Topic 5: Product development

Manufacturing Techniques

5.1.1 Define manufacturing technique

A specific manufacturing term, sometimes relating to one material group only

5.1.2 Outline the techniques of moulding, casting, weaving, fusing, stitching, cutting, machining, abrading, using adhesives and using fasteners.

The principles of each technique are required.

Moulding

Injection moulding Moulding is the process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called a mould." Moulding involves filling a hollow frame with certain liquids of materials such as metals, composites, plastics and glass. It enables the manufactures to produce any shape with many materials easily and efficiently. It is the actual opposite of the process known as casting, yet produces similar results. Materials such as polystyrene, nylon, polypropylene and polythene can be used in a process called injection moulding. These are thermoplastics - this means when they are heated and then pressured in a mould they can be formed into different shapes. A simple diagram of an injection moulding machine is shown. The mould on this machine has been made to form plastic into a sphere. Rotational moulding is a unique plastic moulding process used primarily to create seamless, stress-free, hollow one-piece items. Also called rotomoulding, it is a high temperature, low pressure manufacturing method that combines heat and bi-axial rotation. Typical moulded parts can include parts such as containers, canoes, tanks, children's toys, medical and industrial equipment, and automobile parts. More information can be found here: http://www.rotationalmoulding.ca/ Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where plastic sheet is

heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific part shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that it can be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape.

In its simplest form, a small tabletop or lab size machine can be used to heat small cut sections of plastic sheet and stretch it over a mold using vacuum. This method is often used for sample and protoype parts.

Advantages are that moulding can allow you to form any shape in form.

Disadvantages are that moulding is done in one form so there can’t be characteristics of assembly or disassembly

Casting

Casting is the manufacturing process of pouring molten material (usually metal) into a mould. There are many types of casting which fall under two main categories, expendable mould casting and non expendable mould casting. Casting can be done with any material that can be in a liquid state, this includes resin, plaster, plastic, and all metals. casting is used for art and for regular manufacture, for art, usually, a figure is made of clay or wax and a mould is made around it out of clay or plaster, after that the mould can be stored indefinitely until the artist can find a buyer. Once the artist finds a buyer, bronze is poured into the mould and a bronze statue is made. Casting is a cheap and effective technique, making it very advantageous to the manufacturer. The main disadvantage is with the high heats used, serious injuries are easy to come by. The finishing can also be quite expensive for the manufacturer The main advantage to the user is that being one piece of material with no joints, cast products are quite strong and durable as well as cheaper, lasting long amounts of time. Another advantage is that the cast looks smooth all over because of the lack of joints and separate pieces in the cast. The disadvantage is that being solid pieces of metal, casts are quite heavy, making them difficult to move.

Weaving

Weaving is an ancient textile art and craft that involves placing two sets of threads or yarn called the warp and weft of the loom and turning them into cloth. In general, weaving involves the interlacing of two sets of threads at right angles to each other: the warp and the weft. The warp is held taut and in parallel order, typically by means of a loom, though some forms of weaving may use other methods. The majority of commercial fabrics, in the West, are woven on computer-controlled Jacquard looms. In the past, simpler fabrics were woven on other dobby looms and the Jacquard harness adaptation was reserved for more complex patterns. Some believe the efficiency of the Jacquard loom, and the Jacquard weaving process makes it more economical for mills

to use them to weave all of their fabrics, regardless of the complexity of the design. However, an industrialist weaving large runs of simple plain weave fabric may need to be convinced of the logic of investing in Jacquard machines, when a much lower cost loom would suffice.

Fusing

Fusing is a manufacturing technique used to join different materials together by melting them in high temperatures. Most common type of fusing is glass fusing. Two or more pieces of glass is laid on top of each other or side by side and melted in high temperature ranging from 1100 to 1600 degrees Fahrenheit, when it is cooled the different types of glasses are joined together but only glasses with same coefficients of expansion can be fused together or the fused pieces will crack when its cooled.

