Tourism in the system of industrial society

TOURISM IN THE SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

Jost Krippendorf Universitaet Bern, Switzerland

ABSTRACT

Recreation and tourism are integral parts of the whole industrial social system. Viewed thus, tourism, so suc- cessful in the past two decades, seems clearly doomed to radical change. Many signs in the universe of work-habi- tate-leisure-travel indicate that the present system does not satisfy the human needs of traveler, host, and ulti- mately the social system. One inevitable result of forecast change, is a new, humane understanding of leisure and tourism; one should begin forging it before the opportunity for choice and reason disappears. Keywords: industrial society, spheres of life, tourism system, recreation cycle, tourism motivations, value orientations, social change, future of tourism.

Jost Krippendorf (Head of the Tourism Research Institute, University of Berne. Berne. Switzerland] lectures on the theory and policy of leisure and tourism. He has published on economical, ecological and social aspects of leisure and tourism. His present research interests include development and application of human-and environment-oriented tourism strategies.

Annals of TourismResearch. Vol. 13. pp. 517-532. 1986 Prlnted In the USA. All rights reserved.

0160.7383/66 $3.00 + .OO 0 1986 J. Jafarl and Pergamon Journals Ltd

517


RESUME

Les loisirs, et le tourisme en tant que l’un de ses aspects, ne constituent pas un monde a part qui obeit a des lois propres. 11s sont la consequence, et simultanement une composante, du systeme social industriel. Dans I’article present l’auteur tente d’integrer les loisirs et le tourisme dans ce contexte general: travail, habitat, loisirs, voyage. Plusieurs signes indiquent que le systeme actuel n’arrive plus a satisfaire les besoins humains des touristes, des communautes d’accueil et du systeme social dans son entite. Les changements profonds qui characterisent nos temps modernes pourraient entre autres provoquer une nouvelle comprehension plus humaine des loisirs et du tourisme. Mots clef: societe industrielle, systeme du tourisme, cycle de la reconstitution, motivations tourisi- tiques, changement des valeurs, avenir du tourisme.

INTRODUCTION

Recreation, and tourism as one of its facets, is not a separate world governed by its own laws. It is the result, and at the same time one of the components, of the industrial social system, of the organization of human beings and modern civilization. Furthermore, recreation can have repercussions on this very system. One cannot understand recreation and tourism apart from the context of their fundamental determining factors.

Modern tourism has become one of the strongest and most re- markable phenomena of the time. To discover its true nature, one must attempt to understand how the various components are con- nected to each other, and what are the causes and effects, the con- jectures and the realities. One must first grasp the workings of the mechanism before he can determine the means of controlling, changing, and improving it. But the connections are not discernible if one limits himself to a narrow, sector-based view. Rather, when the field of investigation is broadened, one notices suddenly that each component is important and exerts an influence. The topic then becomes more and more extensive: work, habitat, recreation, and life as a whole enter into the question.

THE LIFE MODEL IN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

In this article attempts are made to fit recreation and tourism into this more general context. To this end, the simple diagram (Figure

518 1986 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH

JOST KRIPPENDORF

Figure 1 The Life Model in Industrial Society

SOCIETY ECONOMY VALUES ECONOMIC STRUCTURES

-IAVING 4 BEING CONCENTRATED 4 DECENTRALIZE

THE "NONORDINARY" -

FEDERALIST t CENTRALIS

STATE POLICY THE STATE

D

LIMITED k UNLIMITED

RESOURCE AVAILABILITY ENVIRONMENT

Source: Krippendorf 1984:29

l), which is far from the sophisticated ones sometimes used by experts in systems studies, shows the components and the main connections of the “Tourism System” in the framework of the industrial society. At the center of the drawing is what one may call the recreation (or regeneration) cycle of man in industrial society.

1986 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH 519


At the beginning of the cycle, there is man, determined by the three spheres of life: work, habitat, and leisure. These three spheres together comprise the ordinary. Man spends part of his leisure time in mobile leisure activities, that is in travel, which opens a window to the world of the ordinary. This departure or escape is typified and conditioned by specific influences, motivations, and expectations. The purposes of travel constitute the polar opposite of daily life: they represent the nonordinary. In this context, it is especially interesting to examine the behavior and experiences of travelers, the circumstances and environment of the people visited (the hosts), and the encounters between travelers and other travelers, especially between travelers and hosts. Finally, this kind of tourism produces secondary effects in the countries and among the people of the regions visited, as well as return effects in the daily lives of the tourists when they return home. One can easily understand the main characteristics of the tourist phenomenon by studying this pendulum movement between the ordinary and the nonordinary.

