‣ Archaeology: new discoveries are being made all the time‣ Oral Tradition: the way history is transmitted by West African cultures‣ Linguistics: experts analyze linguistic similarities and anomalies to understand the historic relationships between cultures and groups‣ Written Accounts: extensive writings of first and second hand observations by Arab traders and Muslim scholars

How do we know about the Medieval Empires of the Western Sudan?

timbu

ktu

a n d t h e M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s o f t h e We s t e r n S u d a nWhere is Timbuktu?

Timbuktu is a city located in the modern country of Mali, in West Africa. Geographically, it is situated in the savannah of sub-Saharan Africa - an area of grasslands between the Niger River to the south and the Sahara Desert to the north.

Why is it called “Timbuktu?”One legend purports that the Tuareg

people, Berber nomads f who traversed the Sahara, went to the area to graze their herds in the dry season. Over time, as they returned north for the season, they would leave their belongings in the care of a local woman, Buktu, who owned a well used by the Tuareg. The place became known as “Tin’Buktu,” which, in the language of the Tuareg, means “the well of Buktu.”

Why do scholars call the region “Western Sudan?”

The earliest writings by Arab traders called this area “Bilad al-Sudan,” which means “land of the black people.” Modern scholars refer to Medieval West Africa as “Western Sudan,” which is completely different from the modern country of Sudan in the eastern part of Africa.

How has geography shaped the region politically?

Timbuktu was a place where caravans from North Africa (offering Mediterranean goods) met the salt traders from the northwest, the gold traders from the forests south of the Niger River, and the slave traders

from the Mideast and from other parts of Africa.

The savannah is marked by scattered trees and a wet and dry season. It is perfectly suited for herding animals and raising grain crops. Agrarian life creates surplus, which supports craftspeople. Iron forging became prominent. Horses were purchased through trade with the Tuaregs. The combined technology of iron and horses enabled local control of the gold/salt/slave trade.

Recent archaeological evidence shows that urban centers appeared west of Timbuktu somewhere between 400-900 C.E, especially in a place called Koumbi Saleh, which became the capital city of Western Sudan’s first major empire: the Ghana Empire.

source: http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~thematic/umbach/slavetradespring03/mali.html

Dana Quante

INCH 512

Spring 2009

EmpiresWhat is an empire?An empire is a number of individual kingdoms and peoples that are all controlled by one ruler.

GHANA MALI SONGHAYEmpiresWhat is an empire?An empire is a number of individual kingdoms and peoples that are all controlled by one ruler.

4th - 12th centuries C.E.

13th - 15th centuries C.E.

15th - 16th centuries C.E.

Capital city Kumbi Saleh Niani Gao

Dominant Mande culture

Soninke Mandike Songhay

Famous rulers Diabe Cisselegendary founding manghan (king)

Sundiata Keitalegendary founding mansa (emporer)

Mansa Musamansa who increased the area of the Mali Empire and attained the highest wealth

Sunni Ali Berconquered Timbuktu and started the Songhay Empire

Askiya Muhammadstarted the Askiya dynasty and increased size and stability of Songhay Empire

Primary source documenting each empire

al-BakriMuslim scholar from Cordoba, Spain whose writings about Ghana are based on interviews with traders.

Ibn BattutaMuslim scholar from Tangiers, Morocco, he traveled through the known world for 25 years, wrote his memoirs.

Leo AfricanusMuslim scholar from Granada, Spain, he traveled to Timbuktu, was enslaved on his way to Constantinople, and “given” to Pope Leo X, who freed him.

GHANA EMPIRE MALI EMPIRE SONGHAY EMPIRE

300-500 C.E.Rise of Ghana trade

700-1000 Ghana Empire becomes dominant power

1230-1255Sundiata Keita

1100 Timbuktu founded

1312-1337Mansa Musa

1469Sunni Ali Ber captures Timbuktu

1493-1529Askiya Muhammad

1591Moroccan Invasion

1056 Almoravid Movement

TIMELINE

Traditional Religion

of Sub-Saharan West Africa

Sacred GrovesThe place where spiritual leaders would interface with the spirit world was a sacred grove of trees located somewhere outside the village or city.

