Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

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Tectonophysics

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Review Article

TOPO-EUROPE: Understanding of the coupling between the deep Earth andcontinental topography

Sierd Cloetingh a,⁎, Sean D. Willett b

a Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlandsb Department of Earth Sciences, ETH, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 302537314.E-mail address: sierd.cloetingh@uu.nl (S. Cloetingh)

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. Allhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.05.023

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 16 April 2013Accepted 21 May 2013Available online 3 June 2013

Keywords:Continental topographyCoupled deep Earth and surface processesNatural laboratoriesIntegrated solid earth scienceTOPO-EUROPE

Linking different spatial and temporal scales in coupled deep Earth and surface processes is a prime objectiveof the multidisciplinary international research program TOPO-EUROPE. The research approach of TOPO-EUROPE integrates active collection of new data, reconstruction of the geological record and numerical andanalog modeling. The results of the program presented in this special volume focus on four closely interrelatedtopics: crustal and upper mantle structures, lithosphere geodynamics, sedimentary basin dynamics and surfaceprocesses. Quantitative understanding of topographic evolution in space and time requires study of processesfrom the uppermantle, through the lithosphere and crust and acting on the Earth's surface. The results presentedhere demonstrate the opportunities to further understanding of topography through integrated studies of thefull Earth system across space and timescales.

© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. The ESF EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. Special issue highlighting TOPO-EUROPE results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64. Crustal and upper mantle structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65. Lithosphere geodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96. Sedimentary basin dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107. Surface processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1. Introduction

One of the important developments in Earth science over thepast de-cade has been the recognition of the importance of linking deep Earthdynamic processes with surface and near-surface geologic processes(e.g., Allen, 2008; Braun, 2010; Flament et al., 2013; Garcia-Castellanosand Cloetingh, 2012; Jones et al., 2012; National Academy of Sciences,2012; Whipple, 2009). Deep Earth research, encompassing fields suchas seismology and mantle geodynamics, has traditionally operateddistinctly from fields focusing on dynamics of the Earth's surface, suchas sedimentology and geomorphology. However, these endeavors havein common the study of the Earth's topography and the prediction ofits origin and rates of change. Observables from surface studies, such asbasin stratigraphy, geomorphology of landscapes, changes in surfaceelevation, and changes in sea level, provide some of the principal

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constraints on geodynamic and tectonic models (e.g. Braun et al., 2012;Castelltort et al., 2012). Conversely, deep geodynamic processes (e.g.Cloetingh et al., 2013; DiCaprio et al., 2009; Duretz et al., 2011;Moucha et al., 2008) give rise to the topography, erosion, and sedimentgeneration that are the basis of surface geology. It is the surfacemanifes-tations of these deep geodynamic processes that have societal impact bycreating natural hazards, such as earthquakes (e.g. Ismail-Zadeh et al.,2012) and mass movements, and controlling the distribution of naturalresources such as fossil fuels or geothermal energy (e.g. Cloetinghet al., 2010). The relevance of research conducted in both the deepEarth and surface regimes is thus enhanced through a focus on their in-teraction. Crucial also in this context is the availability of high-resolutionconstraints on the timing of changes in topography and the realizationthat rejuvenation in topography might be of more recent nature thantraditionally assumed (e.g. Gallen et al., 2013).

Recognition of this common ground has given rise to a multi-disciplinary program in Europe under the umbrella name of TOPO-EUROPE. TOPO-EUROPE represents a bottom-up, community effort to

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of upwelling asthenosphere through lithospheric slab breakand tear (geometry of slabs from Biryol et al. (2011), with map above showing regions oflow Pn-wave velocities in pink (Biryol et al., 2011; Gans et al., 2009)). Upper map showsreconstructed, contoured map of surface uplift. Note the general similarity between thepattern of surface uplift and low P wave velocities, which are consistent with thesuspected pattern of upwelling asthenosphere (from Schildgen et al., 2012).

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self-organize and cross-fertilize the disparate fieldswithin the geologicaland geophysical communities. Launched with a workshop in 2005 and awhite paper (Cloetingh and TOPO-EUROPE Working Group, 2007)describing its scientific scope, the program has continued to grow withannual meetings and other activities. The heart of these research activi-ties was supported through funding of a European Collaborative Re-search (EUROCORES) program administered by the European ScienceFoundation (ESF). Funding organizations in 23 countries agreed to sup-port TOPO-EUROPE with the goal of better understanding the evolutionof topography in Europe, its uplift and subsidence, and accompanyingchanges in sea level. All these topics are of great societal impact (Holmet al., 2012).

This special volume brings together 21 papers that were the directresult of the TOPO-EUROPE program. One of the activities ofTOPO-EUROPE is annual meetings, which have been held since 2005.This special volume grew out of contributions from the 2010 meetingin Oslo, but has expanded to cover research results from across thefull TOPO-EUROPE program. Each of these papers, in some way is a re-flection of the goal of better understanding the interactions betweenthe deep Earth and the surface, either through the tectonic processesthat create topography or the surface processes that modify an upliftsignal. This is the third Tectonophysics special volume to come out ofTOPO-EUROPE conferences.

2. The ESF EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE program

The TOPO-EUROPE EUROCORES program funded 10 CollaborativeResearch Projects (CRP's, see Table 1). The scale of these projects variesin scientific and administrative scope, but the final statistics show par-ticipation of 23 countries and nearly 20 million Euro invested.

The scope of the research conducted within the EUROCORES projectsis broad. As a consequence of interest in both deep Earth geodynamicprocesses and surface processes, all projects aremultidisciplinary. Obser-vations range from measuring geoid and monitoring sea level throughsatellites, onshore and offshore acquisition of new deep seismic data,dedicated geological field studies and acquisition of geochemical data,low-temperature thermochronometric ages, and cosmogenic isotopeconcentrations. Extensive use of analytical facilities and an integrationof numerical and analog modeling are other important characteristicsof the program.

TOPO-EUROPE organized about a “natural laboratory” concept.Each of the projects focuses on a specific geographic region and in-cludes diverse disciplines such as seismology, geodesy, geodynamics,tectonics, sedimentology, geochemistry, and geomorphology, appliedwithin the common “laboratory.” The European continent exhibits abroad diversity of tectonic, climatic, and geographic settings, provid-ing an excellent opportunity for a full spectrum of studies. Moreover,

Table 1Funded by EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE Collaborative Research Projects (CRP's), Regionof Study, and Participating Countries(Austria (AT), Finland (F), France (FR), Germany(DE), Hungary (HU), Ireland (IRL), Italy (IT), Netherlands (NL), Norway (N), Poland(PL), Portugal (P), Romania (RO), Serbia (SRB), Slovakia (SK), Spain (ES), Switzerland(CH), Turkey (TK), United Kingdom (UK), and United States (USA)).