Fusing is mainly used for glass and some plastics. For the Manufacturer fusing is cheaper and easy to make so for the user it will be cheaper as well. It takes time to fuse and also the edges that are being joined may need finishing so that is the main disadvantage for the manufacturer. Otherwise it is a cheap and effective process.

Stitching

Sewing is the stitching of cloth, leather, furs, bark, or other materials, using needle and thread. Its use is nearly universal among human populations and dates back to Paleolithic times (30,000 BC). Sewing predates the weaving of cloth. Sewing is the foundation for many needle arts and crafts, such as appliqué, canvas work, and patchwork. Sewing is used primarily to produce clothing and household furnishings such as curtains, bedclothes, upholstery, and table linens. It is also used for sails, bellows, skin boats, , and other items shaped out of flexible materials such as canvas and leather. Most sewing in the industrial world is done by machines. Pieces of a garment are often first tacked together. The machine has a complex set of gears and arms that pierces thread through the layers of the cloth and semi-securely interlocks the thread. Cutting

Cutting: The separation of a physical object, or a portion of a physical object, into two portions, through the application of an acutely directed force. Cutting can be applied as a process in order to divide materials such as wood or glass in order to divide the material that can actually be used. For example, if a board of wood is too large, it can be cut with a cutting tool and any extra wood is disposed of. Another example would be the cutting of glass for window panes if the pane of glass is too big. Examples of cutting tools are classified by the material that it is used with:

Wood:

• Saw (buzz saw, chain saw, hand saw, etc.) • Axe or hatchet • Chisel and mallet

Glass:

• Glass cutter

Metals:

• Hacksaw • Water jet cutter • Class Four Laser cutter. • Plasma Cutter

Cutting is a convenient manufacturing technique for the designer. Firstly, it allows for materials such as wood to be shaped without using a mould. A good example of this is found in cookie cutters, which cut dough for cookies or other baked goods into almost any shape.

The disadvantage of cutting is that it requires the use of a sharp edge, which is potentially dangerous and injuries can occur. Another disadvantage is that when it is done by hand, it requires more effort to shape the material, and once the shape is made from the material, there is a lot of unused material that is discarded if it is not enough to make anything with. For example, if a clock is made from timber and shaped like a star, there will be leftover scraps of wood, meaning that the timber has not been used very efficiently. When using a machine, it requires some understanding of the working of the machine and the risk of injury is just as significant as cutting by hand.

Products produced by cutting are just as convenient for the user as for the designer. Products that are cut and conditioned according to the demands of the customer. For example, if a customer is unable to find a business suit in the stores that fits him well, custom-made suits would be cut and tailored according to his height and size.

The disadvantage of cutting for the user is very much like for the designer. The risk of injury is a disadvantage as well as the amount of effort needed to measure and cut the material. Machining

machining is a collection of material-working processes in which power-driven machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and drill presses are used with a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. Machining is a part of the manufacture of almost all metal products. It is not uncommon for other materials to be machined.

The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing.

Turning operations are operations that rotate the work piece as the primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool.

Lathes are the principal machine tool used in turning.

Wood lathe Metal Lathe

Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear against the work piece. Milling machines are the principal machine tool used in milling.

Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with the work piece. Drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but not uncommon on the lathes or mills.

Miscellaneous operations are operations that strictly speaking may not be machining operations in that they may not be chip producing operations but these operations are performed at a typical machine tool. Burnishing is an example of a miscellaneous operation. Burnishing produces no chips but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or drill press.

More recent, advanced machining techniques include electrical discharge machining (EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser, or water jet cutting to shape metal work pieces.

A finished product would be a work piece that meets the specifications set out for that work piece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For example, a work piece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal work piece, so that a cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and grinding tools. Many of these same techniques are used in woodworking. Machining requires attention to many details for a work piece to meet the specifications set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Abrading

Description of the process: To wear down or rub away by friction.