Sacred objects were kept in these groves, and only the spiritual leaders of the community were allowed to enter. Like many other polytheistic spiritual traditions, access to the spirit world was restricted and a “mystery.”

Bida, the snake, was a central spirit for the Wagadu, and is part of the founding mythology of the region. Bida “lived” in the sacred grove outside of Kumbi Saleh.

BlacksmithsBlacksmiths were revered for their privileged knowledge of forging iron. The blacksmiths were the priest class. They had access to the sacred groves where they used masks as a ritualistic conduit to communicate with the divine.

Cultural BiasMuslim and European accounts of the indigenous religious practices show a cultural bias through judgmental language. This should be kept in mind when reading primary sources.

Fall of the Ghana Empire

‣ Economic insecurity due to violence and warfare

‣ Central government disintegrating as empire broke into kingdoms

Ghana Empire 4th - 12th centuries C.E.

“Ghana” is the name Arab traders used for the main city and the king of the region. The people of the region actually called their state “Wagadu,” which means “place of the warrior kings.” “Ghana” is not to be confused with the modern country of Ghana, which was named in honor of the ancient kingdom.

The Soninke are the Mande people who lived west of Timbuktu.

We know about the Soninke through the writings of al-Bakri, an 11th century Muslim scholar who lived in Cordoba, Spain. He interviewed traders coming back from the region and wrote about their tales in The Book of Routes and Kingdoms.

Modern scholars believe that Ghana rose to power around the 4th century C.E. Excavations of the ancient capital city of Kumbi Saleh indicate a population of 15,000 - 20,000 people, and a large, walled palace compound.

The Soninke developed superior iron tools for farming and weapons. Al-Bakri had written that the king of Ghana had an army of 200,000 men. By consolidating political power and levying tariffs, the Soninke were able to control the flow of trade of the three major local commodities: gold, salt, and slaves.

The Soninke had a unified political system with a king, vassals, governors, and ministers who administered the running of the treasury, taxes, and law. The king and the royal courtiers were described as being covered in gold adornments.

Tariffs were collected from goods going in and out of the region. One gold dinar was the tax for one donkey load of salt coming in, and two gold dinars for the same load going out.

First contact with Islam Muslim merchants started trading in

the region between the 9th and 11th centuries. Archaeologists have determined that Kumbi Saleh had two distinct areas, one of which was most probably the “Muslim Quarter.” Local attitudes were tolerant of other religions, and Islam was assimilated into the region.

The downfall of the Ghana Empire is linked to the Almoravid Movement. A local chief, Yasin, wanted the people to strictly observe Islam, by choice or force. In 1056, Yasin, captured major cities and took control of the empire. There were violent forced conversions. After Yasin, there was a succession of rulers who shared power, but the unity of the empire was shattered. Kingdoms and clans were vying for local power by the 12th century.

GhanaEmpire

source: http://www.accessgambia.com/information/ghana.html

ModernGhana

Bure

Bambuk

TradeControl of the trade of gold, salt, and slaves enabled the three empires to maintain stability and prosperity.

They were also the reason Arab merchants and North African traders would risk the long, dangerous trek across the Sahara.

GOLD SALT SLAVESTradeControl of the trade of gold, salt, and slaves enabled the three empires to maintain stability and prosperity.

They were also the reason Arab merchants and North African traders would risk the long, dangerous trek across the Sahara.

The location of the gold mines were kept a secret. The king or mansa owned the gold mines. Nuggets were reported to range from 1 ounce to 1 pound. Commoners were allowed to pan for gold dust.

Salt came from Taghaza in the Sahara, a horrible wasteland of a place, where even the drinking water is briny. The salt was made into slabs, and then transported by donkey or camel in caravans.

Slaves mined the salt. The work was so hard and dangerous that many died quickly. Salt slaves were, therefore, in constant demand.

TradeControl of the trade of gold, salt, and slaves enabled the three empires to maintain stability and prosperity.

They were also the reason Arab merchants and North African traders would risk the long, dangerous trek across the Sahara.

Archaeologists have found mine shafts in Bambuk and Bure (see map below) which they believe to be the source of the gold.

Salt was as valuable (and sometimes more valuable) than gold. Salt was used as currency interchangeably with gold.

Slaves were traded in West Africa for hundreds of years before the Europeans arrived. Arab merchants traded slaves they brought with them for gold and salt.

