heat change value

for endothermic

The word endo:- means inside while thermic:-

means to heat. So putting the two reactions that

involve the absorption of energy in the form of

heat. It is a reaction in which a system receives

heat from the surrounding

5 mins

STEP 4 The energy profile diagram for

endothermic reaction on focus

The diagram of endothermic reaction before

you shows that the energy for the products is

higher than the energy of the reactions. The

difference between the energy of the products

and the reactions is called heat change. Heat

change is denoted with the symbol ∆H. The ∆H

is positive for endothermic reaction. It is written

for example as ∆H= + 10 kj/mol

10 mins

STEP 5 Examples Of Endothermic Reaction Processes

1. Evaporation of water

2. Photosynthesis

10 mins

157

STEP 6 We have come to the end of the

lesson on endothermic reaction. To

asses yourselves answer these

questions

1. What is endothermic

reaction?

2. Give two endothermic

processes

3. What is the value of heat

change for endothermic

reaction

5 mins

SCRIPT 4

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME

STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins

STEP 2

The board containing the script for

the lesson on focus

Hello students we shall continue today with the

topic exothermic reaction.

3 mins

STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should

be able to:

1. Define exothermic reaction.

2. Explain the difference

between exothermic reaction

and endothermic reaction.

3. Identify heat change value

for exothermic reaction.

Exothermic reaction is the opposite of

endothermic reaction. It is a reaction which

involves the release of energy in form of heat to

the surrounding. In this process, the system

gives heat to the surroundings.

5 mins

STEP 4 The energy profile diagram for

exothermic reaction

The energy profile diagram of exothermic

reaction before you shows that the energy for

the products is less than the energy of the

reactions. The difference between the energy of

the products and that of the reactions known as

heat change with ∆H as symbol has its value to

be negative. It is written for example as ∆H= -

10 kj/mol.

15 mins

158

STEP 5 The difference between endothermic and

exothermic reaction is that while heat is

absorbed in endothermic reaction, heat is

involved or released in the case of exothermic

reaction. Also the ∆H value for endothermic

reaction is positive that of exothermic reaction

is negative

6 mins

STEP 6

Summary

and

Evaluation

1. Define exothermic reaction.

2. What is the value of heat

change (∆H) for exothermic

reaction

This is the end of fourth lesson. To check your

level of understanding answers these questions.

5 mins

SCRIPT 5

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME

STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins

STEP 2

The script for the lesson on focus Hello students you are welcome to yet another

chemistry class. In this lesson we will

consider the topic Chemical equilibrium

3 mins

STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should

be able to:

1. Explain what chemical

equilibrium is and.

State the le-chateliers principle.

When a chemical reaction takes place in a

container which prevents the entry or escape

of any of the substances involved in the

reaction, the quantities of these components

change as some are consumed and others are

formed. Eventually these changes will come

to an end, after which the composition will

remain unchanged as long as the system

remains undisturbed. The system is then said

to be in its equilibrium state, or simply in a

state of chemical equilibrium. A chemical

reaction is in equilibrium when there is no

tendency for quantities of reactants and

products to change.

10 mins

STEP 4 The balance of forces in chemical reactions

that balances the tendency for bonds to be

broken such that the molecules become

dispersed and diluted in a chemical reaction

explains why chemical reactions go toward

equilibrium. For example the equation below

H2 + I2 → 2HI (A)

2HI→H2 + I2 (B) equation (A) shows the

synthesis of hydrogen iodide while equation

(B) shows the dissociating of hydrogen give a

reaction in equilibrium H2 + I2 2HI.

10 mins

STEP 5 A principle which takes care of a situation

whereby the chemical reaction system in

equilibrium is being disturbed is referred to as

lechateliers principle. It states that when a

system in a state of equilibrium is being

159

disturbed by an external constraint such as

temperature, pressure and concentration etc,

the equilibrium will shift to cancel the

constraint. For example the reaction above, if

the forward reaction is forward by increased,

more of the products will be formed. But if

temperature is decreased, more reactants will

be formed.

10 mins

STEP 6

Summary

and

Evaluation

This is the end of the lesson

answer these questions to asses

yourselves.

1. What is equilibrium state in a

chemical reaction.

2. Why do reactions go toward

equilibrium.

3. State le-chatelies principle

5 mins

SCRIPT 6

REVERSIBILITY OF REACTIONS

STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME

STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins

STEP 2

The board containing the script for the

lesson on focus

Hello students you are once again welcome

to chemistry class. In the last lesson we

considered chemical equilibrium. In this

lesson we will be studying the topic

REVERSIBILITY of REACTION.

3 mins

STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should be

able to:

1. Explain what reversibility of

reaction is.

2. Identify the reversibility sign.

At the end of this lesson there are

expectations from you the things you should

be able to do. They are the objectives of the

lesson which include the following.

5 mins

STEP 4 A chemical equation of the form A B

represents the transformation of A into B,

but it does not only that all of the reactants

will be converted into products or that the

reverse reaction B A cannot also occur.

Both processes can be expected to occur,

resulting in equilibrium mixture containing

finite amounts of all the components of the

reaction system. If the reaction is one in

which significant quantities of both

reactions and products are present, then the

reaction is said to be reversible. In

reversible reaction the rate of backward

reaction is equal to backward reaction.

STEP 5 That arrows are use to show reactions

that are reversible. For example H2 + I2

2HI, indicated the forward reaction

160

while indicates backward reaction.