EUROCORESproject

Natural laboratory Participating countries

Topo-4D Europe NL, N, CH, ITTopoMed Mediterranean NL, I, ES, DE, P, IRLTOPO-ALPS The Alps CH, DE, FR, AT, ATThermo-Europe Europe and near Middle East F, NL, PL, ES, CH, DE, IT, UKVAMP Anatolia DE, NL, SK, TK, IT, CHPYRTEC Pyrenees N, ES, F, NL, UKRESEL-GRACE Europe DE, F, NLSourceSink The Pannonian, Black Sea region NL, AT, SK, RO, FR, HU, SRB,

TK, CH, USASedyMONT Selected drainage basins in

Norway, Switzerland and ItalyCH, IT, UK, NO, AT

TopoScandiaDeep Scandinavia N, DE, NL

as one of the most densely populated regions of the planet, the soci-etal impact of better understanding solid earth processes is immedi-ate. The scope of the individual projects reflects that diversity.

The Vertical Motions of the Anatolian Plateau project (VAMP)addressed uplift of the Anatolian plateau and Taurides over the lastfewmillion years (Schildgen et al., 2012). This project has demonstratedan important contribution of slab breakoff to the record of recent verti-cal motions in the Anatolian plateau (Fig. 1).

The Pyrenean tectonics project (PYRTEC) studied the interaction be-tween surface processes, climate, and tectonic deformation duringmountain building in the Pyrenean–Cantabrian belt. Collision betweenthe Iberian and European plates resulted in mountain building in thePyrenees and passive margin inversion in the Cantabrian area. Themountain range topography, however, was shaped by both collisionand associated surface processes. Whereas large amounts of materialwere eroded in the Pyrenees, only minor erosion took place in theCantabrian mountain range. Although operating at vastly differenttime and length scales, a significant potential existed for feedback be-tween large scale tectonic deformation and redistribution of mass byerosion processes. This CRP has used a multidisciplinary approachinvolving field based studies, regional data compilation, geochronology,and quantitative modeling approaches that couple tectonic and surfaceprocess models (e.g. Fillon et al., 2013; Jammes and Huisman, 2012)(see Fig. 2). The Topo-4D project focused on the effects of mantle pro-cesses on surface deformation by studying plate motions and slab dy-namics, including detachment and its impacts on surface topography(Duretz et al., 2011).

As pointed out by a number of researchers (e.g. Burov and Toussaint,2007; Burov et al., 2007; Cloetingh et al., 2013) the inclusion of realisticlithosphere rheology and a free surface in themodeling approaches is cru-cial for tracking the surface response to mantle lithosphere interactions.This is also important inmodeling transient processes affecting slab rever-sal and slab mantle interactions (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Example of the effect of syn-tectonic sedimentation on the development of foreland fold and thrust belts (a–d) (after Fillon et al., 2013) and of the role of lithosphere scale inher-itance on mountain belt formation (e–f) (after Jammes and Huismans, J. Geophys. Res., 2012). Left panel: Foreland fold and thrust belt model evolution with different amounts ofsyntectonic sedimentation. a) Model 1: no syn-orogenic sedimentation; b) Model 2: syn-orogenic sedimentation up to 1.95 km elevation; c) Model 3: syn-orogenic sedimentation upto 2.25 km elevation. d) Model 4: syn-orogenic sedimentation up to 3 km elevation. Panels show development at 12 m.y. Flexural rigidity is 1022 N m. The foreland-fold-and-thrustmodel results show that an increase in syn-tectonic sedimentation leads to significantly longer thrust sheets. Right panel: Lithosphere scale inversion tectonics. e) Lithosphere scaleextensional model after 100 km of extension exhibiting symmetric extensional rift basin. This configuration is subsequently used for inversion. f) Mountain belt formation after200 km of shortening. Note inverted extensional basin on the retro-wedge with significant mafic mantle lithospheric body at shallow depth, and new thick skinned basement thruston pro-wedge side of model orogen. These numerical modelling results fit quite well with the evolution of the Pyrenees.

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The Topo-4D project has examined in great detail the connectionbetween absolute plate motions and dynamic topography. To this aim,three types of data were used to define absolute plate motions in amovinghotspot reference frame (Fig. 4a–c). Geometries andprogressionsof radiometric ages along hotspot tracks reflect themotion of lithosphericplates relative to underlying hotspots. Motions of hotspots have been es-timated using numerical modeling (e.g., Steinberger, 2000), by calculat-ing the global mantle flow and its variations through time usingconstraints from seismic tomography (density variations within themantle) and numerical experiments on advection of conduits of mantleplumes in the calculated flow field. Motions of selected lithosphericplates fromwhich the hotspot track data are available havebeen integrat-ed into a unified kinematic model, and absolute reconstructions for theremaining plates (with no or not well documented hotspot tracks) havebeen calculated using relative plate reconstructions (Doubrovine et al.,2012; Torsvik et al., 2010) based on marine geophysical data (marinemagnetic anomalies and fracture zones). The resulting absolute kinemat-ic model describes the displacements of all lithospheric plates in a refer-ence frame representative of themantle as a whole, i.e. a reference framein which the convective motions within the mantle average to no netrotation (Doubrovine et al., 2012). This research has enabled to derive ab-solute motion of Europe and to estimate dynamic topographic evolutionsince 100 Ma. A drastic change in absolute motion is observed in theGlobal Mantle Hotspot Reference Frame (GMHRF) at 70 Ma (Figs. 4a–4c), where its direction changes from a west-northwest orientation to adominantly eastward motion. In contrast, the kinematic model ofO'Neill et al. (2005) predicts a less pronounced change at 50 Ma. In theGMHRF, Europe is nearly stationary during the last 40 Ma.

Estimates of dynamic topography in the mantle reference frame(calculated from the normal stresses imposed on the base of the litho-sphere by the mantle flow, (Steinberger et al., 2001)) can be combined

with themodels of absolute platemotion to evaluate the temporal evolu-tion of dynamic topography for the European region. The examples inFig. 4d–i show the positions of Baltica in the GMHRF and Indo-AtlanticMHRF of O'Neill et al. (2005) superimposed onmaps of dynamic topogra-phy at select reconstruction ages. This research also quantified dynamictopography through time at specific sites (Fig. 4j). Alternative kinematicmodels suggest different timing for the episodes of dynamic uplift andsubsidence, with the absolute differences reaching ~200 m, highlightingthe importance of choosing a proper absolute reference frame formodel-ing dynamic topography.