Materials suitable: Abrasion can be used in the context of sanding wood, and various other materials using specifically designed sand paper, which is a sheet of paper or wax, with a layer of sand, to be able to successfully wear down anything.

Advantage & Disadvantages for the user: Materials that are worn down and abraded are smoother and less dangerous for the users, and can be more aesthetically pleasing than the same objects that are rough and complete.

Advantage & Disadvantages for the manufacturer: When manufacturers abrade or wear down materials, much of the material being worn away goes to waste. This presents a bad point, as abrading costs money but wastes material.

Using adhesives

Adhesive manufacturing refers to the method of connecting two items using a glue, or other substance merging the two products together. Two or more parts will be prepared for assembly. One part receives a layer of an adhesive substance, and the second part will be placed next to the object with the sides touching. Once the adhesive dries, the products have been formed into one object, with the adhesive between the two holding them together.

Some advantages to using adhesives, as a manufacturing process are that it is low cost, easily used, and can be repaired by user. A disadvantage is that the bond may be weak and easily broken. Using fasteners

The use of fasteners stands for using certain connecting materials/devices (such as screws, buttons, nails, nut bolts) to bind two or more dissimilar materials together.

Suitable materials usually are made of metals, most commonly steel but also iron (screws, nut bolts, nails) Fasteners however can also consist of plastic, for example buttons or clips. Plastic fasteners are increasing in usage and popularity, for they have many advantages and are commonly used for design for manufacturing and design for disassembly.

nut and bolt Screws Nails Knock down fittings

Advantages of fasteners for the users would be the relatively easy use of fasteners. With some minor instructions, the user can fasten materials at home on his own. It is made easier by the use of complementary materials such as boars and screwdrivers. Another advantage for the user would be its simplicity, in case the fastener would be made of plastic. The uni-screw by Voltplastics for example effectively replaces 25 different screwdrivers and can be used for different fastenings, so the endless typed of screw sizes and diameters are also reduced in great numbers. The many typed of screws often make it very complicated for the user to distinct, find and use the correct type of screw and requires a lot of time and some background knowledge. This would definitely be a disadvantage for the user.

5.1.3 Describe how the techniques in 5.1.2 relate to different materials.

For example, casting relates to metals, plastics, food, ceramics and some composites, but not to timber or textiles. Method Materials

Moulding Metals, plastics, food, ceramics and metal matrix composites Casting Metals, plastics, food, ceramics and some composites Weaving Metals threads, plastics, ceramics (threads) and textiles. Fusing Metals ceramics (?) and plastics. Stitching Metals threads, plastics and textiles. Cutting Metals, plastics, food, and timber Machining Metals, plastics, and timber Abrading Metals, plastics, timber, food, ceramics and some composites Using adhesives All Materials Using fasteners All Materials

5.1.4 Discuss advantages and disadvantages of using the techniques to manufacture products.

Refer to the viewpoints of the manufacturer and the user.

Craft Production

Craft production A small-scale production process centered on manual skills.

5.2.1 Define craft production and one-off production.

One-off production An individual (often craft-produced) article or a prototype for larger-scale production.

Shaker Craftsman Shaker Furniture

Craft production refers to the process of manufacturing a product though the use of manual skills, such as a worker assembling a product without the aid of an automated process. Some products like pottery, or other ceramics, are usually craft-produced, as there is no machine which can create objects such as these.

Craft production is generally seen as prestigious, as each product manufactured would be unique. These differences, however, can hurt the product if the assembly was not completed properly. Early auto-mobiles were assembled in this manner, and some problematic outcomes resulted from the human error in the production process. One-Off production is where only one or a few specialist items are required. If a prototype is made then it is usually part of the realisation of a product and so the next step after testing would be batch or volume production.