This system of work- habitat-leisure -travel is enclosed in a large framework and influenced by the forces which govern it. One can distinguish four major domains of these forces, which are con- nected to each other by numerous interactions: society with its value system (sociocultural subsystem); the economy and its struc- ture (economic subsystem); the environment and its resources (ecological subsystem); the government and its policies (political subsystem) (Rotach, Mauch, and Gueller 1982:35ff ). These subsystems comprise in a way the stage and the backstage of one’s life.

Figure 1 shows the general lines of development of these four subsystems over approximately the last thirty years. In the industrial society, values of being have been crowded out by values of having: possession, property, wealth, consumption, egoism are ranked above community, tolerance, contentment, modesty, meaning, honesty. The economy is characterised, among other things, by a tendency towards greater concentration of large companies amassing for themselves increasing economic power, to the detriment of small and midsize businesses struggling for survival. The environment is treated and exploited as if resources were inex- haustible and infinite. Science and technology always find new ways to push back the load limits of ecosystems. The negative consequences of economic growth, which relies on new technologies, seem capable of being controlled and eliminated as the condition changes/progresses (Rotach, Mauch, and Gueller 1982347). Fi-


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nally, there is no industrialized nation where the governmental bureaucracy, the responsibilities and the expense of the state, and with this the movement towards greater centralization in government policies, have not tended to increase (Binswanger, Geiss- berger, and Ginsburg 1983:34ff ).

These observations concerning the frameworks and conditions of life bring out what one does not see in Figure 1: the system does not work as smoothly as the diagram might seem to suggest. In fact, the various components are far from having the same weight or importance. Certain poles and sectors dominate, to the detriment of others. Instead of being complementary, they have in some cases become contradictory forces, struggling against each other.

It is the economy which governs the system of industrial society and dictates how things work. Everything else is subordinate to it: not only the utilization of natural resources, the system of human values, and even government policy: but man and the environment are at the service of the economy (See Figure 21, instead of vice versa. The environment is not considered as matrix and vital mem- brane for the economy and for man, and necessarily therefore as deserving the highest degree of care, preservation, and respect [see Figure 3).

It may be unnecessary now to elaborate on these conditions, which- once more it needs to be stressed-are the determinants of the tourism system. Instead, one may return to this system itself

Man and

Figure 2 Values in Disequilibrium

the Environment at the Service of the Economy



Figure 3 Values in Harmony

The Economy at the Service of Man with due Respect for an Intact Environment

and discuss in somewhat greater detail what is called here the cycle of recreation in industrial society.

HOW THE TOURISM SYSTEM WORKS

Human society, once so sedentary, has begun to move. Today a hurried mobility has obsessed most of the inhabitants of the industrialized nations. One seizes every opportunity to free oneself, to escape the boredom of everyday life as often as possible: short jaunts during the week or week-end, long trips during vacations. Nobody wants anything more fervently for their old age than a secondary residence. Above all, one does not want to stay home but to get away at any price.

Year after year, weekend after weekend, millions of individuals flock together, without any real necessity or apparent constraint, using up that time which is so precious to them. Almost everyone participates in the movement, seemingly of their own free will, but appearing as if they were obeying an order. They get into lines of cars, or allow themselves to be loaded up and carted off by buses, jumbojets, and trains. They pile up on beaches which have become too small. They stand in line at stores and restaurants, ski lifts and cable cars, and at tourist attractions which are worn out from cen- turies of being admired. Sometimes they stay in places that are no better than slums. Behavior specialists observe in this connection


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that if such conditions as these were forced on workers during their working hours, the unions would rightly intervene (quoted in Wirtschaftswoche 1979:38). Compared to the present-day armies of recreation man on the move, the great migrations of ancient times were hardly more than well developed field trips.

Still, one should be delighted that this pleasure once reserved for the privileged few is now enjoyed by the great majority. Mobility, vacations and travel are social victories. But the happiness that these things should bring never really obtains. For, on the reverse side of the coin, what man has won for himself has had a price: he has had to give something up for it. Now, the consequences of the mobility, and of this new liberty that was so hard to acquire, threaten to overwhelm man. One therefore wonders if, in the final analysis, man has really won, or if he has instead lost something: one wonders also how it will be possible for all of this to continue.

What are the origins of this mobility in leisure activities, which is characteristic especially of city people and to which they today de- vote 40% of their free time? Thirty percent of this time is spent on excursions or short trips, and 10% on vacation trips: (Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Freizeit 1980:56); and yet, human beings are not born tourists. Certainly, curiosity and longing for distant countries have always counted among people’s primary and immediate desires. The dynamics of these desires determined the elite travels of the aristocracy until the beginning of the present century. But what moves these millions of people today out of their communities is no longer really this innate need to travel. Anyone who observes how people travel and their principal occupations and topics of conver- sation during their holidays, will easily arrive at the following con- clusion: the wish to make discoveries and really learn is hardly present at all.