The TopoMedproject characterized the tectonic regime in thewesternand central Mediterranean (e.g. Guillaume et al., 2010) through acquisi-tion and analysis of onshore–offshore seismic and magnetotelluric data,interpreted through numerical and analog modeling of initiation of sub-duction along the North Africa margin (Baes et al., 2011). The study byBaes et al. (2011) has provided support for the notion that mechanicalconditions are favorable for initiation of subduction at the northernAfricanmargin (see Fig. 5), consistent with inferences from a recent syn-thesis and interpretation of a large data set of geological and geophysicalobservations (Roure et al., 2012). Closely linked to the TopoMed projectis the TOPO-IBERIA program carried out by a large consortiumof Spanishinstitutions, focusing on data-acquisition andmodeling (e.g. Cloetingh etal., 2011; Diaz et al., 2012, 2013; Fernández-Lozano et al., 2012; Pous etal., 2011). TOPO-IBERIA has generated a number of exciting results, re-solving in great detail the contrast in crustal structure at the NorthernMediterranean margin of the Moroccan Rif Belt, and the Alboran shearzone (Fig. 7). The program has also detected systematic patterns of lith-osphere scale anisotropy around theGibraltar arc (Fig. 6). Due to its focuson the integration of constraints onuppermantle andcrustal structure aswell as on the development of new concepts for surface expressions oftectonic processes, a regional framework, linking basins and topographic

Fig. 3. Influence of a free surface and a weak crust. Comparison of temperature and viscosity fields over time between calculations using (a, b) a free slip upper boundary condition(case 1) showing double-sided subduction, (c, d) a free surface condition (using a “sticky air” layer) (case 2) and (e, f) a free surface condition combined with a weak crustal layer(case 3), both resulting in single-sided subduction (Crameri et al., 2012).

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highs in the area has been developed for the surface expression of slabtearing (Fig. 8).

The TopoScandiaDeep (TSD) project studied upper mantle structurebeneath the southern Scandes Mountains of Norway, an area character-ized by persistent topography at a location far fromEurope's plate bound-aries. The origin of their present high altitude is not fully understood. Theaim of the TopoScandiaDeep project has been to use geophysical data, inparticular newly acquired seismological data (e.g. Köhler et al., 2012;Medhus et al., 2012), to map the seismic and mechanical properties ofthe crust and mantle below Scandinavia and analyze which forces andprocesses can be at the origin of the present-day topography of northernEurope (e.g. Maupin et al., 2013–this volume; Wawerzinek et al.,2013–this volume).

The SourceSink program is a fully integrated research effort to sig-nificantly advance predictive capabilities on the quantitative analysesof coupled active and past drainage systems bymeans of step-wise 4Dreconstructions of sediment mass transfer, integrating geophysics,geology, geomorphology, state of the art high-resolution dating, andnumerical and analog modeling (e.g., Matenco and Andriessen, 2013a,b). A source to sink system describes the natural link between moun-tains, plains and deltas, by analyzing the (re)distribution of material atshallow crustal depth and at the Earth's surface, exploring the links be-tween coupled tectonic and surface processes. The area selected forthis program is the Danube River Basin–Black Sea source to sink sys-tem, a world-class natural laboratory that is uniquely situated in theheart of Europe's topography, covering almost half of its surface, pro-viding opportunities for excellent field sites to study in integrationsurface and subsurface data that cover the complete chain of source,

carrier and sink (e.g., Matenco and Radivojević, 2012). Quantifyingandmodeling the complete system in relation to the controlling param-eters has resulted in significant understanding of forcing factors andlinking temporal and spatial scales across multiple orogen and basinsystems (e.g., Krézsek et al., 2013; Lericolais et al., 2013; Magyar et al.,2013; Stojadinovic et al., 2013; Sztanó et al., 2013). This research hasprovided the opportunity to widen the geographical scope to othernatural scenarios, where a number of mountain chains with similargeodynamic genesis separate sedimentary basins with comparableevolution (e.g., Santra et al., 2013; van Baak et al., 2013).

Mountain building processes lead to exhumation of orogenic coresduring gradual shortening by nappe stacking, fragmenting the associatedforeland and hinterland sedimentary basins. Such processes often lead tothe isolation of sub-basins (e.g., Flecker and Ellam, 2006). The parame-ters controlling the connectivity amongst late orogenic semi-isolatedbasins, and with open marine environments are related, for example,to the interplay between uplift and subsidence creating accommodationspace and building sediment source areas, inherited tectonic pathwaysacrossmountain chains, or climate and sea-level variations. One such ex-ample is the fragmentation and gradual isolation of the Carpathianbasinsin the larger framework of the Paratethys endemic environment, whenthe modality of connection between the Pannonian and Dacian basinshas strongly influenced the patterns of basin isolation and subsequentfill (Fig. 9). Observational studies across multiple basins and separatingmountain chains combinedwith numericalmodeling pointed to a signif-icant impact of basin connectivity events on the architecture of all theseParatethys basins (e.g., Bartol et al., 2012; Leever et al., 2011; Munteanuet al., 2012; ter Borgh et al., 2013).

Fig. 4. Absolute motion of Europe and estimates of dynamic topography since 100 Ma. (a-c) Motion of Europe in the Global Moving Hotspot Reference Frame (GMHRF, Doubrovineet al., 2012) is illustrated by red flowlines, with circles plotted at 10 Ma increments, for the four arbitrary chosen reference locations (OSL, Oslo; FRA, Frankfurt; KRK, Krakow; BOR,Bordeaux). For comparison, blue flowlines show the estimates of European motion in the Indo-Atlantic moving hotspot reference frame of O’Neill et al. (2005). Ellipses in a and bshow the 95% confidence regions for the reconstructed motion paths. Note that absolute displacements in the GMHRF for the last 40 Ma are smaller than the reconstructionuncertainties (b), suggesting that Europe was nearly stationary during that time interval. (d–i) Positions of Baltica in the GMHRF (red outlines) and Indo-Atlantic MHRF of O’Neillet al. (2005) (blue outlines) superimposed on the color maps of dynamic topography at selected reconstruction ages. (j) Variation of dynamic topography through time at the site ofOslo (60°N, 11°E). The blue curve corresponds to the absolute kinematic model of O’Neill et al. (2005); the red curve is an estimate obtained using the GMHRF (Doubrovine et al.,2012).