Examples of products made include prototypes (e.g. car or clothing production), specialist models, hand crafted items (e.g. jewellery, shaker furniture), specialist engineering, specialist architecture (e.g. individual homes, skyscrapers, hotels like the hydropolous) and just plain old one offs (e.g. Ocean liners).

Specialist Guitar for musicians.

5.2.2 Describe why most products were manufactured by craft techniques prior to the Industrial Revolution.

Refer to the development of skills; sources of materials and energy; sales and distribution; relationship of craftsman or designer with client or consumer. Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution: Period between the late 1700’s and the early 1800’s marked by the rise of new inventions, such as the steam engine perfected by James Watt, for the advancement of transportation, industry, and agriculture. During the Industrial Revolution, all kinds of goods were mass-produced, including textiles, iron and metal goods, and pottery. These goods were then sold in the domestic market and as exports to customers abroad. Hand craft: A skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a trade or a particular art. Hand crafted products is part of a manufacturing industry known as cottage industry. Cottage industry refers to the manufacturing of products at a workshop or at home rather than in a factory. Artisans would set up a workshop, such as a smithy for blacksmiths, taking orders directly from the customer.

The advantage of the cottage industry (or domestic system) was that labour was cheap since there was very little work on farms and in overpopulated parts of the country; additionally the workers often provided and took care of their own equipment.

With the invention of the steam engine manufacturing became mechanised. Due to this new source of energy production increased. New materials could be developed that led to an engineering and production boom. Steam engines were invented and therefore materials could be retrieved from further afield, similarly products could be sent further thus opening new markets.

The result of this was a need for more skilled workers and with a new set on non-traditional skills. The relationships changed whereas before the client/consumer would go to the designer/craftsman because of the cottage industry, now, The designer may not necessarily be the craftsman and the consumer may have no need to visit the designer but just go tot he shop. Mechanisation "Originally, very small numbers of products were made by craftsmen in home workshops. But, the increasing demand for consumer goods following the industrial revolution, meant that larger numbers of products needed to be manufactured in a more efficient way"

5.3.1 Define mechanisation.

A volume production process involving machines controlled by humans.

Mechanisation is the industrial use of machines where (advanced) technology takes over the work previously done by humans when manufacturing a product. Mechanisation is a faster and cheaper process than human labour when a product needs to be manufactured in large quantities. It utilises the concept of economies of scale (Reduction in cost per unit resulting from increased production, realized through operational efficiencies.) which means that production costs per unit lower when more products need to be manufactured.

5.3.2 Describe how the availability of new sources of power in the Industrial Revolution led to the introduction of mechanisation.

Refer to water and steam power.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, industrial power mainly came from the harnessing of the elements using kinetic energy. An example of this is water power, in which water from a body of water (e.g. a stream) flows or falls and activates a mechanism such as a wheel, which could then be used to generate power. A water wheel (see image one), for instance, could be used to power the bellows (see image number 2) of a furnace found in a workshop for blacksmiths or metal workers.

Water wheels Newcomen Steam Engine

The earliest steam engine was built around the 1st century in Alexandria, Egypt by a Greek mathematician named Hero(Heron). The name of the device he created that exploited steam as a source of energy was called an aeolipile. It was not used for industrial purposes, however, since the primary source of industrial power came from slaves and livestock. Later on, a steam turbine was created by Tariq el-Din, a 16th century inventor and engineer in Ottoman Egypt, to use for grilling meat.

The most famous example of a device that used steam power for the advancement of industry is the steam pump Invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712 and later improved by James Watt.

5.3.3 Define assembly-line production.

The mass production of a product via a flow line based on the inter-changeability of parts, pre-processing of materials, standardisation and work division

The use of an assembly line for manufacturing a product is a manufacturing technique where the product in question is moved from one modification stand to another by a mechanically moving conveyor. It is used to gather in a fast way large amounts of uniform products. By the modification stands is meant the places where the line pauses so the people in that area can modify their part of the product. The origins of the Assembly line can be traced back to 1908, when Henry Ford invented and used for the first time the assembly line for the manufacturing of his Ford Model T.

