Thorium: the Nuclear Thorium: the Nuclear FrontierFrontier

Shannon BeebeShannon Beebeshannonlbeebe@gmail.comshannonlbeebe@gmail.com

Energy Law, Fall 2009Energy Law, Fall 2009ChicagoChicago--Kent College of LawKent College of Law

Overview Overview 1.1. Energy needs of the US and the world Energy needs of the US and the world –– is it worth looking into a whole is it worth looking into a whole

new fuel?new fuel?2.2. Brief recap of how we extract nuclear fuel and create nuclear eBrief recap of how we extract nuclear fuel and create nuclear energy nergy

(uranium)(uranium)3.3. Brief recap of how a reactor worksBrief recap of how a reactor works4.4. Introducing thoriumIntroducing thorium

Advantages and disadvantages compared to uranium Advantages and disadvantages compared to uranium AvailabilityAvailabilityRelative safety Relative safety FeasibilityFeasibility

5.5. Why thorium is still an untapped resourceWhy thorium is still an untapped resourceUraniumUranium’’s continued economic viabilitys continued economic viabilityLack of fundingLack of fundingLack of political supportLack of political support

6.6. Criticism & obstaclesCriticism & obstacles7.7. The bottom lineThe bottom line

Global and US energy needs: Global and US energy needs: do we really need a new fuel?do we really need a new fuel?

Unless we increase our efficiency or lower overall consumption -

YES

Drivers of a possible switchoverDrivers of a possible switchoverthe biggie: Climate Changethe biggie: Climate Change

Increasing nuclear will take the pressure off coal and oil indusIncreasing nuclear will take the pressure off coal and oil industriestriesACES Act (WaxmanACES Act (Waxman--Markey Bill) Title I sub Markey Bill) Title I sub §§ J J §§ 199: 199: Thorium Thorium researchresearch –– No later than February, 2011, the Secretary of Energy shall No later than February, 2011, the Secretary of Energy shall send Congress a report on the results of a study on the use of send Congress a report on the results of a study on the use of thoriumthorium--fueled nuclear reactorsfueled nuclear reactors for national energy needs, which for national energy needs, which shall include a response to the International Atomic Energy Agenshall include a response to the International Atomic Energy Agency cy studystudy

Safety concerns:Safety concerns:ThTh--232232’’s exceptionally long half life means that it is very stable, so s exceptionally long half life means that it is very stable, so wastes involved in mining and processing are not dangerouswastes involved in mining and processing are not dangerousthorium reactors, which require a higher burnup, create less wathorium reactors, which require a higher burnup, create less wasteste

Geopolitical concerns:Geopolitical concerns:India, e.g., looking energy for independence and contains some 3India, e.g., looking energy for independence and contains some 30% of 0% of worldworld’’s s ““reasonably assuredreasonably assured”” thorium suppliesthorium supplies

Recap of how we get and use uranium Recap of how we get and use uranium -- 11HighestHighest--producing countries are Canada (20% of global production), producing countries are Canada (20% of global production), Kazakhstan (19.4%) and Australia (19.2%)Kazakhstan (19.4%) and Australia (19.2%)

HighestHighest--consuming countries are the US (31% of global consumption), Franconsuming countries are the US (31% of global consumption), France ce (16%) and Japan (12%)(16%) and Japan (12%)

An efficiency problem with nuclear power is thus the energy usedAn efficiency problem with nuclear power is thus the energy used to transport to transport uranium from the site where it is extracted to where it is consuuranium from the site where it is extracted to where it is consumedmed

Another illustration: U from soil to reactorAnother illustration: U from soil to reactor

Recap Recap –– 2: U2: U’’s ores ore--toto--energy cycleenergy cycle

Because uranium is generally found in low concentrations (0.1Because uranium is generally found in low concentrations (0.1--0.2% of 0.2% of the ore), the most common forms of extraction are open pit mininthe ore), the most common forms of extraction are open pit mining, g, underground mining, and in situ leaching.underground mining, and in situ leaching.