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The TOPO-ALPS project had the principal goal of establishing theerosion rates across the Alps over a range of timescales from decadesto millions of years. Databases for river sediment loads (Hinderer,2012), cosmogenic isotope concentrations (Norton et al., 2011), andthermochronometric ages were established and analyzed, with one ofthe results being the characterization of the glacial overprint on

Fig. 5. Deformed geometries and effective stress field at t = 2.5 Myr (from Baes et al.,2011). The vectors indicate the velocity field at the indicated time.

topography and erosion rates over the late Quaternary (Sternai et al.,2012) (see Fig. 10). Detailed studies of theAlpine foreland showed a sim-ilar impact of glaciation with deep gorges eroded by sub-glacial fluidsbeneath the ice sheets from the Alps (Dürst Stucki et al., 2010, 2012).

The Thermo-Europe project investigated the tectonic and climaticcontrols on the evolution of Europe's mountain belts through coolingrates established by thermochronometry. The project found littleevidence for accelerated exhumation in the last few million years(Glotzbach et al., 2011; Reverman et al., 2012) (see Fig. 11), althoughthere was evidence for an increase in relief due to Quaternary glacialvalley carving (Valla et al., 2011).

SedyMONT (see also Schlunegger and Norten, 2013–this volume) fo-cused on human timescale mass transport through the establishment ofsediment budgets for individual catchments. It was found that episodicsediment transfer processes such as debris flows are a dominant mecha-nism in sedimentary fan development but that sediment fluxes and fanstratigraphy can still be estimated provided the stochastic nature of sed-iment transfer is characterized (Berger et al., 2011; Schlunegger et al.,2009).

The RESEL-GRACE project addressed Europe-scale sea level changeusing satellite gravity data from theGravity Recovery and Climate Exper-iment (GRACE)mission aswell as sea levelmonitoring data (Meyssignac

Fig. 6. Anisotropic parameters for the Gibraltar arc region. Bars are oriented along the observed seismic anisotropical polarization directions in the upper mantle and their length areproportional to the measured seismic wave delay times. Red bars are for “good” quality measurements while gray bars stand for “fair” results. Null measurements are representedby thin black lines oriented along the back azimuth. Absolute plate motion vectors in the no‐net rotation frame and the fixed hotspot frame are show by gray wide and black thinarrows (from Diaz et al., 2010).

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et al., 2011; Schmeer et al., 2012; van der Wal et al., 2011, 2013). In thiscontext, particular attentionwas given to the impact of different rheolog-ical models for the upper mantle underneath Fennoscandia for glacialisostatic models (Barnhoorn et al., 2011, 2013, see Fig. 12).

3. Special issue highlighting TOPO-EUROPE results

This special volume is part of a series of special volumes publishedon the results of the program at large in “Global and Planetary Change”(Cloetingh and Tibaldi, 2012; Cloetingh and TOPO-Europe WorkingGroup, 2007; Matenco and Andriessen, 2013a) and “Tectonophysics”(Cloetingh et al., 2009, 2011). A brief report on the rationale and scopeof the program has been published recently by Cloetingh and Willett(2013). In addition, a wealth of individual papers has been published onoutcomes of individual studies carried out under the umbrella of TOPO-EUROPE (http://www.topo-europe.eu/esf-eurocore-topo-europe).

The papers in this volume represent an important, if incomplete,sample of the spectrum of research conducted within the TOPO-EUROPE

Fig. 7. Stations (triangles) color coded according to crustal thickness and interpolated Mohthree different domains are observed (light blue, yellow, and orange, respectively). Two(a) later or (b) earlier of two possible Moho conversions. Thick black lines mark the pos2012).

program. Papers have been organized into four topics in the areas of:crustal and upper mantle structures, lithosphere geodynamics, sedimentarybasin dynamics, and surface processes.

4. Crustal and upper mantle structures

In current discussions on the nature of controls on dynamic topogra-phy (e.g. Moucha and Forte, 2011) the role of spatial variations in struc-ture and mechanical properties of the lithosphere (e.g. Tesauro et al.,2012) is not always recognized. Constraints on uppermantle and crust-al structure are of paramount importance in deciphering dynamic to-pography attributed to mantle convective processes (Boschi et al.,2010) aswell as separating the static isostatic and dynamic componentsof the topographic signal (Flament et al., 2013). This has been illustratedby several authors (see Fig. 13) in investigating the importance ofadopting different models for European crustal structure in assessmentof dynamic tomography for the Mediterranean region as inferred byFaccenna and Becker (2010). This study has shown the need for more

o surface for northern Morocco. Large variations, strong gradients, and a division intoalternative interpretations for stations in the central Rif are provided, picking the

ition of the main faults of the trans-Alboran shear zone (TASZ) (from Mancilla et al.,

Fig. 8. Geodynamic interpretation of tomographic results invokes the lateral migration of a tearing8 of the lithospheric slab originally attached to the south Iberian margin. (a) Geo-logical map of the Gibraltar arc and subjacent mantle structure derived from seismic tomography. White arrows indicate uplift of intramountain basins within the Betics and the Rif,and ages of their transition from marine to continental conditions. White dots locate earthquake hypocenters used for the tomographic inversion and blue arrows locate proposedconnecting corridors. (b) Interpretative sketch: T marks the proposed lithosphere tearing point, separating areas where the sinking lithospheric slab (blue) is detached from Iberia,inducing surface uplift (to the east), from areas where it remains attached to the crust (to the west) (from Garcia-Castellanos and Villaseñor, 2011).

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detailed models for crustal and upper mantle structures in assessmentof the relative contribution of mantle convection to topography on a re-gional scale.

The ScandinavianMountain Chain (the Scandes) is an intracontinentalmountain chain at thewestern edge of the Baltic shield, and has its south-ern part located in southern Norway. The timing as well as the processescausing the formation of the Scandes are disputed. Maupin et al.(2013–this volume) bring new geophysical constraints to this issue byproviding crustal and mantle seismic models for the area and by

Fig. 9. One of the potential scenarios of connectivity between the Pannonian, Transylvanianated in the hinterland and foreland of the Carpathian Mountains towards the presently activMiddle Miocene times, this scenario suggests that the Pannonian and Transylvanian basin hhave been broken independently by the Carpathians tectonic uplift that took place in the L

integrated modeling of the lithosphere and its potential deformation.Newmaps of Moho depth and crustal seismic velocities have been com-piled using data from refraction lines, P-receiver functions and noisecross-correlation.

Travel times of shear waves, recorded at the MAGNUS network todetermine the 3D shear wave velocity structure underneath SouthernScandinavia, are analyzed by Wawerzinek et al. (2013–this volume).The travel time residuals are corrected for the known crustal struc-ture of Southern Norway and weighted to account for data quality

and Dacian basins, linking sedimentation between distinct depositional domains situ-e sink, the Black Sea. Following the first establishment of connections in all areas duringad their own connecting distinct gateway to the Dacian basin. These connections couldate Miocene (from ter Borgh et al., 2013).