Lap top computers Ford Production Line

5.3.4 Explain the relevance of assembly-line production to mechanisation.

Refer to economics, design of products, effect on the workforce and consumer choice.

Mechanisation and assembly line production increase productivity that was able to satisfy consumer demand. Consumer goods such as cars and radios were produced on assembly lines. They could be made quickly and cheaply as a result, this encouraged demand which in turn created more jobs. Working conditions may not have been the best but the financial benefits for the workers outweighed the risks. The design of products became more component to component and sub assembly to sub assembly. Consumer choice improved to sub assemblies and more products. The cost of a Model T fell from USD 850 in 1908 to USD 290 in 1925 making it more affordable for the masses. This demand for the car spurned on other industries such as rubber and steel and so on.

5.3.5 Outline two advantages and two disadvantages of mechanising a production process.

Consider cost, quality of product, social conditions and labour.

Advantages

• The creation of economies of scale ... the product is cheaper • The quality of the product is improved as fewer human errors will occur, the finish

of the product will also be improved. • Often repetitive dirty tasks can be carried out by machines. • Increased wages due to training and becoming skilled. • efficiency of production: less time is taken to produce goods

Disadvantages

• Redundancy - machinery for labour substitution • Health and safety. Work conditions are usually poor in the factories, lack of safety

standards can be an issue in some cases. Repetitive strain injury. • Cost of energy, training and capital machinery. Increased wages due to highly

skilled operators needed. • Environmental pollution. • boredom for the workers • low job satisfaction for workers

5.3.6 Define batch production and mass production.

Limited volume production (a set number of items to be produced).

Batch production

Batch production is a manufacturing method used to produce or process any product in batches, as opposed to a continuous production process, or an one-off production. The primary characteristic of batch production is that all components are completed at a workstation before they move to the next one. Batch production is popular in bakeries and in the manufacture of sports shoes, pharmaceutical ingredients, inks, paints and adhesives.

There are inefficiencies associated with batch production. The production equipment must be stopped, re-configured, and its output tested before the next batch can be produced.

Batch production is useful for a factory that makes seasonal items or products for which it is difficult to forecast demand. Batch production has many "pros" and "cons" but is effective and used worldwide, mainly by larger businesses on higher profit margins. Batch production is also to test if the product is good and the company makes profit from customers buying it. There are several advantages of batch production; it can reduce initial capital outlay because a single production line

can be used to produce several products. As shown in the example, batch production can be useful for small businesses who cannot afford to run continuous production lines. Also, companies can use batch production as a trial run. If a retailer buys a batch of a product that does not sell then the producer can cease production without having to sustain huge losses.

Mass production. The production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines, permitting very high rates of production per worker.

Mass production is the method of creating many products in a short time period. There are many techniques used during mass production such as assembly lines. These techniques allow the manufacturer to produce more artefacts per worker-hour, and to lower the labour cost of the end product. But even though the cost is low it does not mean the quality is bad. Mass-produced goods are standardised by means of precision-manufactured, interchangeable parts.

5.3.7 Compare batch production and mass production in a mechanised production system.

Consider market needs, consumer choice, product differentiation and economies of scale.

Batch Mass Market needs Can adjust sooner to trends Takes longer to adjust to trends

Consumer choice

Can be greater as more different batches can be produced of similar

products

Less choice

Product differentiation

Greater Less

Economies of scale

Better than craft but less than that of Mass/Automation

Very good and cheap products

Automation

5.4.1 Define automation.

A volume production process involving machines controlled by computers.

Automation is an industrial process, using control system such as computers to control industrial machinery and processes. This replaces humans as workers and automation reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements since it’s all controlled by computers. Computers can be programmed in ways that it does the same job over and over again without flaws so the process can go non-stop 24/7 making it faster, easier and cheaper to manufacture things. Many things that we use daily are now mass produced and made cheaper thanks to Automation.