STEP 6

Summary

and

Evaluation

The questions on focus.

1. What is a reversible reaction.

2. What the signs indicating both

forward and backward reactions.

3. What down a chemical equation

of a reaction that is reversible.

This has brought to the end of the lesson on

reversibility of reactions. At the beginning

of the lesson we had objectives. At the end

of this lesson we shall evaluate ourselves

through these questions.

5 mins

161

APPENDIX E

CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST (CAT) FOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS (SSII

) IN MINNA, NIGER STATE

School…………………………………………………

Class……………………………………………………

Sex………………………………………………………

Instruction: Tick the correct option from the options a-d. Answer all questions.

1. In which of the following equations can le-charteliers principle be applied?

a. H2 (g) + S (g) → H2S (g)

b. 2H2S (g) + 02(g) → 2H20(1) + 2S02s(g)

c. N2(g)+ 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

d. NaOH (ag)+CO2 (g) → Na2CO3(ag) + H2O(1)

2. A measure of the degree of disorderliness in a chemical system is known as the

a. activation energy

b. enthalpy

c. entropy

d. equilibrium

3. A chemical system is at equilibrium when

a. ∆G is positive

b. ∆G is zero

c. ∆S is negative

d. ∆S is positive

4. What does ∆H represent in the equation below?

CI2 (g) +2e –

2CI-: ∆H = +363kjmol

-1

a. activation energy

b. dissociation energy

c. electron affinity

d. enthalpy change

5. Consider the reaction

H(aq) + OH(aq)→ H20(1)

162

The energy change taking place in the reaction above is enthalpy of

a. formation

b. hydration

c. neutralization

d. solution

6. Which of the following is not true of a system in chemical equilibrium?

a. rate of forward and backward reactions are equal

b. the reaction must be a reversible reaction

c. there must be increase in temperature

d. the value of the free energy change of the system is zero

7. Which of the following is true for the spontaneity of a reaction?

a. ∆H - T∆S = - Ve

b. ∆H - T∆S = O

c. H

d. ∆S = 0

8. Calculate the free energy change of the reaction that was carried out at 270C with

+4500j and +12j as enthalpy and entropy changes respectively.

a. - 4176J

b. - 900J

c. + 900J

d. + 4176J

9. If the enthalpy change and the free energy change are +4500j and+3600j at the

temperature of 300C, what is the entropy change?

a. 30j

b. 25j

c. 35j

d. 34j

10. Equilibrium is said to be attained in reversible reaction when

a. All the reactants have been used up

b. All the products have been formed.

c. There is no further change in temperature

d. The rates of the forward and backward reaction are equal.

11. Which of the following statement is/are correct of ∆H, the enthalpy of reaction? H is

a. The heat change accompanying a chemical reaction

163

b. Negative for exothermic reactions

c. Positive for endothermic reaction Greater

than ∆S for reversible reactions.

12. Which of the following statements is/are correct about equilibrium?

a. Chemical equilibrium is attained when the rates of forward and backward

reaction are equal

b. changes in concentrations of reactions will alter equilibrium concentrations.

c. A catalyst alter equally the rates of both the forward and the backward

reactions

d. Temperature affects equilibrium constant.

13. Which of the following correctly, explains entropy?

a. The natural tendency for a system to achieve a greater disorder

b. A balance of two driving forces between free energy and enthalpy changes

c. The cause of spontaneity of a reaction

d. A measure of the enthalpy of a reaction

14. The ∆H value for the reaction A + B → C + D,

is what, if the temperature, free energy and entropy changes are 400C, 4260KJ and-

20KJ respectively?

a. + 2000KJmol-1

b. + 3460KJmol-1

c. + 50KJmol-1

d. - 100KJmol-1

15. Which of the processes represented by the following equations has the greatest

positive entropy change?

a. C6H6 (1) → C6H6 (g)

b. H20(s) → H20(1)

c. Cu0(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H20(1)

d. Na2C03(s) +nH20(1) → Na2CO3 nH20(s)

16. CH4 (g) + 202(g) → 2H20(1) + C02(g) ∆H = 890kJmol-1

∆H in the reaction represented by the equation above is the enthalpy of

a. formation

b. combustion

c. solution

d. activation

164

17. If a reaction is said to be exothermic, which of the following statement is correct?

a. The reaction vessel gets hotter as the reaction proceeds

b. ∆H for the reaction is positive

c. The rate of the reaction increases with time

d. The activation energy of the reaction is high.

18. In a chemical reaction, the reacting species possesses energy of motion known as

a. potential energy

b. free energy

c. bond energy

d. kinetic energy

19. H30+

(ag) + OH- →

2H20(1) the heat change accompanying the process represented by the

equation above is the heat of

a. neutralization

b. formation

c. solution

d. dilution

20. Which of the following statements is correct about the following system at

equilibrium?

PC15(g) PC13(s) + Cl2; ∆H is positive

a. increase in temperature increases the yield of PCI3

b. PC15 is less stable at high pressures

c. decrease in temperature favours the forward reaction.

d. decrease in pressure favours the forward reaction

21. If the change in free energy (∆G) of reaction is negative, it can be deduced that the

reaction will

a. not proceed in the direction indicated

b. be reversible

c. Not occur at room temperature

d. be feasible

22. Which of the following can be deduced from the equation below? XY(aq) + PQ(aq) →

XQ(s) + PY (aq)

∆H = - 65,700J

a. The heat content of the reactants is higher than that of the products

b. The reaction involves double decomposition

165

c. The reaction is slow

d. A large amount of heat is absorbed.