Fig. 10. a: Map of estimated isostatic rock uplift in response to Quaternary erosion in European Alps. Thick black line represents base level. b: Pre-glacial steepness index (ks) map.External Crystalline Massifs, Dent Blanche and Sesia-Lanzo units, and Tauern and Engadine windows are shown in red, gray, and blue, respectively. Black lines represent major tec-tonic lineaments. c: Map of reconstructed pre-glacial topography of Alps. Elevations are above present-day sea level. Black line represents base level. Note that present-day topog-raphy is displayed outside base level. d: Map of elevation difference, Δz, between present-day and modeled pre-glacial Alpine topographies. Green, red, pink, yellow, azure, andbrown basin outlines show Rhone, Rhine, Aosta, Chiavenna, Adige, and Puster Valleys, respectively. White lines in A, B, and C and black curved line in D represent Last Glacial Max-imum ice extent as compiled by Buoncristiani and Campy (2004) (from Sternai et al., 2012).

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and pick uncertainties. The resulting residual pattern of subverticallyincident waves is very uniform and simple.

Stolk et al. (2013–this volume) propose a new methodology toobtain crustal models in areas where data is sparse and data spread-ing is heterogeneous. This new method involves both interpolatingthe depth to the Moho discontinuity between observations andestimating a velocity–depth curve for the crust at each interpolationlocation. The Moho observations are interpolated using a remove–compute–restore technique, as used in geodesy. Observations arecorrected first for Airy type isostasy. The residual observationsshow less variation than the original observations, making interpola-tion more reliable. After interpolation, the applied correction isrestored to the solution, leading to the final estimate of Mohodepth. The crustal velocities have been estimated by fitting a velocitydepth curve through available data at each interpolation location.Uncertainty of the model is assessed, both for the Moho and thevelocity model. The method has been applied successfully to Asia.The resulting crustal model is provided in digital form and can beused in various geophysical applications, for instance in assessingrheological properties and strength profiles of the lithosphere, thecorrection of gravity anomalies for crustal density heterogeneities,seismic tomography and geothermal modeling.

Shalev et al. (2013–this volume) analyze temperature data fromall the available oil and water wells in Israel and compare the resultswith seismicity depth and with heat flux estimation from xenoliths.The authors show that the average heat flux in Israel is consistentwith measurements of the Arabian Shield. A heat flux anomaly existsin Northern Israel and Jordan. This could be attributed to groundwa-ter flow or young magmatic activity that is common in this area. Ahigher heat flux exists in Southern Israel and Jordan, probablyreflecting the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Eilat (Gulf ofAqaba) and does not represent the average value present in the Ara-bian Shield.

The temperature gradient at the Dead Sea basin is relatively low,resulting in low heat flux and a relatively deep seismicity extendingto lower crustal depths, in agreement with earthquake depths. Higherheat fluxes at the Sea of Galilee and at the Gulf of Eilat result inshallower seismicity. The steep geothermal gradients yielded by xe-noliths could be the result of local heating by magmas or by litho-spheric necking and shear heating.

Global distribution of the strength and effective elastic thickness (Te)of the lithosphere are estimated by Tesauro et al. (2013–this volume)using physical parameters from recent crustal and lithospheric models.For the Te estimation they apply a new approach, which takes into ac-count variations of Young modulus within the lithosphere. In view ofthe large uncertainties affecting strength estimates, the authors evaluateglobal strength and Te distributions for possible end-member ‘hard’(HRM) and a ‘soft’ (SRM) rheology models of the continental crust.Temperature within the lithosphere has been estimated using a recenttomography model of Ritsema et al. (2011), which has much higherhorizontal resolution than previous global models. Most of the strengthis localized in the crust for the HRM and in the mantle for the SRM.These results contribute to the long debates on applicability of the“crème brulée” or “jelly-sandwich” model for the lithosphere structure.

The study by Hardebol et al. (2013–this volume) aims to quantifythe 3-D variability in lithosphere strength of the southwestern Cana-dian Cordillera to craton lithosphere. Strength is calculated in a for-ward manner, starting from rheological laws of brittle and ductiledeformation. The method first calculates a temperature model basedon a multi-layer compositional model and subsequently estimates thestrength distributionwith input of both the compositional and tempera-ture models. The temperature modeling involves numerical inversionand cubic spline algorithms, which help to impose boundary conditionsthat account better for strong lateral variations in lithosphere thicknessand lateral heat flow, to address the lithosphere structure between theCanadian Cordillera and craton.

Fig. 11. (a) Relief history. Synoptic 2D marginal probability density functions showingreconstructed relief and exhumation histories of the Mont Blanc massif according to in-version (after Glotzbach et al. (2011). Probabilities and corresponding 2σ (gray) and 1σ(black) confidence intervals are constructed using re-sampling of the dataset. Inset in(a) shows additional exhumation due to valley carving (valley: 1277 m) (from Glotzbachet al., 2011). (b) 4He/3He thermochronometry of SIO samples. Observed 4He/3He ratioevolution diagrams and model cooling paths for SIO-04. The measured 4He/3He ratios ofeach degassing step (Rstep) are normalized to the bulk ratio (Rbulk) and plotted versusthe cumulative 3He release fraction (∑F3He). Boxes indicate ±1 s.d. (vertical) and inte-gration steps (horizontal). Colored lines show the predicted 4He/3He ratio evolutiondiagram (e) for an arbitrary cooling path (f). Each colored path predicts the observedAHe age of the sample to within ±1 s.d.; red and yellow cooling paths are excluded bythe 4He/3He data, whereas green cooling paths are permitted. The cooling path initiatedoff scale at 150 °C; cooling paths that failed to predict the observed AHe age are notshown (from Valla et al., 2011).

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5. Lithosphere geodynamics

Why some Archean cratons survived for billions of years while therest of the lithosphere has been reworked, probably several times, isboth enigmatic and fundamental for plate tectonics.

Craton longevity is mainly explained by their buoyancy and ana-lyzed by testing gravitational stability of cratonic mantle “keels” as afunction of a hypothesized thermo-rheological structure. Destructionof some cratons suggests that buoyancy is not the only factor in theirstability, and many previous studies show that their mechanicalstrength is equally important. The upper bounds on the integratedstrength of cratons are provided by flexural studies demonstratingthat Te values (equivalent elastic thickness) in cratons are highest inthe world (110–150 km). Yet, the lower bounds on the integratedstrength of stable cratons are still a matter of debate, along with thequestion of how this strength is partitioned between crust andmantle.Francois et al. (2013–this volume) show that primary observedcratonic features of flat topography and “frozen” heterogeneous crust-al structure represent the missing constraints for understanding cra-ton longevity. The cratonic crust is characterized by isostaticallymisbalanced density heterogeneities, suggesting that the lithospherehas to be strong enough to keep them frozen through timewithout de-velopingmajor gravitational instabilities and topographic undulations.Hence, to constrain thermo-rheological properties of cratons oneshould investigate the stability of their topography and internal struc-ture. The authors demonstrate with free-surface thermo-mechanical

numerical models that craton stability cannot be warranted even byvery high crustal strength, so that dry olivinemantle and cold thick lith-osphere are indispensable conditions.