5.4.2 Describe how the development of computer and information technology in the “technological revolution” led to the introduction of automation.

Refer also to the importance of electricity.

After the Industrial revolution the Technological revolution arrived. The use and control of electricity in computer technology and circuitry computer programmers were able to develop complex control systems (using actuators etc) and use them to control mechanical motions. Then industry saw the potential benefits and readily adopted it.

5.4.3 Define computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer numerical control (CNC).

Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) The use of computers to aid manufacturing.

Computer numerical control (CNC) CNC refers specifically to the computer control of machines for the purpose of manufacturing complex parts in metals and other materials. Machines are controlled by a program commonly called a “G code”. Each code is assigned to a particular operation or process. The codes control X,Y,Z movements and feed speeds.

5.4.4 Explain how CAD, CAM and CNC contribute to an automated production system.

Consider the wide variety of systems available. 5.4.5 Define just-in-time (JIT) and just-incase (JIC)

Just-in-case A situation where a company keeps a small stock of components (or complete items) or ones that take a long time to make, just in case of a rush order.

Just-in-time A situation where a firm does not allocate space to the storage of components or completed items, but instead orders them (or manufactures them) when required. Large storage areas are not needed and items that are not ordered are not made. "The development of ‘just in time’ (JIT) manufacturing has evolved as an appropriate production technique to address the problems of excess stock and lack of responsiveness by manufacturers, to trends in the marketplace" 5.4.6 Explain the advantages of JIT and JIC to manufacturing.

Refer to reliability, efficiency, distribution, workforce, storage, capital investment, stock control and traditions.

JIT is useful in situations when storage space is limited and the part is easy to make. it costs less for the manufacturer but is slightly less convenient to the user, it also requires a larger workforce as it is less economic to automate when everything is made on demand. Storage is not required, so that part of the total price is not included. Stock control is not an issue because there is no or little stock.

Other advantages; saving on storage space, increased efficiency, reduced capital investment, reduced work in progress and fewer unsold items

The six purposes of JIT manufacturing are:

• reducing cost • improving quality • improving performance • improving delivery • adding flexibility • increasing innovativeness.

The wastes to be eliminated are:

• wastes from overproduction • transportation waste • processing waste • waste from product defects • waiting time, idle time • inventory waste (excess numbers of stock) • waste of motion. - HSC Online

JIC is more expensive due to storage space but much more convenient, so a customer in a hurry might be willing to pay more to get the part immediately. It is easier to automate since production can be done in bursts once the stocks fall below a certain number. It is less efficient but more reliable.

Other advantages; '“buffer”, goods-in-stock or on hand in case of unforeseen circumstances (e.g. non-delivery of supplies) and rapid changes in demand,

5.4.7 Define mass customisation.

A sophisticated CIM system (Computer-integrated manufacturing in engineering is a method of manufacturing in which the entire production process is controlled by computer.) that manufactures products to individual customer orders. The benefits of economy of scale are gained whether the order is for a single item or for thousands.

Mass customisation is the design process where the customer helps deciding the design of the product in question. The process is emphasised by meeting the needs of the customers concerning the product's features. The manufacturing techniques generally remain the same but are often flexible so to guarantee an optimisation of the requested customisation, this slightly modifies manufacturing technique is easily and cheaply applicable by the manufacturer and therefore turns customisation into a mass market, taking away its traditional upmarket appeal. Little modifications in manufacturing for example includes the use of different colours of paint, different material ergonomics or even size.

The consumer will benefit in many ways. The price will be relatively low since the implementing of mass production brings economies of scale for the company which lowers the cost per unit. Moreover, the customer can customise his/her product by allowing customers to interact with a company and specify their unique requirements which are then manufactured by '''automated systems. An example of mass customisation may be a car. It's body is produced on a large scale (mass production), but each customer has the opportunity to customise the interior, colour, engine, etc.