23. In the energy profile diagram below which letter represents the activation energy for

the reversible reaction?

E

a. X

b. Y

c. Z

d. P

24. The products of an endothermic reaction are

a. higher in enthalpy than the reactants

b. lower in enthalpy than the reactants

c. the same in enthalpy as the reactants

d. such that the change in enthalpy is less than zero

Consider the energy profile diagram below and use it to answer questions 25 to 27

E

25. Q represent

a. Activation energy

b. Activated complex

c. Enthalpy change

Reactants

x product

y

Z

p

Reaction coordinate

Q

Z

X

W

Y

Reaction coordinator

166

d. Heat content of the reactants

26. Enthalpy change of the reaction is represented by

a. W

b. X

c. Z

d. Y

27. What type of reaction is represented by the energy diagram?

a. Endothermic

b. Exothermic

c. Redox

d. Neutralization

28. If the value of ∆H for a reaction is negative. It means that the reaction is.

a. Slow

b. exothermic

c. spontaneous

d. Irreversible

29. The free energy change, entropy change and heat change for a chemical reaction are

4000kjmol-1

, 100kjmol-1

and 6000kjmol-1

respectively, what is the temperature?

a. 10K

b. 20K

c. 30K

d. 40K

30. The spontaneity of a chemical reaction is determined by the change in the

a. Concentration of the reactants

b. Temperature of the system

c. Free energy of the system

d. Pressure applied to the system

31. An exothermic reaction is one which involves

a. Attainment of the dynamic equilibrium

b. Loss of heart to the surrounding

c. Evolution of gas as it proceeds

d. Positive change is value of enthalpy

32. Which of the following lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction?

a. freezing mixture

167

b. reducing agent

c. water

d. catalyst

33. Chemical equilibrium is attained when

a. reactants in the system are used up.

b. concentrations of the products are greater than those of the reactants.

c. Concentration of the reactants and products remain constant.

d. reactants stop forming the products

34. Consider the following equation

Ag+

(ag) + Cl-→ AgCl(s) ∆H = - 65.7KJmoI

-1 from the equation, it can be deduced that

a. direct combination is involved and the reaction is endothermic

b. A solid is formed and heat is evolved

c. Activation energy is high and catalyst is required.

d. The reaction is endothermic and occurs at high temperature.

35. A reaction is represented by the equation below. A2+B2(g) 2AB(g); ∆H =-

XKJMOI-1

which of the following statements about the system is correct?

a. The forward reaction is exothermic

b. The reaction goes to completion at equilibrium

c. Pressure has no effect on the equilibrium mixture

d. At equilibrium increase in temperature favours the reverse reaction.

36. Which of the following statements about an exothermic reaction is correct?

a. The products have less heat content than the reactants.

b. The system absorbs heats from the surrounding

c. The activation energy is high.

d. The enthalpy change is positive.

37. Which of the following statements is true of an endothermic reaction? I. Heat is

absorbed from the surrounding II. The heat content of the products is more than that

of the reactants III. The enthalpy change is positive IV. The surrounding is at lower

temperature than the system.

a. I only

b. I and II only

c. I, II and III only

d. I, II, III and IV

168

38. Which of the following are required in an experiment to determine the enthalpy of

solution of anhydrous CuS04?

a. Mass of the anhydrous CuS04

b. Volume of water in which the CuS04 is dissolved

c. Initial temperature of water

d. Final temperature of the solution.

39. The activation energy of a reaction can be altered by

a. adding a reducing agent

b. applying a high pressure

c. charging the temperature

d. using a catalyst

40. When ice is changing to water, its temperature remains the same because the heat

gained is

a. used to separate the molecules

b. lost partially to the atmosphere

c. used to increase the volume of ice

d. less than the activation energy

41. Solute spreading throughout solvent from regions of high concentration to regions of

low concentration means that

a. change in entropy is negative

b. there is an increase in the degree of disorder

c. change in entropy is zero

d. there is a natural tendency for the system to achieve a greater order.

42. At equilibrium, the value of the free energy G is

a. positive

b. negative

c. at a minimum

d. constant.

43. Which of the following is correct?

a. the combination of enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) is a function called free

energy

b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S

c. in spontaneous reaction, Gibbs free energy is always negative

169

d. in a chemical reaction, the system always tries to satisfy two complementary

tendencies: maximum stability and maximum entropy.

44. The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is formed

from its constituent elements is known as:

a. heat of reaction

b. heat of neutralization

c. enthalpy

d. heat of formation

45. When the heat of reaction (∆H) is negative, it shows that reactions is

a. exothermic

b. endothermic

c. spontaneous

d. decreasing

46. Spontaneity is provided by Gibb‟s free energy through the equation

a. ∆H = ∆G - ∆S

b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S

c. ∆S = ∆H - T∆S

d. ∆G = T- H∆S

47. When a system in a state of chemical equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium shifts

so as to annul or neutralize the effect of the change. This defines

a. Boyle‟s law

b. Charles law

c. Pressure law

d. le -chatelier‟s principle

48. An endothermic reaction is one which involves

a. attainment of dynamic equilibrium

b. absorption of heat from the surrounding

c. evolution of gas as it proceeds

d. negative change in value of enthalpy

49. The substance that lowers the energy barrier, providing an alternative pathway for the

reaction is called.

a. an inhibitor

b. a catalyst

c. an activator

170

d. a reactant

50. A catalyst has no effect on the position of a system at equilibrium because

a. it is a catalyst

b. it affects the forward and backward reactions equally

c. it affect forward reaction only

d. it affect backward reaction only.