Collision between continents can lead to the subduction of continen-tal material. If the crust remains coupled to the downgoing slab, a largebuoyancy force is generated. This force slows down convergence andpromotes slab detachment. If the crust resists subduction, it may decou-ple from the downgoing slab and be subjected to buoyant vertical extru-sion. Duretz and Gerya (2013–this volume) employ two-dimensionalthermomechanical models to study the importance of crustal rheologyon the evolution of subduction/ collision systems. They propose simplequantifications of themechanical decoupling between lithospheric levelsand the potential for buoyant extrusion of the crust. These modelsare important for comparison with inferences from analog models(e.g. Luth et al., 2013).

The rollback of a segmented slab of oceanic lithosphere is typically ac-companied by vertical lithospheric tear fault(s) along the lateral slabedge(s) and by strike slip movement in the upper plate, defined as aSTEP (Subduction Tear Edge Propagator) fault (see also Govers andWortel, 2005). The Neogene evolution of the Central Mediterranean isdominated by the interaction between the slow Africa–Eurasia conver-gence and the SE-ward rollback of the Ionian slab, which leads to theback-arc opening of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Gallais et al. (2013–thisvolume) present the post-stack time migrated and pre-stack depth mi-grated multichannel seismic lines, that were acquired offshore easternSicily, at the foot of the Malta escarpment. The recent deformationalong the lateral ramp of the Calabrian accretionary wedge is identified.A previously published Moho depth map of the offshore Sicily regionand the recent GPS data, combinedwith the presence of strike slipmove-ments onshore NE Sicily, allow the authors to identify a 200 km longcrustal-scale fault as the surface expression of a STEP fault. The presenceof syntectonic Pleistocene sediments on top of this crustal-scale fault sug-gests a recent lithospheric vertical movement of the STEP fault, in re-sponse to the rollback of the Ionian slab and advance of Calabriatowards SE.

Crustal earthquake focal mechanisms are investigated by Prestiet al. (2013–this volume) in the Calabrian Arc region, where the west-ern Mediterranean subduction process is close to ending and the re-sidual Ionian subducting slab affected by gravitational roll-backproduces strong variation of faulting at shallow depth along the localsection of the convergent margin. An updated database of earthquakefocal mechanisms is compiled by selecting the best-quality solutionsavailable in the literature and in catalogs, and by adding some newsolutions. A total of 164 mechanisms are included in the database, 142computed by waveform inversion and 22 by analysis of P-wave firstmotions from earthquakeswith network coverage of no less than 14 re-cords. The database includes focal mechanisms from earthquakes downto aminimummagnitude of 2.6 for themechanisms fromwaveform in-version, and of 1.7 for the mechanisms from P-wave first motions.Stability tests on newly-estimated focalmechanisms are also presented.Focal data from the database are inverted for stress tensor orientationsto obtain the principal stress axes over the study region.

Large-scale intraplate deformation of the crust and the lithosphere inCentral Asia as a result of the indentation of India has been extensivelydocumented. In contrast, the impact of continental collision betweenArabia and Eurasia on lithosphere tectonics in front of the main suturezone, has received much less attention. The resulting Neogene shorten-ing and uplift of the external Zagros, Alborz, Kopeh Dagh and CaucasusMountain belts in Iran and surrounding areas are characterized by asimultaneous onset of major topography growth at ca. 5 Ma. At thesame time, subsidence accelerated in the adjacent Caspian, Turan andAmu Darya basins. Smit et al. (2013–this volume) present evidencefor interference of lithospheric folding patterns induced by the Ara-bian and Indian collision with Eurasia. Wavelengths and spatial pat-terns are inferred from satellite-derived topography and gravitymodels.

Fig. 12. Relative change in viscosity with respect to the viscosity at 30 kyr B.P. in a wet upper mantle for 18 kyr B.P., 8 kyr B.P. and present for four different depth levels. Red indicates anincrease in viscosity; blue indicates a decrease in viscosity (from Barnhoorn et al., 2011).

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Central Asia is a classic example for intracontinental lithospheric fold-ing. In particular, the Altay–Sayan belt in South-Siberia and the KyrgyzTien Shan display a special mode of lithospheric deformation, involvingdecoupled lithospheric mantle/upper crustal folding, together withupper crustal faulting. Both areas have a contrasting crust with a longhistory of accretion–collision, subsequently reactivated as a far-field ef-fect of the Indian–Eurasian collision. Thanks to the youthfulness of thetectonic deformation in this region (peak deformation in late Pliocene–early Pleistocene), the surface expression of lithospheric deformation iswell documented by the surface topography and surficial structures. Areview by Delvaux et al. (2013–this volume) of the paleostress dataand the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the Kurai–Chuya basin in Sibe-rianAltai, Zaisanbasin inKazakh SouthAltai and Issyk-Kul basin inKyrgyzTien Shan suggests that theywere initiated in an extensional context and

Fig. 13. (a) Residual topography after correcting for isostatic adjustment based on the crustputed from EuCRUST-07 (Tesauro et al., 2008), with density values taken, again, from Crus

inverted by a combination of fault-controlled deformation and flexuralfolding. In these basins, fault-controlled deformation alone appears large-ly insufficient to explain their architecture. Lithospheric buckling inducingsurface tilting, uplift and subsidence also played an important role. Theircharacteristic basinfill and symmetry, inner structure, foldingwavelengthand amplitude, thermal regime, and time frame are examined in relationto basement structure, stress field, strain rate, and timing of deformation,and compared to other basins in similar context and to existingmodelingresults.

6. Sedimentary basin dynamics

The balance between extension and contraction in back-arc basinsis very sensitive to a number of parameters related to on-going

al model Crust2.0 (Bassin et al., 2000). (b) Same as Fig. 13a, isostatic adjustment com-t2.0 (after Boschi et al., 2010).