How we get and use uranium How we get and use uranium –– 3: The extraction process3: The extraction process

(1) Open pit: low danger for mine workers, but devastating to the surface environment; also, they leave radioactive tailings and waste piles

(2) Underground: more dangerous for workers and radioactive water pumped out affects nearby water systems; but much less surface disturbance

(3) In situ leaching: also better for the surface environment and cheaper, but almost always leads to contaminated groundwater systems; acid v. alkaline leachate (efficiency v. effects)

How we get and use uranium How we get and use uranium –– 4: Milling/refining/conversion4: Milling/refining/conversion

After the ore is mined, it must be refined to increase the perceAfter the ore is mined, it must be refined to increase the percentage ntage of natural Uof natural U

The result is The result is ““yellowcakeyellowcake”” –– 6060--70% U 70% U Then, dissolved in nitric acid and heated to create UFl6 (uraniuThen, dissolved in nitric acid and heated to create UFl6 (uranium m hexafluoride)hexafluoride)Gas then sent for Gas then sent for

enrichmentenrichment

How we get and use uranium How we get and use uranium –– 5: Enrichment5: Enrichment

Even refined into its pure natural form, U is made up Even refined into its pure natural form, U is made up ~99.3% of the U~99.3% of the U238238 isotope, and only ~0.7% of theisotope, and only ~0.7% of theisotope Uisotope U235235

Only the 235 isotope is fissileThis means that the refined element must be enriched via isotope separation

2 processes mainly used: Gaseous diffusion

used to enrich ~33% of world’s UHowever, outdated technology, slowly being phased out

Gaseous centrifugeUsed for ~54% of enrichment todayMust less energy intensive – uses about 1/50th as much as diffusion

Problem with enrichment: another step that produces nuclear waste; especially enrichment of reprocessed uranium feedstock, which includes undesirable isotopes like neptunium-137

Brief recap of how a reactor works: Brief recap of how a reactor works:

Enriched, refined uranium + water steam electricity + radioactive waste

Introducing:ThoriumIntroducing:ThoriumOccurrence: Occurrence: like uranium and plutonium, occurs like uranium and plutonium, occurs naturally in the earthnaturally in the earth’’s crust in mineral form, usually as s crust in mineral form, usually as thorite (ThSiO4), thorianite (ThOthorite (ThSiO4), thorianite (ThO22 + UO+ UO22) and monazite ) and monazite (Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Th, Y)PO(Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Th, Y)PO44 (most common)(most common)

Physical properties: Physical properties: in pure form, a soft, shiny, silveryin pure form, a soft, shiny, silvery--white actinoid metal white actinoid metal that slowly tarnishes to grey and then black (most that slowly tarnishes to grey and then black (most similar to Pb)similar to Pb)High melting point, second only to tungsten; highest High melting point, second only to tungsten; highest overall in ThOoverall in ThO22 formformGenerally insolubleGenerally insoluble

Current UsesCurrent UsesBecause of its high melting point:Because of its high melting point:

Coats tungsten wire in electronic equipmentCoats tungsten wire in electronic equipmentUsed in manufacture of ceramics (ex. bricks, tiles, Used in manufacture of ceramics (ex. bricks, tiles, porcelain, glass)porcelain, glass)Lantern mantles (similar to tungsten filament in bulbs)Lantern mantles (similar to tungsten filament in bulbs)In ThF4 form, used in carbon arc lamps for movie In ThF4 form, used in carbon arc lamps for movie projectors and searchlightsprojectors and searchlights

Because of high refractive index:Because of high refractive index:Used in manufacture of refractory materials (ex. Used in manufacture of refractory materials (ex. photography lenses and scientific instruments)photography lenses and scientific instruments)

Along with U, age dating of Along with U, age dating of fossilsfossils

So whatSo what’’s interesting about it?s interesting about it?(1) (1) Safer for the biosphere:Safer for the biosphere:

Like Ur, Th will undergo nuclear fissionLike Ur, Th will undergo nuclear fissionHowever, its main isotope, ThHowever, its main isotope, Th--232, does not need to 232, does not need to be converted or enriched before it goes in the reactorbe converted or enriched before it goes in the reactor