171

APPENDIX F

MARKING SCHEME FOR THE CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST

1. C

2. C

3. B

4. D

5. A

6. C

7. A

8 D

9. A

10. D

11. A

12. A

13. A

14. B

15. A

16. B

17. A

18. D

19. A

20. A

21 D

22 A

23 A

24 A

25 B

26 B

27 B

28 B

29 B

30 C

31 B

32 D

33 C

34 B

35 D

36 A

37 C

38 D

39 D

40 B

41 C

42 B

172

43 B

44 D

45 A

46 B

47 D

48 B

49 A

50 B

173

APPENDIX G

INSTRUCTION ON HOW TO MAKE EFFECTIVE USE OF THE LESSON PLANS

TO ENSURES UNIFORM CONDITIONS

To ensure maximum control of teacher variable for LM, lesson plans on the units of

chemistry were prepared by the researcher and distributed to the teachers that would handle

the control group. The researcher together with the teacher read through the contents of the

lesson plans and necessary explanations were made. The teacher‟s attention was drawn to the

following points

1. Objectives of each lesson.

2. The appropriate instructional materials that must be used by the teacher at every

lesson.

3. Teaching techniques to be employed.

4. Students‟ activities at different stages of each lesson.

5. The evaluation questions and assignments which must be used to evaluate the

lesson at the end of each period.

6. The teachers were advised to adhere strictly to the specifications of the lesson

plans.

174

APPENDIX H

OPERATIONAL GUIDE TO INSTRUCTION FOR COMPUTER ASSISTED

CONCEPT MAPPING LESSONS

1. Boot the computer if it is not already booted

2. Insert the CD-room

3. Click the start menu, the welcome page will appear

4. Type your name in the box on the page and click the arrow around the box the

main menu will appear which contains the different lessons.

5. Select the topic by clicking the arrow beside the topic, the lesson page will be

displayed.

6. After each lesson, there is an evaluation question which the student must answer

correctly before the student is allowed to move to the next lesson. But if the

student failed to get the correct answer after three trials, the student is logged out.

With the instruction that the student should meet his/her instructor for assistance.

175

APPENDIX I

LESSON PLANS FOR THE CONTROL GROUP INSTRUCTIONS

LESSON 1

Subject: Chemistry

Class: SSII

Duration: 35 minutes

Topic: Energy and forms of Energy

Instructional Objectives: By the end of the lesson the students will be able to

i. Define energy

ii. List the different forms of energy

iii. State the law of conservation of energy

Instructional Materials: A chart/picture of different forms of energy.

Instructional Techniques: Use of example Questioning, Explanatory techniques

Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines energy as the ability to do work the teacher list

the different forms of energy as

i. Chemical energy

ii. Electrical energy

iii. Light energy

iv. Sound energy

v. Nuclear energy

vi. Thermal energy

He then state the law of conservation of energy as energy is neither created nor destroyed but

can transform from one form to another.

Evaluation:

i. What is energy

ii. List four forms of energy

iii. State the law of conservation of energy

176

LESSON 2

Subject: Chemistry

Class: SSII

Duration: 35 minutes

Topic: Thermal Energy

Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to

i. Define thermal energy

ii. Differentiate between heat energy and temperature

iii. Explain the process of heat transfer

Instructional Materials: Source of heat (stove), thermometer, Dish containing water, metal

that conducts heat.

Instructional Techniques: Demonstration, Questioning and Explanatory Techniques

Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines heat energy as the sum total of all the

randomized kinetic energy within a body. He also defines temperature as: Temperature is the

degree of hotness and coldness of a body. Temperature is measured using thermometer. He

explains the process of heat transfer, heat is transferred from a warmer body to a colder one

through contact until the temperatures of the two becomes identical.

Evaluation:

i. Define heat energy

ii. Differentiate between heat and temperature

iii. How is heat transferred from one body to another

LESSON 3

Subject: Chemistry

Class: SSII

Duration: 35 minutes

Topic: Endothermic Reaction

Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to

i. Define endothermic reaction

177

ii. Give examples of endothermic processes

iii Identify heat change value for endothermic reaction

Instructional Materials: A chart showing the graph for the energy profile for

endothermic reaction.

Instructional Techniques: Demonstration and explanatory techniques

Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines endothermic reaction as a reaction which

involves the absorption of energy in form of heat from the surrounding. It is a reaction in

which the reacting system receives heat from the surrounding.

He states some examples of endothermic processes as

i. Photosynthesis

ii. Evaporation of water

He then explain that the heat change value for endothermic reaction is positive using

the graph on the chart

Evaluation

i. What is endothermic reaction

ii. What is the value of heat change for endothermic reaction?

LESSON 4

Subject: Chemistry

Class: SSII

Duration: 35 minutes

Topic: Exothermic Reaction

Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to 1. Define

Exothermic reaction

2. Explain the difference between exothermic and endothermic

reactions.

3. Identify heat change values for exothermic reaction.

178

Instructional Material: A chart showing the graph for the energy profile for exothermic

reaction.