TradeControl of the trade of gold, salt, and slaves enabled the three empires to maintain stability and prosperity.

They were also the reason Arab merchants and North African traders would risk the long, dangerous trek across the Sahara.

This gold made its way via the Sahara to every gilt surface in St. Mark’s Cathedral in Venice. The English Guinea got its name because it was made from West African gold.

Salt was used to preserve food. People who live in arid regions need to replenish salt that their bodies lose through sweating in order to survive.

The Bella people are still slaves in the salt mines today. They are “owned” by Tuaregs who continue to sell salt slabs up and down the Niger River, including Timbuktu.

CamelsThe Romans first brought camels to the Sahara in the first century C.E. Without camels, trade across the Sahara would have been impossible. Salt caravans used thousands of camels that traveled for months across the desert.

SALT SLABS

map source: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-colonial/1982

BureBambuk

Sundiata KeitaLegend of the Lion of Mali

How do we know of the legend ?Griots, storytelling musicians, are the area’s greatest treasure. They have been the keeper of the collective memory of West Africans since before the Ghana Empire. The greatest story for griots to learn and perform is the legend of Sundiata Keita, the Lion of Mali. Sundiata is compared to King Arthur and George Washington for his cultural importance and heroism.

What is the legend of his birth ?A prophecy was told to a Mande king, that if he married an ugly hunchback woman, their son would become a great hero. This king had many wives already, but married the woman, Sologon. Their sun, Sundiata, was born unable to walk. The prophecy appeared to have been false.

How did he become a hero ?When his father, the king died, there was royal intrigue among the wives and half-brothers as to who would succeed. Because of his disability, Sundiata was exiled, not executed. He was not perceived as enough of a threat. However, he had iron braces made, and taught himself how to walk when he was a teenager.

When the small kingdoms were being harassed by Sumaguru, they remembered the prophecy and sought Sundiata in exile. They found a young man of extraordinary resilience and determination. He led the battle of Kirina, and that victory led to the founding of the Mali Empire.

Mali Empire 13th - 15th centuries C.E.

After the Almoravid Movement, there was a power vacuum in the region. Trade was interrupted because of the political instability and insecurity. Small, independent kingdoms were developing in the Upper Niger River area. The kingdom of Susu was becoming a dominant state because of the tyrannical rule of its mansa (emporer) Sumanguru. Sumanguru was expanding his empire through a reign of terror. The divided Mande clans, who were mostly Muslim, needed a leader to unify them in battle against Sumanguru.

How did Sundiata Keita establish the Mali Empire?The disparate kings of the region allied themselves to Sundiata Keita as their

leader. At the battle of Kirina, when Sundiata’s forces conquered Sumaguru’s army, Sundiata was made mansa. He inaugurated a period of piece from 1230 - 1255 C.E. His reign was characterized by justice, peace, and political stability. Trade flourished again, and the Mali Empire now controlled the gold and salt mines, and their taxation.

Sundiata was a true charismatic leader. He was described as being a modest dresser who lived simply. He was known for his kindness and humor. He set up a system of cultural exchange by having his children raised by his allied kings. He believed that childhood friendships would prevent warfare in the future. His justice, however, was of the Medieval kind: a thief would have his hand cut off.

Unfortunately, after Sundiata’s death, his successors were weak leaders who could not unify the region politically or economically, until the emergence of Mansa Musa in 1312, when the Golden Age of Mali truly began.

source: http://www.accessgambia.com/information/empire-mali.html

Mande is the name for the large group of clans that share the same culture in West Africa. The Mandike were the dominant Mande people during the Mali Empire. Other Mande people prevalent during medieval empires: Soninke, Bambura, & Dyula.

Ibn Battuta

Intrepid scholar

Much of what we know about Mansa Musa and his Great Hajj comes from the writings of Ibn Battuta, a 14th century Moroccan scholar and traveler. He wrote 20 years after Mansa Musa’s death.

Ibn Battuta traveled to China, India, and Africa by land and sea for 25 years. He wrote down his observations, including his first hand accounts of visiting the capital of the Mali Empire:

“My stay at [Niani] lasted about 50 days; and I was shown honor and entertained by its inhabitants...They are seldom unjust, and have a greater abhorrence of injustice than any other people...There is complete security in their country. Neither traveler nor inhabitant in it has anything to fear from robbers or men of violence.”