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subduction and collision processes. This leads to complex back-arcgeometries, where a lateral transition between crustal blocks with con-trasting rheology is often recorded. One good example is the back-arcregion of the Balkanides–Pontides orogens, where lateral variations inrheology are observed between the Balkanides–Moesian block and thePontides–Western Black Sea Basin. The latter opened during Creta-ceous–Eocene, and has been inverted together with the former duringlate Middle Eocene. The inversion generated contrasting geometryalong the orogenic strike, with a narrow zone of high deformation inthe Balkanides–Moesia region, wide areas of thrusting in the Pontides–Western Black Sea Basin and a transitional zone characterized by highlycurved geometries. Munteanu et al. (2013–this volume) investigate in-version tectonics processes by themeans of crustal analogmodeling test-ing the role of inherited crustal geometries during such inversion.

Formation and evolution of back-arc basins are related to theinterplay between subduction and convergence velocity during theformation of an orogenic chain. Sedimentary basins lacking geneticfault systems can be locally observed in the hinterland of the mainorogenic belt in some back-arc regions. These are interesting featurespotentially driven by a number of contrasting mechanisms, such aslithospheric traction forces from the plate boundary, lateral migrationof lower crustal material during orogenesis or sub-lithospheric process-es such as the rapid retreat of a subducting slab. The TransylvanianBasin is a Miocene basin that formed at the rear of the main Carpathianarc during the subduction of a slab attached to stable Europe. Situatedeast of the Pannonian Basin, a typical continental extensional back-arcdomain, Transylvania accommodated up to 3.5 km of Middle-UpperMiocene sediments that were deposited coeval with the shortening inthe neighboring Carpathians. The basin fill was subsequently exhumedand partly eroded when the Carpathians collided with the Europeancraton in Late Miocene times. This was associated with contractionaldeformation and widespread salt diapirism that forms the bulk of Mio-cene deformation observed inside the basin. A study by Tiliţă et al.(2013–this volume) shows that no significant normal faults are presentinside the basin that could have accommodated 3.5 km subsidence interms of upper crustal extension. Furthermore, the basin kinematicscannot be linked directly with any other mechanical process explainingthe observedMiocene subsidence. Therefore, the authors discuss sever-al mechanisms that may explain regional-scale observations and theyconclude that the Miocene Transylvanian Basin most likely formed inresponse to an asymmetric simple shear extension assisted by erosionand/or lower crustal flow; the upper crustal effects were localized inthe neighboring Pannonian Basin.

Data from deep boreholes, seismic surveys, and surface geologyare used by De Vicente and Muñoz-Martín (2013–this volume) to re-construct the sedimentary infilling of the Cenozoic Madrid Basin.Eight main depositional sequences and seismic units are recognized.From the Paleogene, the latter four of these sedimentary sequenceswere deposited in a continental environment, under the influence oftectonic activity in the Central System, the Toledo Mountains, the Ibe-rian Chain, and the Sierra de Altomira. The sedimentary fill shows anoverall coarsening-upward trend from upper Cretaceous formations tosyn-tectonic conglomerate deposits, followed by a fining-upwardsequence and moderate reactivation of some faults during the lateMiocene–Pliocene. The syn-tectonic sediments are Oligocene to earlyMiocene in age. The foredeep is oriented northeast–southwest andshows a sediment thickness of up to 3800 m in areas close to the CentralSystem. Several types of tectonic structures are recognized, includingimbricate thrust systems, thrust triangle zones, fault-propagationfolds, back-thrust systems, and pop-up structures. The frontal thrustswere subjected to significant erosion, and late Miocene sedimentsonlap the anticlines of the onshore foreland. NW–SE-trending positiveflower structures have been recognized in the eastern part of thebasin. The total northwest–southeast shortening across the contact be-tween the Madrid Basin and the Central System is approximately 5 km,of which 2–3 km occurred across the Southern Border Thrust. The

simultaneous basement uplift of the Central System and the tectonic es-cape of the Sierra de Altomira have been interpreted as a consequence ofconstrictive deformation within the “Pyrenean” foreland of the Iberianmicroplate.

The Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex (CACC) exposesmetasediment rocks overlain by Cretaceous ophiolites and intrudedby granitoids. Following late Cretaceous exhumation of its highgrade metamorphic rocks, the CACC started to collide with the CentralPontides of southern Eurasia in the latest Cretaceous to Paleocene.Gülyüz et al. (2013–this volume) present the sedimentary, strati-graphic and tectonic evolution of the Çiçekdağı Basin, located in thenorthwest of the CACC. Magnetostratigraphic dating, supported by40Ar/39Ar geochronology shows a late Eocene basin age. The basin fillunconformably overlies metamorphic basement in the south andophiolites of the CACC in the north. It consists of red conglomerates,sandstones and siltstones, which overlie a sequence of nummuliticlimestones. In the south, these limestones are ~10 m thick, are under-lain by a few meters of conglomerate unit unconformably coveringthe CACC metamorphics. In the north, the limestones are underlain bya ~200 m thick sequence of volcanics and fine-grained clastics interca-latingwith shallowmarine black shales. The upper Eocene sediments ofthe Çiçekdağı Basinwere deformed into a syn-anticline pair. Progressiveunconformities in the northern flank and a rapid and persistent ~180°switch in paleocurrent directions from southward to northward in thesouthern flank of the anticline demonstrate synsedimentary folding.Gülyüz et al. (2013–this volume) interpret the folding to result from asouthward progression of the Çankırı foreland basin as a result of ongo-ing collision between the CACC and the Pontides.

7. Surface processes

Datasets of the GNSS Upper Rhine Graben Network (GURN) andthe national leveling networks in Germany, France and Switzerlandare investigated by Fuhrmann et al. (2013–this volume) with respectto current surface displacements in the Upper Rhine Graben (URG)area. GURN consists of about 80 permanent GNSS (Global NavigationSatellite Systems) stations. The terrestrial leveling network comprises1st and 2nd order leveling lines that have been remeasured at intervalsof roughly 25 years, starting in 1922. In contrast to earlier studies, na-tional institutions and private companies made available raw data,allowing for consistent solutions for the URG region. Fuhrmann et al.(2013–this volume) focused on the southern and eastern parts of the in-vestigation area. Their preliminary results show that the leveling andGNSS datasets are sensitive to small surface displacement rates downto 0.2 mm/a and 0.4 mm/a, respectively. The observed horizontal veloc-ity components obtained from GNSS coordinate time series for a test re-gion south of Strasbourg show variations around 0.5 mm/a. The resultsare in general agreement with interseismic strain built-up in a sinistralstrike-slip regime. Since the accuracy of the GNSS derived vertical com-ponent is insufficient, data of precise leveling networks are used to deter-mine vertical displacement rates. More than 75% of the vertical ratesobtained from a kinematic adjustment of 1st order leveling lines in theeastern part of URG vary between−0.2 mm/a and+0.2 mm/a, indicat-ing that this region behaves stably. Higher rates up to 0.5 mm/a in a lim-ited region south of Freiburg are in general agreement with activefaulting. The authors conclude that both networks deliver stable resultsthat reflect real surfacemovements in the URG area. They note, however,that geodetically observed surface displacements generally result from asuperposition of different effects, and that separation into tectonic andnon-tectonic processes needs additional information and expertise.