Instructional Techniques: Demonstration and Explanatory techniques

Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines exothermic reaction as a reaction which

involves the release of energy in form of heat to the surrounding. In exothermic reaction, the

reacting system gives heat to the surrounding. He explains using the energy

profile graph that the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants as such

the difference between the energy of the products and that of the reactants known as the heat

change is given the symbol ▲H. The value of ▲H is negative. He goes further to explain the

difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions as

i. Exothermic reaction involves release of heat energy while endothermic

reaction involves absorption of heat energy. ii. The

value of ▲H for exothermic reaction is negative (-) while that of endothermic reaction is

positive (+)

Evaluation: He evaluates the lesson by asking the following questions

1. Define exothermic reaction

2. What is the difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions?

LESSON 5

Subject: Chemistry

Class: SSII

Duration: 35 minutes

Topic: Chemical Equilibrium

Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to

i. Explain what chemical equilibrium is and

ii. State Le-chateliers principle

Instructional Techniques: Explanatory and Questioning techniques.

179

Instructional Procedure: The teacher explains what chemical equilibrium is as when a

chemical reaction takes place in a container which prevents the entry or escape of any of the

substances involved in the reaction the quantities of these components changes some are

consumed and others are formed. Eventually, these changes will

come to an end after which the composition will remain unchanged as long as the system

remains undisturbed. The system is then serial to be in its equilibrium state. A chemical

reaction is in equilibrium when there is no tendency for quantities of reactant and

products to change.

He also explains why reactions go towards equilibrium that the balance forces in

chemical reactions that balances the tendency for bonds to be retained and bonds to be broken

is responsible for the equilibrium that is being attained in chemical reactions.

The teacher then state the Le-chatelier principle as when a system in a state of

equilibrium is being disturbed by external constraints, such as temperature, concentration and

pressure etc, the equilibrium will shift to cancel the effect of the constraint.

Evaluation: The lesson is evaluated by asking the following questions

i. What is chemical equilibrium?

ii. State Le-chateliers principle

iii. Why do reactions go toward equilibrium?

180

LESSON 6

Subject: Chemistry

Class: SSII

Duration: 35 minutes

Topic: Reversibility of reactions

Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the student will be able to

1. Explain what reversibility of reaction is.

2. Identify the reversibility sign.

Instructional Techniques: Questioning and explanatory techniques

Instructional Procedure: when the rate of forward reaction is equal to that of backward

reaction, the reaction is said to be reversible.

He explains that half arrows are used to show reaction that is reversible as shown

→indicates forward reaction, while ←indicate backward reaction. So when put together

is the sign for the reversibility of a reaction for example.

H2+I2 2HI is a reversible reaction.

Evaluation: The teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the following questions.

1. What is reversible reaction

2. Write the signs indicating both forward and backward

reactions.

181

APPENDIX J

FACILITY AND DISCRIMINATION INDICES OF TEST

INSTRUMENT

Item

No. Key Upper Lower

Ru

(%)

Rl

(%)

No. of

Right P=R/T

Ru -

Rl

1 5 1 71 14 14 46 57

2 4 1 57 14 10 33 43

3 5 1 71 14 14 46 57

4 4 1 57 14 16 53 43

5 3 0 42 0 9 30 42

6 5 2 71 28 11 36 43

7 5 2 71 28 11 36 43

8 4 0 57 0 12 40 57

9 6 2 85 28 13 43 57

10 5 1 71 14 16 53 57

11 6 1 85 14 13 43 71

12 5 2 71 28 18 60 43

13 5 1 71 14 14 46 57

14 4 1 57 14 10 33 43

15 5 1 71 14 12 40 57

16 5 2 71 28 12 40 43

17 5 2 71 28 10 33 43

18 4 1 57 14 18 60 43

19 6 2 85 28 21 70 57

20 4 1 57 14 14 46 43

21 3 0 42 0 12 40 42

22 4 0 57 0 14 46 57

23 6 3 85 42 16 53 43

24 5 1 71 14 14 46 57

25 4 1 57 14 18 60 43

26 4 1 57 14 9 30 43

27 5 1 71 14 12 40 57

28 4 0 57 0 15 50 57

29 5 1 71 14 13 43 57

30 3 0 42 0 18 60 42

31 3 0 42 0 15 50 42

32 6 2 85 28 11 36 57

33 4 1 57 14 17 56 43

34 5 2 71 28 9 30 43

35 4 0 57 0 10 33 57

36 3 0 42 0 11 36 42

37 4 1 57 14 9 30 43

38 4 1 57 14 13 43 43

39 5 2 71 28 10 33 43

40 4 1 57 14 9 30 43

41 6 3 85 42 12 40 43

42 3 0 42 0 9 30 42

43 6 2 85 28 13 43 57

44 4 1 57 14 10 33 43

182

45 4 1 57 14 12 40 43

46 5 2 71 28 12 40 43

47 3 0 42 0 16 53 42

48 5 1 71 14 10 33 57

49 5 2 71 28 11 36 43

50 4 1 57 14 17 56 43

183

APPENDIX K

RESHUFFLED CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST (CAT) FOR SENIOR

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (SSII

) IN MINNA, NIGER STATE

School…………………………………………………

Class……………………………………………………

Sex………………………………………………………

Instruction: Tick the correct option from the options a-d. Answer all questions.

1. Equilibrium is said to be attained in reversible reaction when

a. All the reactants have been used up

b. All the products have been formed.

c. There is no further change in temperature

d. The rates of the forward and backward reaction are equal.