5.4.8 Outline how mass customization is changing the relationship between the manufacturer and the consumer.

The relationship is akin to craft production, where the individual requirements of the consumer dominate.

The relationship between the manufacturer and the consumer has definitely grown closer for both their benefits. The manufacturer must now consult the consumer, through surveys or questionnaires and collect research on the changing trends and consumer styles. The manufacturer, in a sense, must be more 'up-to-date' and aware of consumer trends. More money on research may be invested.

Furthermore, mass customisation allows an average design to be created, but with special quirks which allow the consumer to feel as though it is his/her own. Also, recommendations by consumers will be taken into great consideration since the products have the options of customisation. Altogether, the relationship has grown in importance and usefulness for both the consumer and manufacturer.

5.4.9 Discuss the impact of automation on working conditions.

Consider nature and type of employment, health and safety issues, social interaction and job satisfaction.

• workers are freed from unpleasant, tedious and hazardous jobs • the numbers of workers needed has been cut sharply • the loss of worker expertise and the displacement of unskilled and semi-skilled

workers • the loss of overtime pay • training in the new areas of electronics, computer engineering and maintenance

of systems is now needed. • Improve health and safety • Improved job satisfaction due to some of the above • less social interaction in the workplace due to fewer employees

5.4.10 Outline how automation has improved the type and range of products available to consumers.

Many products require such precision in their manufacture that, without automation, it would not be possible to produce them at an affordable price

Automation has improved the range of products available to consumers due to the ease and simplicity of producing a product. By simply changing something in the software, a designer can change the product in a number of ways. For example, different colors or cases for a portable device, such as an mp3 player, can have a selection of different design styles. This allows a wider of range of products to be available to the consumer. The types of products can be improved to due automation by the precision available with automated processes. Computer chips, for example, could only be manufactured in large numbers with an automated process. The minuscule size of these products causes the slightest mistake in manufacturing to render the product unusable. This is why the use of automated processes has allowed many different types and advancements of products to be created and used. Economic Considerations 5.5.1 List the costs that contribute to the final cost of a product.

Take into account scale of production, complexity of product, resources, skills, quality control, size and weight of product for storage and distribution, type of advertising and marketing, profits and taxes. Include costs relating to availability and procurement of materials, R&D, labour, manufacturing costs, capital costs, overheads, distribution and sales

What makes a cost of a product what it s is a variety of factors. The cost of the product, or cost to produce it depends on whether the materials used are expensive or in-expensive, whether the product is simple or complex, whether the product is large or small, whether the product is mass reproduced or individually, custom-hand crafted. The final (total) cost is made of variable and fixed costs.

Cheap mass produced bic pen

Expensive, hand-crafted Mont Blanc pen

5.5.2 Define fixed costs and variable costs.

Fixed Costs The costs that must be paid out before production starts, for example, machinery. These costs do not change with the level of production.

A fixed cost is a sum of money which must be paid before production commences. These costs do NOT change. For example, the number of products produced does not affect the fixed costs.

Variable Costs Costs that vary with output, for example, fuel or raw materials.

A variable cost is a type of cost which can change. An example of this would be the total price needed to purchase the metal needed to produce a product. Although the price per unit metal may not change, the variable amount does chance due to the increased number of products purchased. Salaries of workers is also considered a variable cost, and is a cost that can change.

5.5.3 Identify the factors in 5.5.1 as fixed costs or variable costs.

The scale of production of a product will influence its fixed costs such as machinery and power. No matter the quantity produced, there will always be the same cost for usage and maintenance. Therefore, the more products one can produce at the same costs, the more the fixed cost per unit will decrease, which ultimately enables the company to enjoy economies of scale. These economies of scale are advantageous for a company because it can make them charge the same prices and increase profits per unit or it can decrease its product's price and consequently sell more of it, which also increases profit. Advertising and marketing is also an example of a fixed cost because no matter how many units a company sells of a product, the advertisement will always be the same price, i.e. it is not correlated with the increase/decrease of manufacturing. The rent of the premises and taxes are usually fixed costs too because the same amount/same proportion will be charged again every time interval. Fixed costs also include salaries and accounting costs.