Th has a half life 3 times the earthTh has a half life 3 times the earth’’s age s age -- ~14 ~14 billion years (Ubillion years (U--238 has a half life of ~4 billion)238 has a half life of ~4 billion)

Because of its long half life, even direct Because of its long half life, even direct exposure to small amounts isnexposure to small amounts isn’’t dangeroust dangerous

(1) (b): the chemistry(1) (b): the chemistryThe safeness derives from its ability to act as fuel even The safeness derives from its ability to act as fuel even in its natural isotopein its natural isotopeGives off alpha particles so slowly that it is not harmfulGives off alpha particles so slowly that it is not harmful

upon external exposureupon external exposure

……and (2), itand (2), it’’s s everywhere.everywhere.Geologists estimate that Th is 3Geologists estimate that Th is 3--4 times as common as U 4 times as common as U (about as common as Pb)(about as common as Pb)It occurs on every continent, most abundantly in Brazil, India It occurs on every continent, most abundantly in Brazil, India and Australia (US Geol. Survey)and Australia (US Geol. Survey)This is in contrast to uranium, of which 85% of estimated This is in contrast to uranium, of which 85% of estimated world reserves are concentrated in 8 countriesworld reserves are concentrated in 8 countries

Uranium deposits

est. Thorium deposits

(3) Uranium stocks are finite(3) Uranium stocks are finiteEstimated world thorium reservesEstimated world thorium reserves

(4): Th can be used for energy (4): Th can be used for energy productionproduction

Though thorium naturally occurs almost exclusively in Though thorium naturally occurs almost exclusively in the relatively stable Ththe relatively stable Th232232 isotope, it is isotope, it is ““fertilefertile”” because it because it can be can be ““bredbred”” with a small amount of Uwith a small amount of U235235 to cause a to cause a chain reaction chain reaction selfself--sustaining nuclear fissionsustaining nuclear fission

It worked!It worked!The Shippingport Atomic Power StationThe Shippingport Atomic Power Station

Opened: 1954Opened: 1954Achieved full power: 1957Achieved full power: 1957From R&D to plant: 1958From R&D to plant: 1958Building time: 32 monthsBuilding time: 32 monthsBuilding cost: $72.5MBuilding cost: $72.5MDecomissioned: 1982Decomissioned: 1982Cleanup cost: $96MCleanup cost: $96MCapacity: 90 MweCapacity: 90 MweReactor: pressurizedReactor: pressurizedlight water reactorlight water reactor-- 19541954

Changed to light water Changed to light water breeder reactor breeder reactor –– 19781978

Fuel setup: seed (6%U) & Fuel setup: seed (6%U) & blanket (1blanket (1--2% U)2% U)Little wasteLittle waste

Put in facts about the average costs of U reactors

...over and over...over and overOak Ridge National Laboratory, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN: molten salt reactormolten salt reactorDragon Reactor, UK: high temp nuclear reactorDragon Reactor, UK: high temp nuclear reactorPeach Bottom Nuclear Power Station, PA: heliumPeach Bottom Nuclear Power Station, PA: helium--cooled, graphitecooled, graphite--monitored reactor (1966monitored reactor (1966--1974)1974)Kamini, India: experimental neutronKamini, India: experimental neutron--source researchsource researchreactor (started up 1996)reactor (started up 1996)Atoms Versuchs Reactor, Germany: pebblebed reactor (1967Atoms Versuchs Reactor, Germany: pebblebed reactor (1967--88)88)

Why arenWhy aren’’t we using thorium?t we using thorium?Overview of the availabilityOverview of the availability--supplysupply--demand cycle:demand cycle:

Reason 1: uranium is still Reason 1: uranium is still economicaleconomical

Sources say that current known uranium stocks should last Sources say that current known uranium stocks should last another 80 yearsanother 80 yearsMining uranium is unlikely to become prohibitively expensive anyMining uranium is unlikely to become prohibitively expensive anytime soontime soonInertia: all the processes for uranium fuel are functioning as Inertia: all the processes for uranium fuel are functioning as intendedintended