2. Which of the following statement is/are correct of ∆H, the enthalpy of reaction? H is

a. The heat change accompanying a chemical reaction

b. Negative for exothermic reactions

c. Positive for endothermic reaction

d. Greater than ∆S for reversible reactions.

3. Which of the following statements is/are correct about equilibrium?

a. Chemical equilibrium is attained when the rates of forward and backward

reaction are equal

b. changes in concentrations of reactions will alter equilibrium concentrations.

c. A catalyst alter equally the rates of both the forward and the backward

reactions

d. Temperature affects equilibrium constant.

4. Which of the following correctly, explains entropy?

a. The natural tendency for a system to achieve a greater disorder

b. A balance of two driving forces between free energy and enthalpy changes

c. The cause of spontaneity of a reaction

184

d. A measure of the enthalpy of a reaction

5. The ∆H value for the reaction A + B → C + D,

is what, if the temperature, free energy and entropy changes are 400C, 4260KJ and-

20KJ respectively?

a. + 2000KJmol-1

b. + 3460KJmol-1

c. + 50KJmol-1

d. - 100KJmol-1

6. Which of the processes represented by the following equations has the greatest

positive entropy change?

a. C6H6 (1) → C6H6 (g)

b. H20(s) → H20(1)

c. Cu0(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H20(1)

d. Na2C03(s) +nH20(1) → Na2CO3 nH20(s)

7. CH4 (g) + 202(g) → 2H20(1) + C02(g) ∆H = 890kJmol-1

∆H in the reaction represented by the equation above is the enthalpy of

e. formation

f. combustion

g. solution

h. activation

8. If a reaction is said to be exothermic, which of the following statement is correct?

a. The reaction vessel gets hotter as the reaction proceeds

b. ∆H for the reaction is positive

c. The rate of the reaction increases with time

d. The activation energy of the reaction is high.

9. In a chemical reaction, the reacting species possesses energy of motion known as

a. potential energy

b. free energy

c. bond energy

d. kinetic energy

10. H30+

(ag) + OH- →

2H20(1) the heat change accompanying the process represented by the

equation above is the heat of

a. neutralization

b. formation

185

c. solution

d. dilution

11. In which of the following equations can le-charteliers principle be applied?

a. H2 (g) + S (g) → H2S (g)

b. 2H2S (g) + 02(g) → 2H20(1) + 2S02s(g)

c. N2(g)+ 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

d. NaOH (ag)+CO2 (g) → Na2CO3(ag) + H2O(1)

12. A measure of the degree of disorderliness in a chemical system is known as the

a. activation energy

b. enthalpy

c. entropy

d. equilibrium

13. A chemical system is at equilibrium when

a. ∆G is positive

b. ∆G is zero

c. ∆S is negative

d. ∆S is positive

14. What does ∆H represent in the equation below?

CI2 (g) +2e –

2CI-: ∆H = +363kjmol

-1

a. activation energy

b. dissociation energy

c. electron affinity

d. enthalpy change

15. Which of the following statements is correct about the following system at

equilibrium?

PC15(g) PC13(s) + Cl2; ∆H is positive

a. increase in temperature increases the yield of PCI3

b. PC15 is less stable at high pressures

c. decrease in temperature favours the forward reaction.

d. decrease in pressure favours the forward reaction

16. If the change in free energy (∆G) of reaction is negative, it can be deduced that the

reaction will

a. not proceed in the direction indicated

b. be reversible

186

c. Not occur at room temperature

d. be feasible

17. Which of the following can be deduced from the equation below? XY(aq) + PQ(aq) →

XQ(s) + PY (aq)

∆H = - 65,700J

a. The heat content of the reactants is higher than that of the products

b. The reaction involves double decomposition

c. The reaction is slow

d. A large amount of heat is absorbed.

18. In the energy profile diagram below which letter represents the activation energy for

the reversible reaction?

E

a. X

b. Y

c. Z

d. P

19. The products of an endothermic reaction are

a. higher in enthalpy than the reactants

b. lower in enthalpy than the reactants

c. the same in enthalpy as the reactants

d. such that the change in enthalpy is less than zero

20. A catalyst has no effect on the position of a system at equilibrium because

a. it is a catalyst

b. it affects the forward and backward reactions equally

c. it affect forward reaction only

d. it affect backward reaction only.

Reactants

x product

y

Z

p

Reaction coordinate

187

Consider the energy profile diagram below and use it to answer questions 21 to 23

E

21. Q represent

a. Activation energy

b. Activated complex

c. Enthalpy change

d. Heat content of the reactants

22. Enthalpy change of the reaction is represented by

a. W

b. X

c. Z

d. Y

23. What type of reaction is represented by the energy diagram?

a. Endothermic

b. Exothermic

c. Redox

d. Neutralization

24. An endothermic reaction is one which involves

a. attainment of dynamic equilibrium

b. absorption of heat from the surrounding

c. evolution of gas as it proceeds

d. negative change in value of enthalpy

Q

Z

X

W

Y

Reaction coordinator

188

25. The substance that lowers the energy barrier, providing an alternative pathway for the

reaction is called.

a. an inhibitor

b. a catalyst

c. an activator

d. a reactant

26. If the value of ∆H for a reaction is negative. It means that the reaction is.

a. Slow

b. exothermic

c. spontaneous

d. Irreversible

27. The free energy change, entropy change and heat change for a chemical reaction are

4000kjmol-1

, 100kjmol-1

and 6000kjmol-1

respectively, what is the temperature?

e. 10K

f. 20K

g. 30K

h. 40K

28. The spontaneity of a chemical reaction is determined by the change in the

a. Concentration of the reactants

b. Temperature of the system

c. Free energy of the system

d. Pressure applied to the system

29. An exothermic reaction is one which involves

a. Attainment of the dynamic equilibrium

b. Loss of heart to the surrounding

c. Evolution of gas as it proceeds

d. Positive change is value of enthalpy

30. Which of the following lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction?

a. freezing mixture

b. reducing agent

c. water

d. catalyst

31. Chemical equilibrium is attained when

a. reactants in the system are used up.