Variable costs on the other hand are costs in direct correlation with the production of materials. Examples are the wages of the workmen, since the more they work, the more they get paid. The costs of raw materials, sales and distribution are also examples of variable costs. Production costs such as the amount of materials used for manufacturing are also variable costs. Fixed Costs Variable Costs

Scale of production, complexity of product, skills, quality control, type of advertising and marketing, R&D, capital costs, overheads.

Labour, manufacturing costs, costs relating to availability and procurement of materials, profits and taxes, size and weight of product for storage and distribution, resources, distribution and sales.

5.5.4 Explain how the costs in 5.5.1 relate to craft production, mechanisation and automation.

For example, raw materials and labour costs will be significant for an individually crafted mahogany table, but for an injection-moulded plastic component these costs would be low and the capital cost of machinery high. Craft production Mechanisation

production Automation production

Labour Very significant Significant No so much Raw Materials Very significant Significant Significant Profits and taxes No so much Very significant Very significant Storage and distribution

No so much Very significant Very significant

Resources (energy)

No so much Very significant Very significant

Capital costs No so much Very significant Very significant Distribution and sales.

No so much Very significant Very significant

Scale of production

No so much Significant Very significant

Complexity of product

No so much Significant Very significant

Skills Very significant Very significant Very significant advertising and marketing

No so much Very significant Very significant

R&D No so much Very significant Very significant overheads.

5.5.5 Explain the concept of “break-even point” in relation to fixed and variable costs.

Once “break-even” point is reached, profits can be made, because fixed costs have been covered. Variable costs will continue to rise with increased production.

The break even point is the point at which the costs of both the fixed costs and the total variable costs are made up for by profit. As the fixed costs are constant and the variable costs increase with production, then there is a starting point for when exactly or after how many units sold/ produced will the business start to make profit, that point known as the "Break even" point. Yet keep in mind that after the break even point, the business will still have to cover variable costs that vary according to production and output of units.

A proportion of the total of the fixed costs would be reflected in the the price of each product. The amount that the fixed costs contribute depends upon the breakeven determined by the manufacturer.

All the variable costs to produce each product would be included in the cost in each product. Clean Manufacturing

5.6.1 Explain why the introduction of mass production increased damage to the natural environment.

A historical perspective is important. Environmental considerations were not an issue in the 18th and 19th centuries. Little quantitative data was available, and all governments encouraged the growth of industry.

5.6.2 Outline the reasons for cleaning up manufacturing.

Reasons include promoting positive impacts, ensuring neutral impact or minimising negative impacts through conserving natural resources, reducing pollution and use of energy, and reducing wastage of energy and resources.

5.6.3 Outline that an initial response to reducing emission of pollutants is adding clean-up technologies to the end of the manufacturing process.

The addition of clean-up technologies to the end of the manufacturing process is termed the “end of- pipe” approach. 5.6.4 Explain how legislation provides an impetus to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes.

5.6.5 State that the legislation can be policed by monitoring through the collection of quantitative data.

See activity sheets

5.6.6 Explain that strategies for cleaning up manufacturing are mainly reactive, and that more radical approaches require a rethink of the whole system and may result in significant product and/or process modification or radically new technologies.

Many companies react to legislation or impending legislation by doing the minimum required. More radical approaches, for example, life cycle analysis, are proactive (see “Topic 3: Green design”). 5.6.7 Explain that targets for reducing pollution and waste from industry are agreed internationally, but not all industrial nations agree to the targets.

Explore the difficulties of stating targets against the background of ever-changing social, political and economic changes.