Nowadays, the need to travel is above all created by society and marked by the ordinary. People leave because they no longer feel at ease where they are, where they work, and where they live. They feel an urgent need to rid themselves temporarily of the burdens imposed by the everyday work, home and leisure scenes, in order to be in a fit state, to pick the burden up again. Their work is more and more mechanized, bureaucratized, and determined without regard to their wishes. Deep inside, they feel the monotony of the ordinary, the cold rationality of factories, offices, apartment buildings, and the highway infrastructure, the impoverishment of human contact, the repression of feelings, the degradation of nature, and the loss of nature. For a large number of people, these realities constitute the great defects of daily life in which existence seems



reduced to its most simple expression. Reality leads to stress, physical and psychological exhaustion, spiritual emptiness and boredom. To compensate for everything that is lacking daily, what one has lost or what has disappeared, one leaves; one wants to free himself from social dependency, disconnect himself and fill up with energy, taste his independence and its free disposition, find rest, act out his liberty, and seek a little happiness. In fact, one leaves in order to live, to survive. Thus the great exodus of the masses characteristic of this time is a consequence of the conditions brought about by the development of the industrial society.

Besides the motivation, the society has simultaneously furnished to its members the means of carrying out this escape: money, in the form of higher income; and time, thanks to more and more limited work schedules. But most important of all, industry has developed the true prime mover of mobile society. The car and, to a lesser extent, the airplane have ushered in the mobile leisure revolution and have brought it to today’s state in scarcely two decades and at an amazing speed. All forecasts agree on this point (e.g., Cerwenka 1982; Deutsches Institut fur Wirtschaftsforschung 1980; Waters 1983). Those who are not yet mobile today will be tomorrow. The road is clear for the free citizen. The car is the symbol par excellence of liberty. One could almost say that he has assumed a natural right to unlimited individual motorization and mobility. But perhaps man is also very close to the day when mobility will destroy itself.

Finally, the society makes available the recreation industry, which plays in a sense the role of friend and advisor. This industry has taken over free time. It provides not only various kinds of grati- fication, but also creates, if necessary, the corresponding wishes and desires (Traitler 197 1:28). In the form of a program of contrasts with respect to the industrial world, leisure activities and vacations have themselves become an industry. It is the bargain of the millen- nium.

This entire system is organized as a sort of cycle that could be called the recreation cycle of the human beings in industrial society. One leaves to recharge his batteries, to restore his physical and mental strength. During the escape, one devours the climate, nature and the scenery, the culture, and the human beings of the regions which have been transformed into therapeutic spaces. Then one returns home, more or less ready to endure daily life for awhile, until the next time. The stratagem works. Still, the wish to leave again re-emerges quickly, for life cannot be resuscitated by means of a few weeks of vacation and a few weekends. The wagon is overloaded; it overflows with wishes and longings. From this per-


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manent repetition of unquenched and unquenchable desires, the cycle takes its dynamics: a perpetual starting over (Prahl and Steinecke 1979: 10). Many works to a large extent in order to be able to take vacations, and he needs vacations to be able to go back to work. He relaxes in order to later apply himself to his work. Without tourism, the accomplice in the escape, hospitals and sanatoriums would have to be built where human beings would recover from the fatigue of daily living. Tourism is social therapy, a safety valve keeping the everyday world in good working order. It helps stabilize not only the individual, but also the whole society and economy. Sociologists have shown that the human being who has succeeded in changing his surroundings and disconnecting himself develops, after experiencing the transience of tourism, the need to return to the salutary stability of his ordinary world (Schweizerisches Tour- ismuskonzept 1979:54). He travels in order to confirm his feeling that things are not so bad at home, and that it is perhaps better there than anywhere else.

Man travels in order to return. The economy also needs tourism to give it energy and revive its work forces. Is that not one reason why the economy gave more free time to workers in the first place? Therefore, that is how, roughly speaking, this enormous recre- ational machine operates a cycle which recurs year after year, and to which each person is more or less subjugated, without really being aware of it.