- McKissack, 1994, p.57-58.

Sankore Mosque Timbuktu

Mansa Musa 1312 - 1337 C.E.

Mansa Musa ruled for 25 years which are now referred to as the Golden Age of Mali. He enlarged the Mali Empire, which became the 2nd largest empire at the time (the Mongol Empire was the largest). He managed 24 kings, and was known as a hard-working administrator. During his reign, trade activity tripled.

Musa, which is Arabic for “Moses,” was a Mande Muslim. He ensured religious freedom throughout the empire, and he encouraged the highest forms of scholarship by establishing libraries and universities. In fact, during this time Muslim scholars from the known world would go to Timbuktu because it was the place for highest learning.

The Great HajjIn 1324, Mansa Musa set out on a

hajj (holy pilgrimage) to Mecca. 60,000 people accompanied him, including slaves, soldiers, wives, servants, minsters, and merchants. It was reported that 500 slaves each carried 6 pounds of gold. They trekked across the Sahara for 3 months to Cairo. There, Mansa Musa and his entourage

spent gold generously. In fact, so much gold was put into circulation from their lavish spending and gift-giving, that the price of gold was devalued for 12 years throughout the Mideast.

He completed his pilgrimage to Mecca, and returned home to Timbuktu. However, his hajj put Timbuktu “on the map,” literally, for both Arabs and Europeans. Everyone wanted to find Timbuktu to get a share of the obvious abundance of gold. Mansa Musa is even depicted on a 14th century Spanish map of Western Sudan (see above) holding a nugget of gold.

al-SaheliMansa Musa brought back to

Timbuktu a Spanish-born Muslim architect he met during his hajj, Abu Ishaq al-Saheli. Al-Saheli created a new, distinctive design to Western Sudan mud buildings that remains today. He introduced flat roofs to their mud houses, and incorporated wooden timbers into the buildings to reinforce them during the wet season, when the mud would start to crumble.

Al-Saheli is credited for designing the Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, which still stands today. At the beginning of each dry season, laborers climb the wooden beams to replaster the surface.

5 Pillars of Islam

FaithA person must voluntarily state his or her faith to become a Muslim.

PrayerMuslims must pray 5 times a day facing Mecca.

CharityEvery year Muslims must give charity (money, food, or other means) to the poor.

FastingMuslims cannot eat or drink between dawn and sunset during Ramadan (the ninth month of the Islamic calendar).

HajjEvery Muslim must make a trip to Mecca, if he or she is able to, at least once during their lifetime.

How did Islam affect Western Sudan culture?Assimilation

The 9th and 10th centuries C.E. saw the beginnings of the assimilation of Islam into the West African culture. Merchants and traders, who were Muslims from North Africa and the Mideast, were settling permanently in Koumbi Saleh, Timbuktu, Djenne, and Gao because of the gold trade, and later, for scholarship.

The existing Mande society was very tolerant of other religious practices. People converted voluntarily over time. Sometimes people were forced to convert, as we have seen in the Almoravid Movement during the Ghana Empire.

The enlightened rulers of Western Sudan (Sundiata Keita, Mansa Musa, and Askiya Muhammad) were Muslims of the Mande culture. Today, the majority of modern Mali’s population is Muslim.

Written Tradition Because Islam is a religion based on

a written document, the Qu’ran, learning to read and write Arabic is culturally important. Schools for local youth are usually part of a mosque in all cultures that practice Islam.

Today, young boys are taught to read and write passages from the Qu’ran in the Great Mosque in Djenne. They use clay tablets to write on, and wash away the ink with water to reuse the tablet. People drink the ink-water for healing purposes.

Timbuktu: Medieval Center of Learning

Mansa Musa put Timbuktu on the map as a center of learning by promoting scholarship and universities. At one point, the copying and selling of books was just as lucrative as the trading of gold. Timbuktu became a “Mecca” of learning, with numerous universities and extensive private libraries owned by individual scholars. Not only was Islam studied, but also medicine, science, musice, astronomy, and literature.