189

b. concentrations of the products are greater than those of the reactants.

c. Concentration of the reactants and products remain constant.

d. reactants stop forming the products

32. Consider the following equation

Ag+

(ag) + Cl-→ AgCl(s) ∆H = - 65.7KJmoI

-1 from the equation, it can be deduced that

a. direct combination is involved and the reaction is endothermic

b. A solid is formed and heat is evolved

c. Activation energy is high and catalyst is required.

d. The reaction is endothermic and occurs at high temperature.

33. A reaction is represented by the equation below. A2+B2(g) 2AB(g); ∆H =-

XKJMOI-1

which of the following statements about the system is correct?

a. The forward reaction is exothermic

b. The reaction goes to completion at equilibrium

c. Pressure has no effect on the equilibrium mixture

d. At equilibrium increase in temperature favours the reverse reaction.

34. Which of the following statements about an exothermic reaction is correct?

a. The products have less heat content than the reactants.

b. The system absorbs heats from the surrounding

c. The activation energy is high.

d. The enthalpy change is positive.

35. Which of the following statements is true of an endothermic reaction? I. Heat is

absorbed from the surrounding II. The heat content of the products is more than that

of the reactants III. The enthalpy change is positive IV. The surrounding is at lower

temperature than the system.

a. I only

b. I and II only

c. I, II and III only

d. I, II, III and IV

36. Which of the following are required in an experiment to determine the enthalpy of

solution of anhydrous CuS04?

a. Mass of the anhydrous CuS04

b. Volume of water in which the CuS04 is dissolved

c. Initial temperature of water

d. Final temperature of the soluti

190

37. The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is formed

from its constituent elements is known as:

a. heat of reaction

b. heat of neutralization

c. enthalpy

d. heat of formation

38. When the heat of reaction (∆H) is negative, it shows that reactions is

a. exothermic

b. endothermic

c. spontaneous

d. decreasing

39. Spontaneity is provided by Gibb‟s free energy through the equation

a. ∆H = ∆G - ∆S

b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S

c. ∆S = ∆H - T∆S

d. ∆G = T- H∆S

40. When a system in a state of chemical equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium shifts

so as to annul or neutralize the effect of the change. This defines

a. Boyle‟s law

b. Charles law

c. Pressure law

d. le -chatelier‟s principle

41. Consider the reaction

H(aq) + OH(aq)→ H20(1)

The energy change taking place in the reaction above is enthalpy of

e. formation

f. hydration

g. neutralization

h. solution

42. Which of the following is not true of a system in chemical equilibrium?

e. rate of forward and backward reactions are equal

f. the reaction must be a reversible reaction

g. there must be increase in temperature

h. the value of the free energy change of the system is zero

191

43. Which of the following is true for the spontaneity of a reaction?

a. ∆H - T∆S = - Ve

b. ∆H - T∆S = O

c. H

d. ∆S = 0

44. Calculate the free energy change of the reaction that was carried out at 270C with

+4500j and +12j as enthalpy and entropy changes respectively.

a. - 4176J

b. - 900J

c. + 900J

d. + 4176J

45. If the enthalpy change and the free energy change are +4500j and+3600j at the

temperature of 300C, what is the entropy change?

a. 30j

b. 25j

c. 35j

d. 34j

46. The activation energy of a reaction can be altered by

a. adding a reducing agent

b. applying a high pressure

c. charging the temperature

d. using a catalyst

47. When ice is changing to water, its temperature remains the same because the heat

gained is

a. used to separate the molecules

b. lost partially to the atmosphere

c. used to increase the volume of ice

d. less than the activation energy

48. Solute spreading throughout solvent from regions of high concentration to regions of

low concentration means that

a. change in entropy is negative

b. there is an increase in the degree of disorder

c. change in entropy is zero

d. there is a natural tendency for the system to achieve a greater order.

192

49. At equilibrium, the value of the free energy G is

a. positive

b. negative

c. at a minimum

d. constant.

50. Which of the following is correct?

a. the combination of enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) is a function called free

energy

b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S

c. in spontaneous reaction, Gibbs free energy is always negative

d. in a chemical reaction, the system always tries to satisfy two complementary

tendencies: maximum stability and maximum entropy.