Reason 2: lack of fundingReason 2: lack of funding

Ex. Oak Ridge LabEx. Oak Ridge Lab’’s MSR experiments, s MSR experiments, which were successful until cut funding which were successful until cut funding shut down the thorium reactorshut down the thorium reactorMany proMany pro--thorium companies trying to thorium companies trying to break into the energy marketbreak into the energy market

Thorium Energy, Inc.Thorium Energy, Inc.Thorium Power, Ltd. (nowThorium Power, Ltd. (now ))

However, these research efforts are stalled by a However, these research efforts are stalled by a lack of investors, which is clear from the plaintive lack of investors, which is clear from the plaintive tone of some of the websitestone of some of the websites

Reason 3: lack of political supportReason 3: lack of political support

Though Sen.s Hatch (RThough Sen.s Hatch (R--Utah) and Reid (DUtah) and Reid (D--NV) had their concerns NV) had their concerns addressed in ACESA; however, the 2008 bill was defeated, and addressed in ACESA; however, the 2008 bill was defeated, and ACESA is still pendingACESA is still pendingHowever, the drivers are leading toward research of all kinds ofHowever, the drivers are leading toward research of all kinds ofalternatives alternatives Also, Congressman Joe Sestak (DAlso, Congressman Joe Sestak (D--PA) has introduced two bills (HR PA) has introduced two bills (HR 1534, HR 2015) to support thorium research (June, 2009)1534, HR 2015) to support thorium research (June, 2009)

ObstaclesObstacles(1)(1) Because thorium contains no naturally fissile isotope, Th fuel mBecause thorium contains no naturally fissile isotope, Th fuel must ust

always be supplemented by Ualways be supplemented by U--233, U233, U--235 or plutonium235 or plutonium

(2) A higher burnup is necessary to achieve criticality(2) A higher burnup is necessary to achieve criticalityDepending on your source, it sounds as though Light Water ReactoDepending on your source, it sounds as though Light Water Reactors, the most rs, the most common reactors, are difficult to retrofit for thorium use becaucommon reactors, are difficult to retrofit for thorium use because they have difficulty se they have difficulty achieving the high burnup; so a total switchover might not be feachieving the high burnup; so a total switchover might not be feasible in the short termasible in the short term

(3) Th(3) Th--232 takes longer to 232 takes longer to ““breedbreed”” with the uranium or plutonium before with the uranium or plutonium before enough fissile Thenough fissile Th--233 is available for criticality233 is available for criticality

CriticismCriticism““ItIt’’s no safer in a meltdowns no safer in a meltdown””::

Some critics have opined that thoriumSome critics have opined that thorium’’s s ““proliferation, waste, proliferation, waste, safety and cost problems differ only in detail from those of safety and cost problems differ only in detail from those of uraniumuranium”” –– Rahul Goswami, author of Rahul Goswami, author of Hamal SouthasiaHamal Southasiamagazinemagazine’’s online blogs online blog

The The ““nuclear renaissancenuclear renaissance”” never startednever startedDecrease from 18%Decrease from 18%--14% in nuclear additions to global energy 14% in nuclear additions to global energy between 1994 and 2008between 1994 and 2008““In fact, 2008 marks the first year since 1968 when not a single In fact, 2008 marks the first year since 1968 when not a single new reactor was connected to the electric grid.new reactor was connected to the electric grid.””

Other alternatives are betterOther alternatives are betterEnergy efficiency effortsEnergy efficiency effortsInvestment in renewable techInvestment in renewable tech

Reasons to invest Reasons to invest ––5 ways Th can improve the efficiency of the nuclear market5 ways Th can improve the efficiency of the nuclear market

Area for improvement How thorium may help(1) Increasing mining and operating costs of uranium reactors

-mine less and operate more efficiently with reprocessing

(2) Reduce processing waste and travel -high Th-232 concentration in ore in many countries

(3) Volume and time length of storage -reduces volume by ~50%, weight by ~70%, and radiotoxicity by ~90%

(4) Increase supply flexibility - Not only substitute, but alternative to U; more domestic fuel; in turn, reduction of price volatility

(5) Prevent weapons proliferation -thorium-based waste less useful for missiles