The Askiya rulers during the Songhai Empire supported Muslim scholars and established public libraries. During this time, Leo Africanus remarked on the "numerous judges, scholars and priests, all well paid by the king, who show great respect to men of learning” (The Timbuktu Manuscripts Project, 2003, p.8).

Today, thousands of these manuscripts still exist in the cupboards of private homes. Various UNESCO and non-profit agencies are trying to preserve these treasures.

IslamIslam is a monotheistic religion founded by Mohammed in the

early 7th century C.E. in the city of Mecca in Arabia.

Mohammed wrote the Qu’ran, the holy book of Islam, which are

divine revelations that he recorded. Mohammed identified

himself as the last prophet of Islam. Islam quickly spread from

Arabia to the Mideast, Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Djingareyber Mosque, Timbuktu

Leo Africanus

Freed slave and scholar

Leo Africanus was from Granada, Spain. In 1492, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand expelled all Muslims and Jews from Spain if they did not convert to Catholicism. Leo Africanus migrated to Morocco, and then traveled across the Sahara to Timbuktu and Gao.

He then traveled to Constantinople by sea, where he was captured by slavers and given as a “gift” to Pope Leo X. Realizing this man was a highly educated scholar, the Pope freed him and paid him to learn Italian so that he could write about his travels to Western Sudan.

The History and Description of Africa and the Notable Things Contained Therein was published in 1526, and in English in 1600.

Songhay Empire 15th - 16th centuries C.E.

The extensiveness of the Mali Empire and a string of ineffectual rulers was making Niani and Timbuktu weaker and harder to govern. The city of Gao to the east was getting stronger. Its military leader, Sunni Ali Ber, conquered Timbuktu in 1469, and later the salt mines of Taghaza. Now the gold and salt trade was in Songhay control.

When Sunni Ali Ber attacked Timbuktu, he sacked the city and ousted the Muslim leaders, which interrupted trade. A military general, Askiya Muhammad, wrested control of the empire from Ali Ber’s son. Askiya Muhammad was a devout Muslim who reinstated the Muslim leaders and trade once again flourished. He was a political and spiritual leader, who inaugurated the Askiya dynasty during the Songhay reign. He not only secured control of the gold and salt trade, but expanded the empire by going to war with non-Muslim populations in surrounding areas, converting the survivors. He was a skilled empire manager. Muhammad created a centralized government that used provincial governors to manage the large area he controlled. He also employed the most intelligent men of the region to advise him.

The Songhay Empire was the largest of the three Western Sudan empires, and the most wealthy. Its centralized government ensured stability. The fall of the Songhay Empire lay not so much in poor government, although there were no strong leaders like Muhammad in the late 16th century. The fall lies in technology. The Moroccan pasha wanted control of the gold and salt trade. He sent an army across the Sahara in 1591 to take Timbuktu and the Songhay lands. His army had muskets and cannons. The Songhay had spears. The Moroccan army easily invaded Western Sudan, and the great medieval empires became history.

Sankore UniversityAskia Muhammad funded many universities

in his empire, including Sankore University in Timbuktu, which was connected to the Sankore Mosque. Students from all over Africa came to study astronomy, mathematics, ethnography, medicine, logic, music, and literature. Scholars wrote books, copied books, and collected books in huge private libraries. The book trade was as lucrative as the gold and salt trade.

source: http://www.accessgambia.com/information/songhai.html

Lesson Ideas

economics politics cultureLesson Ideas

How is value determined? Students set up their own Timbuktu marketplace in the classroom to trade gold, salt, leather, and silk. They graph relative values determined through their extemporaneous bartering. In small groups they analyze why they placed more value on some things.

Why do empires rise and fall? Students compare and contrast Western Sudan empires to other Medieval empires in Europe and Asia by charting political and economic patterns (see below).

Universities and Libraries: An African Tradition Students research the rich history of scholarly tradition in Western Sudan and email modern conservators in Timbuktu for current information and photos for a class online library.

Lesson Ideas

language arts

geography culture

Lesson Ideas

How do we know what happened in the past? Students learn about the griot tradition of oral storytelling and history-keeping. Students watch video of modern griots, read Sundiata Keita’s legend, and then create their own griot-style praise song for someone they know and admire.

