Topic 4 –Data Encoding and Modulation1 FIT1005 FIT – Monash University Topic - Data Encoding And Modulation Reference: Chapter 5 -Stallings

Topic 4 –Data Encoding and Modulation 1

FIT1005

FIT – Monash University

Topic - Data EncodingAnd

Modulation

Reference:Chapter 5 -Stallings


Encoding

• The electromagnetic signal is generated at the physical layer

• This analog or digital signal must carry the data – 0,1

• The data must be encoded into the signal– Modulation of analog signal– Data Encoding on digital signal


Modulation

• The process of encoding source data – 0,1 onto an analog carrier signal, centred at frequency fc

• Modulation techniques involve an operation on one or more of the following characteristics of the analog signal:

– amplitude– frequency– phase


Digital Data, Digital Signals

• A digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses

• Each pulse is a signal element

• Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal elements

• Simplest data encoding, there is a one-to-one correspondence between bits and signal elements



• Data rate

– the rate R, in bits per second, that data are transmitted, eg 10 bps

• Bit duration – is the amount of time it takes for the transmitter to

emit the bit– for a data rate R,

the bit duration is 1/R eg 1/10 = 0.10 secs



• To interpret digital signals at the receiver

– The receiver must know the timing of each bit, that is, must know the start and end times of a bit, this is called bit level synchronisation

– The receiver must determine whether the signal level for each bit position is high(0) or low(1)

This can be done sampling each bit position in the middle of the interval and comparing the value to a threshold



• A Data Encoding scheme is the mapping of data bits to signal elements

• Data Encoding techniques:

– NRZ-L– NRZI– Manchester– Differential Manchester


Data Encoding Techniques

Non return to Zero – Level (NRZ-L)

• Uses two different voltage levels for the two binary digits

• Voltage level is constant during a bit interval

• A (-) voltage represents a 1 and a (+) voltage represents a 0





Non return to Zero, invert on ones (NRZI)

• Data encoded as the presence or absence of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit time

• A transition at the beginning of a bit time denotes a 1 no transition indicates a 0

• WAN links



Non return to Zero, invert on ones (NRZI)

• Is an example of differential encoding, the information to be transmitted is represented in terms of the changes between successive signal elements rather than the signal elements themselves

• One benefit of differential encoding is, more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a threshold





Manchester

• There is a transition at the middle of each bit period

• The mid-bit transition serves as a clocking mechanism and also as data

• Low-to-high transition represents a 1, and a high-to-low transition represents a 0

• Ethernet LANs





Differential Manchester

• the mid-bit transition is used only to provide clocking

• A 0 is represented by the presence of a transition at the begging of a bit period, and a 1 is represented by the absence of a transition at the beginning of a bit period

• Token Ring LANs




Digital Data, Analog Signals

• Common use of this transformation is for transmitting digital data through the PSTN

• The PSTN is designed to receive, switch, and transmit analog signals in the voice frequency range of about 300 – 3400 Hz

• The digital devices are attached to the network via a 56K modem, which converts digital data to analog signals, and vice versa

• 56K Modems produce signals in the voice-frequency range



• Modulation involves operation on one or more of the characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude, frequency, and phase

• Modulation techniques for transforming digital data onto analog signals– Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)– Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)– Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• In all these cases, the resulting signal occupies a bandwidth centred on the carrier frequency fc



Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• 0,1 are represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier frequency

• Is susceptible to impulse noise

• Is used to transmit digital data over optical fibre





Frequency Shift Keying

• 0, 1 are represented by different frequencies near the carrier frequency

• Is less susceptible to impulse noise than ASK

• It is also commonly used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission





Phase Shift Keying

• The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data

• The simplest scheme uses two phases (Two-Level PSK) to represent 0, 1 digits




Digitisation

• The process of transforming analog data into digital (data) signals

• CODEC

– The device used for converting analog data into digital form for transmission, and subsequently recovering the original data from the digital

– Codec (coder-decoder)– Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a technique used in

a codec


Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• Is based on the sampling theorem:

“If a signal is sampled at regular intervals of time

and at a rate higher than twice the highest signal

frequency,

then the samples contain all the information of the original signal.”



• If voice data are limited to frequencies below 4000 Hz, 8000 samples per second would be sufficient to characterise the voice signal completely

– However, these are analog samples, called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) samples

– To convert to digital, each of these samples must be assigned a binary code

• PCM starts with a continuous-time, continuous-amplitude (analog) signal, from which a digital signal is produced





• The digital signal consists of blocks of n bits, where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse

• On reception, the process is reversed to reproduce the analog signal

• By quantising the PAM pulse, the original signal is now only approximated and cannot be recovered exactly, this effect is known as quantising error


The slides after this are for your interest ONLY

refer soft copy of topic notes on MUSO


Introduction

• In data communications, a distinction is made between analog and digital data and analog and digital signals

• For digital signalling, which may be either digital or analog, is encoded into a digital signal