Focusing on climatic and structural (tectonic) controls, Stange et al.(2013–this volume) aim to determine their relative importance for thePliocene–Quaternary fluvial landscape evolution in the Southern Pyre-nees foreland. The authors investigate the Segre River, which is one ofthe major streams of the Southern Pyrenees that drains the elevatedchain towards the Ebro foreland basin. Along its course, the Segre

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River has a flight of fluvial cut-and-fill (and strath-type) terraces pre-served. These have been mapped from DEMs and through geomorpho-logical fieldwork. The paper by Stange et al. (2013–this volume) reportson the Segre terrace staircase, which is characterized by seven majorQuaternary terrace levels with elevations up to more than 110 mabove the modern floodplain. At the upper and middle reaches, thesemi-parallel terraces of the Segre River occasionally show anomaliesfeaturing extensive gravel thickness and deformation caused byfaulting, folding and local subsidence. The longitudinal correlations ofterrace levels reveal increased vertical terrace spacing in the foreland,which could originate from enhanced fluvial erosion after theMid-Pleistocene climate transition in combination with base level low-ering controlled by the progressive down-cutting of the Catalan CoastalRange. Since the Ebro Basin opening (LateMiocene), the Catalan CoastalRange, which borders the Ebro foreland basin to theMediterranean Sea,was progressively cut down and the exoreic drainage system graduallyadjusted to sea level. The Segre longitudinal terrace profiles and theEbro gorge morphology at the Catalan Coastal Range indicate abase-level of about 200 m.s.l. at the beginning of (Pleistocene) terraceformation, which implies that the Catalan Coastal Range might havefunctioned as a local base-level upstream of the sea outlet, presumablyuntil the Late Pleistocene. Alternatively, a yet unknown tectonic processmight have caused base level lowering and the preservation of terracestaircases at the Ebro drainage system.

The fluvial system of the SE Carpathians incised deeply into theunderlying bedrock and basin infilling due to differential Quaternaryuplift. Necea et al. (2013–this volume) aim to reconstruct terrace devel-opment and quantify uplift-driven valley incision along a west–easttransect across the SE Carpathians by studying the late Early Pleistocenemonocline from the Focşani foredeep basin and the Middle Pleistoceneto Holocene strath- and fill-terraces from the orogen, Braşovintramontane and foredeep basins. Additionally, new infrared stimulat-ed luminescence ages and fluvial incision rates were obtained and inte-grated with published geomorphological data to determine minimumterrace formation time, to asses incision rate distribution, and thereby,to constrain tectonic uplift amplitude.

Saez et al. (2013–this volume) aim to reconstruct spatio-temporalpatterns of past landslide reactivation and the possible occurrence of fu-ture events in a forested area of the Barcelonnette basin (SoutheasternFrench Alps). Analysis of past events on the Aiguettes landslide isbased on growth ring series from 223 heavily affected Mountain pine(Pinus uncinata Mill. ex Mirb.) trees growing on the landslide body. Atotal of 355 growth disturbances were identified in the samples indicat-ing 14 reactivation phases of the landslide body since AD 1898. Accura-cy of the spatio-temporal reconstruction is confirmed by historicalrecords and aerial photographs. Logistic regressions using monthlyrainfall data from the HISTALP database indicated that landslidereactivations occurred due to above-average precipitation anomaliesin winter. They point to the important role of snow in the triggeringof reactivations at the Aiguettes landslide body. In a subsequent step,spatially explicit probabilities of landslide reactivation were computedbased on the extensive dendrogeomorphic dataset using a Poissondistribution model for an event to occur in 5, 20, 50, and 100 yr. Highresolution maps indicate highest probabilities of reactivation in thelower part of the landslide body and increase from0.28 for a 5-yr periodto 0.99 for a 100-yr period. In the upper part of the landslide body, prob-abilities do not exceed 0.57 for a 100-yr period and somehow confirmthe more stable character of this segment of the Aiguettes landslide.The approach presented in this paper is considered a valuable tool forland-use planners and emergency cells in charge of forecasting futureevents and in protecting people and their assets from the negativeeffects of landslides.

Recent studies have identified relationships between landscape form,erosion and climate in regions of landscape rejuvenation, associatedwithincreased denudation. These landscapes are located in non-glaciatedtropicalmountain ranges, and are characterized by transient geomorphic

features. The landscapes of the Swiss Alps are likewise in a transient geo-morphic state as seen by multiple knickzones. In contrast to the tropicalsites, however, the transient state of theAlps has been related to erosionaleffects during the Late Glacial Maximum (LGM). Schlunegger and Norton(2013–this volume) focus on the catchment scale and categorizehillslopes based on erosional mechanisms, landscape form and landcover. The authors then explore relationships of these variables to precip-itation and extent of LGM glaciers to disentangle modern versus paleocontrols on the modern shape of the Alpine landscape. They find that ingrasslands, the downslope flux of material mainly involves unconsolidat-ed material through hillslope creep, testifying a transport-limited ero-sional regime. Alternatively, strength-limited hillslopes, where erosionis driven by bedrock failure, are either covered by forests and/or exposebedrock, displaying oversteepened hillslopes and channels. There, hill-slope gradients and relief are more closely correlated with LGM ice oc-currence than with precipitation or the erodibility of the underlyingbedrock. Schlunegger and Norton (2013–this volume) relate the spatialoccurrence of the transport- and strength-limited process domains tothe erosive effects of LGM glaciers. In particular, strength-limited, rockdominated basins are situated above the equilibrium line altitude(ELA) of the LGM, reflecting the ability of glaciers to scour the landscapebeyond threshold slope conditions. In contrast, transport-limited,soil-mantled landscapes are common below the ELA. Hillslopes coveredby forests occupy the elevations around the ELA and are constrained bythe tree line. The authors conclude that the erosional forces at work inthe Central Alps are still responding to LGM glaciation, and that themodern climate has not yet impacted on the modern landscape.

Acknowledgments

The results discussed here are part of the outcome of a collectiveand dedicated effort of the TOPO-EUROPE research community. Wethank Paola Campus and Anne-Sophie Gabin from the EuropeanScience Foundation for effective support for the coordination of theEUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE program. Continuing support is alsoacknowledged from the International Lithosphere Programme andthe European Academy of Sciences (Academia Europaea). Elishevahvan Kooten is thanked for excellent editorial assistance.

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