193

194

APPENDIX L

POPULATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (SS11

) OFFERING

CHEMISTRY IN MINNA

S/NO

SCHOOL

MALE FEMALE TOTAL

1 Bosso Secondary School Minna 152 63 215

2 Day Secondary School Maitunbi 137 86 223

3 Government Day Secondary School Maikunkele 122 66 188

4 Army Day Secondary School (A) Minna 96 67 163

5 Army Day Secondary School (B) Minna 115 77 192

6 Government Day Secondary School Minna 175 79 254

7 Day Secondary School Tunga 96 61 157

8 Hill-Top Model Secondary Minna 97 59 156

9 Federal Government College Minna 110 60 170

10 Zarumai Model School Minna 93 63 153

11 Ahmadu Bahago Senior Secondary School Minna 174 0 174

12 Women Day College Minna 0 147 147

13 Government Girls Secondary School Old Airport

Minna

0 138 138

14 Government Secondary School Minna 138 0 138

15 Maryam Babangida Girls Science College Minna 0 236 236

16 Government Girls Day Secondary School Minna 0 184 184

TOTAL 1650 1058 2708

Source: Niger State Ministry of Education

195

APPENDIX M DATA ANALYSIS FOR EFFECTS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CONCEPT MAPPING AND DIGITAL VIDEO INSTRUCTION ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY

Research Question 1

Pertest Posttest

Computer Assisted

Group

N 68 68

Mean 33.2647 69.4412

Std. Deviation 3.22128 3.89175

Conventional Group N 64 64

Mean 33.8125 65.2813

Std. Deviation 2.68373 3.38751

Total N 132 132

Mean 33.5303 67.4242

Std. Deviation 2.97429 4.19764

Research Question 2

Pertest Posttest

Conventional

Group

N 64 64

Mean 33.8125 65.2813

Std. Deviation 2.68373 3.38751

Digital Video

Group

N 78 78

Mean 34.0769 55.6923

Std. Deviation 3.08229 4.17882

Total N 142 142

Mean 33.9577 60.0141

Std. Deviation 2.90237 6.13094

196

Research Question 3- Computer Assisted and Gender

Sex Pertest Posttest

Male N 42 42

Mean 33.1905 70.0476

Std. Deviation 3.12533 4.38374

Female N 26 26

Mean 33.3846 68.4615

Std. Deviation 3.43018 2.73102

Total N 68 68

Mean 33.2647 69.4412

Std. Deviation 3.22128 3.89175

Research Question 4- Digital Video and Gender

Sex Pertest Posttest

Male N 48 48

Mean 33.3750 56.4583

Std. Deviation 3.03613 4.17163

Female N 30 30

Mean 35.2000 54.4667

Std. Deviation 2.85754 3.95434

Total N 78 78

Mean 34.0769 55.6923

Std. Deviation 3.08229 4.17882

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Analysis of Covariance for Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3

Dependent Variable:Posttest

Source

Type III Sum of

Squares df

Mean

Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 7438.111a 6 1239.685 84.934 .000

Intercept 5961.246 1 5961.246 408.421 .000

Pertest 5.027 1 5.027 .344 .558

Groups 6957.848 2 3478.924 238.350 .000

Sex 65.477 1 65.477 4.486 .035

Groups * Sex 45.677 2 22.838 1.565 .212

Error 2962.956 203 14.596

Total 845656.000 210

Corrected Total 10401.067 209

a. R Squared = .715 (Adjusted R Squared = .707)

.

198

CHAPTR ONE: INTROUDCTION…………………………………………………………..1

Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 19

Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 20

Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 21

Scope of the Study ........................................................................................................... 23

Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 23

Research Hypotheses ....................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 25

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................................... 25

Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................... 26

The need for Science and technology education in Nigeria ............................................ 26

Concept of Chemistry ...................................................................................................... 29

Importance of Instructional Media in Education ............................................................. 33

Information and Communication Technology and Education ......................................... 35

Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction ....................................................... 41

Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping ........................................................................... 52

Computer Assisted Concept Mapping as an Instructional Media .................................... 57

Digital Video Disc as an Instructional Media ................................................................. 57

Gender and Achievement in Science andTechnology…………………………..............52

Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 73

Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning ...................................................................................... 73

Application in CAI ........................................................................................................... 75

Cognitive Theories ........................................................................................................... 76

Empirical studies on Computer-Assisted Concept Mapping, Digital Video Instruction

and Gender influence on Academic Achievement in Science ......................................... 82

Summary of Literature Reviewed .................................................................................. 101

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 105

RESEARCH METHOD..................................................................................................... 105

Design of Study.............................................................................................................. 105

Area of Study ................................................................................................................. 106

Population of the Study .................................................................................................. 107

Sample and Sampling Techniques ................................................................................. 108

Instrument for Data Collection ...................................................................................... 109

Development of the Learning Instrument for the Treatment ......................................... 110

Validation of the Instrument .......................................................................................... 112

Item Analysis ................................................................................................................. 114

Reliability of Instrument ................................................................................................ 115

Control of Extraneous Variables .................................................................................... 116

Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................. 118

Method of Data Collection............................................................................................. 120

Method of Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 121

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 122

RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 122

Summary of Findings ..................................................................................................... 132

CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 133

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY ................................................................... 133

Discussion of the Results ............................................................................................... 134

199

Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry .................................. 134

Findings on the effect of DVI on Students Achievement in Chemistry ........................ 135

Findings on effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on Achievement in

Chemistry by Gender ..................................................................................................... 135

Findings on effect of Digital Video Instruction on Achievement in Chemistry by Gender

........................................................................................................................................ 136

Findings on the treatment-gender interaction effect on students achievement in

chemistry………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 137

Educational Implications ............................................................................................... 137

Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 139

Limitations of the Study................................................................................................. 140

Suggestions for further Studies ...................................................................................... 140

Summary ........................................................................................................................ 141

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 144

APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 161