– The actual form of the converted signal depends on the encoding technique and is chosen to optimise the use of transmission medium

• For example, the encoding may be chosen to conserve bandwidth or to minimise errors


Introduction

• The input signal may be analog or digital and is called the modulation signal or baseband signal

• The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated signal

– The modulated signal is a bandlimited (bandpass) signal

– The location of the bandwidth on the spectrum is related to fc and is often centred on fc

– The actual form of the encoding is chosen to optimise some characteristic of the transmission


Introduction

• Digital data to digital signal encoding may be used as the equipment for encoding digital data into a digital signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to-analog modulation equipment

• Analog data to digital signal conversion permits the use of modern digital transmission and switching equpment

• Digital data to anlog signal may be used as some transmission media, such as optical fibre and unguided media, will only propagate analog signals


Introduction

• Analog data and anlog signal combination will be used as analog data in electrical form can be transmitted as baseband signals easily and cheaply

– This is done with voice transmission over voice-grade lines

– One common use of modulation is to shift the bandwidth of a baseband signal to another portion of the spectrum

– In this way multiple signals, each at a different position on the spectrum, can share the same medium

• This is known as frequency division multiplexing



• If all the signal elements have the same algebraic sign, positive or negative, then the signal is unipolar; otherwise polar

• Data signalling rate, or just data rate, of a signal is the rate, in bits per second, that data are transmitted

• The duration or length of a bit is the amount of time it takes for the transmitter to emit the bit

– For a data rate R, the bit duration is 1/R



• An encoding scheme is the mapping of data bits to signal elements

• Data Encoding techniques can be evaluated or compared in the following ways:

– Signal spectrum– Clocking– Error detection– Signal interference and noise immunity– Cost and complexity



• NRZI is an example of differential encoding:

– the information to be transmitted is represented in terms of the changes between successive signal elements rather than the signal elements themselves

• One benefit of differential encoding is that it may be more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a threshold

• Another benefit is that it is not possible to lose the sense of polarity of the signal



• The NRZ codes in general are easiest to engineer and, in addition, make efficient use of bandwidth

– Most of the energy in NRZ and NRZI signals is between dc and half the bit rate

• The main limitation s of NRZ signals are the presence of a dc component and lack of synchronisation capability



• Multilevel Binary:

– These codes use more than two signal levels

– addresses some of the deficiencies of the NRZ codes

– In the case of bipolar-AMI scheme, a binary 0 is represented by no line signal, and a binary 1 is represented by a positive or negative pulse

• The binary 1 pulses must alternate in polarity



• One advantage of this approach is that each one introduces a transition, and the receiver can resynchronise on that transition

• The second advantage would be that as the 1 signals alternate in voltage from positive to negative, there is no net dc component

• Another advantage is that the bandwidth of the resulting signal is considerably less than that of NRZ

– The pseudoternary technique represents binary 1 with absence of a line signal and, the binary 0 by alternating positive and negative pulses

– Although a degree of synchronisation is provided with these codes, a long string of 0s or 1s (depending on polarity) still presents a problem



– With suitable modification, multilevel binary scheme overcome the problems of NRZ codes

– However, as with any engineering design decision there is a trade off:

• The receiver of multilevel binary signals has to distinguish between three levels (+A, -A, 0) instead of just two levels in in NRZ coding

– Because of this, multilevel binary signal requires more signal power than a two-valued signal for the same probability of bit error





– Thus, the maximum modulation is twice that for NRZ

• This means that the bandwidth required is correspondingly greater

– The bandwidth for biphase codes is reasonably narrow and contains no dc component

• However, it is wider than the bandwidth for the multilevel binary codes

– Biphase codes are popular techniques for data transmission



• When signal encoding techniques are used, a distinction needs to be made between data rate and modulation rate

– The data rate, or bit rate, is 1/Tb where Tb is bit duration

– The modulation rate is the rate at which signal elements are generated

– In general,

DR

L

R

log2M



Where

D = modulation rate (in baud)

R = data rate (in bps)

L = number of bits per signal element

M = 2L= number of different signal elements

• One way of characterising the modulation rate is to determine the average number of transitions that occur per bit time

– In general, this will depend on the exact sequence of bits being transmitted





• The biphase techniques have achieved widespread use in local area network applications at relatively high data rates

– However, they have not been widely used in long-distance applications

– The principal reason for this is that they require a high signalling rate relative to the data rate

– Another approach is to make use of some sort of scrambling scheme:• Sequences that would result in a constant voltage level on the line are

replaced by filling sequences that will provide sufficient transitions for the receiver’s clock to maintain synchronisation



• The filling sequence must be recognised by the receiver and replaced with original data sequence

• The filling sequence is of the same length as the original sequence, so there is no data rate penalty

• The design goals for this approach are:

– No dc component

– No long sequences of zero-level line signals

– No reduction in data rate

– Error detection capability



• Two scrambling techniques are commonly used in long-distance transmission services:

– Bipolar with 8-zeros substitution (B8ZS) in North America

– High-density bipolar-3 zeros (HDB3) in Japan and Europe

– Both of these coding schemes use bipolar-AMI encoding

– Neither of them have a dc component and most of the energy is concentrated in a relatively sharp spectrum around a frequency equal to one half of the data rate





– The resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is:

Where f1 and f2 are typically offset from the carrier frequency fc by equal but opposite amounts

– BFSK is less susceptible to error than ASK• On voice-grade lines, it is typically used up to 1200 bps

• It is also commonly used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission

A cos 2 Ï €f1t

A cos 2 Ï €f2t

s t

Binary 1Binary 0



– Multiple FSK (MFSK) is a signal that is more bandwidth efficient, but also susceptible to errors

• More than two frequencies are used in this case

si(t) = A cos2Πfit, 1 <= I <= M

Where fi = fc+(2i-1-M)fd

fd = the difference frequency

fc = the carrier frequency

L = number of bits per signal element

M = 2L= number of different signal elements


Analog Data, Digital Signals

– The digital data can be encoded as a digital signal using a code other than NRZ-L

• Thus an extra step is required

– The digital data can be converted into an analog signal, using one of the modulation techniques discussed in the previous section

• The analog data, as they have been digitised, can be treated as digital data, even though transmission requirements (e.g., use of microwave) dictate that an analog signal be used



– The digital signal consists of blocks of n bits, where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse

– On reception, the process is reversed to reproduce the analog signal

– However, by quantising the PAM pulse, the original signal is now only approximated and cannot be recovered exactly

• This effect is known as quantising error or quantising noise

• The signal-to-noise ratio for quantising noise can be expressed as

SNRdB = 20log2n + 1.76dB = 6.02n +1.76dB



– Typically, the PCM scheme is refined using a technique known a s nonlinear encoding

• That is, in effect, the quantisation levels are not equally spaced

– The problem with equal spacing is that the mean absolute error for each sample is the same, regardless of signal level

• As a result, lower amplitude values are relatively more distorted

– By using a greater number of quantising steps for signals of large amplitude, a marked reduction in overall signal distortion is achieved



– The same effect (with non-equally spaced quantisation) can be achieved using uniform quantising but companding (compressing-expanding) the input analog signal

– Companding is a process that compresses the intensity range of a signal by imparting more gain to weak signals than to strong signals on input

• At the output, the reverse operation is performed

• Nonlinear encoding can significantly improve the PCM SNR ratio– For voice signals, improvements of 24 – 30 dB have been achieved


Analog Data, Digital Signals


Delta Modulation (DM)

• Delta Modulation (DM)

– One of the most popular alternatives to PCM is delta modulation (DM)

– With DM, an analog function is approximated by a staircase function that moves up or down by one quantisation level (δ) a each sampling interval (Ts)

– The important characteristic of the staircase function is that its behaviour is binary:

• At each sampling time, the function moves up or down a constant amount δ

• Thus, the output of the delta modulation process can be represented as a single binary digit for each sample



– In essence a bit stream is produced by approximating the derivative of an analog signal rather than its amplitude

• A 1 is generated if the staircase function is to go up during the next interval while a 0 is generated otherwise

– There are two important parameters in a DM scheme:

• The size of the step assigned to each binary digit, δ and

• The sampling rate

• δ must be chosen to produce a balance between two types of errors or noise





– When the analog waveform is changed very slowly, there will be quantising noise

» This noise is increased as δ is increased

– When the analog waveform is changing more rapidly than the staircase can follow, there is slope overload noise

» This noise is decreased as δ is decreased

– It is clear that accuracy of the scheme can be increased by increased by increasing the sampling rate

» However, this increases the data rate of the output signal


Analog Data, Analog Signals

– Modulation permits frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

• The principal techniques for modulation using analog data are:

– Amplitude modulation (AM)– Frequency modulation (FM)– Phase modulation (PM)

• AM is the simplest form of modulation and is mathematically expressed as:

s(t) = [1 +nax(t)] cos2Πfct



• FM and PM are special cases of angle modulation expressed as:

s(t) = Accos[2Πfct + φ(t)]

– For PM, the phase is proportional to the modulating signal:

φ(t) = npm(t) where np is the phase modulating index

– For FM the derivative of the phase is proportional to the modulating signal

φ’(t) = nfm(t) where nf is the frequency modulating index



• Modulation has been defined as the process of combining an input signal m(t) and a carrier at frequency fc to produce a signal whose bandwidth is usually centred on fc

• There are two principal reasons for analog modulation of analog signals

– A higher frequency may be required for effective transmission

• For unguided transmission, it is virtually impossible to transmit baseband signals as the required antennas will be many kilometres in diameter

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Topic 4 –Data Encoding and Modulation1 FIT1005 FIT – Monash University Topic - Data Encoding And Modulation Reference: Chapter 5 -Stallings