How does geography affect culture? In small groups, students research the typography, climate, and natural resources of Western Sudan during medieval times, and draw their own conclusions as to why the area became a trading center. Groups will create models (3D or 2D) of West Africa.

How does culture change over time? Students research issues facing Mali today. They assume the identity of a person from Medieval Western Sudan and write letters “back home” about what has changed and why. Students compare and contrast the past with the present.

Patterns of Rise and Fall of Medieval Empires of Western Sudan

Strong leadership

Control of gold and salt

Centralized government

Strong, enlightened leadership

Control of gold and salt

Centralized government

Strong, enlightened leadership

Control of gold and salt

Centralized government

Political instability

interrupts trade

Political instability

interrupts trade

Superior

technology

conquers

GHANA MALI SONGHAY

TIME

astronomy Why was astronomy studied at Sankore University?In small groups, students research how astronomy was used as a navigation tool for caravans and ships, both vehicles for trade. Students will learn at least 5 major constellations and visit the planetarium. Each group will have to paint 5 constellations on one wall (N,S, E, W) of the classroom with glow paint. Teacher darkens room and puts on black light. Constellation naming games and orienteering challenges are made by each group for other groups to collect treasures and exotic items from far off lands (Oriental Trading stuff!).

Picture Books

Mansa Musaby Kephra Burns (2001)Gulliver BooksHarcourt, Inc.

Ananse and the Lizardby Pat Cummings (2002)Henry Holt & Co.

The Hunterman and the Crocodileby Bab Wague Diakite (1997)Scholastic, Inc.

The Singing Man by Angela Shelf Medearis (1994)Holiday House

Traveling Man, The Journey of Ibn Battuta, 1325-1354by James Rumford (2001)Houghton Mifflin

Sundiata, Lion King of Maliby David Wisniewski (1992)Clarion Books

BooksConrad, D.C. (2005). Empires of medieval West Africa, Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts on File, Inc.

de Villiers, M. & Hirtle, S. (2007). Timbuktu, the Sahara’s fabled city of gold. New York: Walker & Co.

Masoff, J. (2007). Mali, land of gold and glory. Waccabuc, NY: Five Ponds Press.

McKissack, P. & F. (1994). The royal kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, life in medieval Africa. New York: Henry Holt.

MagazinesCarpentiere, E.C. [Ed.] (2008, February). Islam in Africa. Faces: People, Places, and Cultures. Carus Publishing Company.

Sloneker, L.L. [Ed.] (1997, February). Mali. Faces: The Magazine About People. Cobblestone Publishing Company.

PublicationBoye, A.J., Abid, A., Diakite, S., Dicko, M.G., Hunwick, J.O., Iam, M.D., O’Fahey, R.S., et al. (2003). The Timbuktu manuscripts project. Retrieved April 17, 2009 from http://www.sum.uio.no/timbuktu

VideoDavidson, B. [Writer]. (1984). Caravans of gold. Program 3 of Africa: the story of a continent [Documentary]. Great Britain: Channel Four.

Gates, H.L. [Writer], Godwin, N. & Appio, H. [Directors]. (2000). Wonders of the African world [Documentary]. Alexandria, VA: Public Broadcasting Service.

Sissako, A. [Director]. (2006). Bamako [Motion Picture]. Mali: Archipel 33

Websites - General InformationBBC: Country Profilehttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1021454.stm

CIA: Mali (Country Profile)https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ml.html

History Channel: About Timbuktuhttp://www.history.com/classroom/unesco/timbuktu.html

Resources

Mali: Ancient Crossroads of Africahttp://mali.pwnet.org/index.htm

Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Empires of the Western Sudanhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wsem/hd_wsem.htm

NPR: On the Edge, Timbuktuhttp://www.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2003/may/mali/

Websites - Libraries and Manuscript Conservation

New York Times: Project Digitizes Work from the Golden Age of Timbuktuhttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/science/20timb.html

New York Times: Timbuktu Hopes Ancient Texts Spark a Revivalhttp://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/07/world/africa/07mali.html

Timbuktu Libraries Projecthttp://www.sum.uio.no/research/mali/timbuktu/project/

Chapter Book

The Cow-Tail Switch and Other West African Storiesby Harold Courlander and George Herzog (1947)MacMillian

Resources (continued)

source: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/photogalleries/dogon/photo7.html