SIGNS OF A PROFOUND CHANGE

In recent times, sand has entered the gears of this huge machine. What seemed to work so well up until now is of course still working, but the mechanism is no longer so well oiled and peaceful. On every side, people are beginning to question: what is it all for, where is it leading us? More and more signs indicate that the flight of city dwellers and tourism in its present form cannot in the long run be a true therapy, that present-day reality has no prospects. Yet many people still heedlessly go along with the process, without changing anything, following the motto of more and more, bigger and bigger, faster and faster, farther and farther. Most forecasting, moreover, confirms them in their convictions, since apparently traffic can do nothing but increase. The often-cited assertion of a well-known American futurist is in full agreement with this. According to him, the travel industry will be the world’s most important industry in the year 2000 (Kahn 1980:297ff ).

Should one not be more skeptical and be aware that the future is



no longer what it once was, a predictable and achievable expansion (Eppler 198 1:2 19)? One cannot really assume that everything will continue as in the past. Today a large number of new signs are indicating a change of direction.

A growing number of people are realizing that the present system is inadequate. The deficiency that one feels in daily life cannot be compensated by a few brief moments of freedom, of creative leisure, of happiness, and of self-determination during one’s free time and vacation. These people are no longer satisfied with this substitute for freedom, this life made up of delays and down payments. Openly or secretly, they demand the time to live better. About ten years ago, a book of readings stated: “As time goes by, we lose our taste for dreaming all day long about the evening, all week about Friday, all year about our vacation- about a life which is only half a life” (Stoessel 1973:2 1). The society is in fact on the threshold of a profound revolution, one which has already begun for many with an upheaval of attitudes and private thoughts, and which will be followed, sooner or later, by an adaptation and a new conceptualiza- tion of the whole society. This society will also bring about, among other things, a new understanding of leisure and of tourism.

What will this new society look like? What are its main characteristics? One thing is sure: the new society will no longer be a society of work. Today’s version of the work society is reaching its end (Dahrendorf 1982). The future will probably offer not a leisure society either, but rather what could be called a life society. Ever since the reformers proclaimed work no longer a burden and a regrettable fate but rather God’s gift to man, whose noble task was to subjugate the earth, man has devoted his life to work. He has slaved and worked according to the principles of the will to work, performance, sense of order, ambition, and discipline (Opas- chowski 1981:7). The well-being of the society is now based on the development of the industrial economy: a society which puts work and the material values of well-being at the center of life, a society in which education and the schools are directed almost solely towards professional life, a society in which leisure activities are counted as a time of rest and consumption and retirement as the well-earned reward of a hard life of labor. Who does not know the expression in funeral eulogies or on tombstones: “His life was his work,” and one could add, “even in his spare time?”

The work ethic has allowed many achievements: especially the much hoped for material well-being, the elimination (or nearly so) of poverty, and the reduced work week. But next to this undeniable progress, the ethic has also brought major problems which weigh


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more and more heavily in the scales and which are felt by a growing number of people: the loss of meaning in one’sjob (as a consequence of mass production and of the extreme division of labor), an ever diminishing satisfaction with work and with life (e.g., Yankelovich 1978; Noelle-Neumann 1983) the rigid and immutable organization of time, the phenomena of stress and boredom and the growing “medicalization” of lives (e.g., Isopublic 1982; Opaschowski 1983). and most especially, the increase in unemployment (e.g., Kenward 1983). These problems will intensify as the society enters the microelectronic area. Work is beginning to be scarce in the work-oriented society. It would be illusory to think that one can cure this sick work-society with the old prescription full employ- ment for economic growth (Figure 4). One cannot expect a new economic boom; there are too many negative signs (e.g., Dahren- dorf 1982).

At the same time, one can observe a rapid change of values for many human beings (e.g., Ferguson 1980; Capra 1983). The voices criticizing the industrial society are multiplying each day. Truisms held for generations are being questioned. One begins by puzzling over the meaning, goals, and quality of life. The Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in the United States addresses this issue as the great- est intellectual revolution since the Renaissance (quoted in Schwarzer 1982:49). According to the SRI researchers, millions of people are criticizing openly or secretly the established order of values and are ready to try something new, to change something in their life to reform and improve it. These new attitudes toward work and the economy undoubtedly form the turning point of this great change. Since the most important material needs are being met, it is natural that the interests should shift more and more, that one should put the art and quality of life before the standard of living. Values such as freedom, participation, autonomy, and the desire for self-fulfillment are gaining priority in the hierarchy of needs. The professional careers, security, and salaries are losing importance. One begins to realize that man has an overabundance of money and possessions, but that he does not have enough time. No time for what one would like to do, no time for family, friends, oneself. No time for living. People are rediscovering the meaning of time.

So it is that free time is placed more and more at the center of the orientation to life. One’s interest now focuses on not work but leisure activities (Opaschowski and Raddatz 1982: 16 - 22). Expe- cially the younger generation have turned into true pioneers of a new lifestyle. The middle and older generations will follow. Signifi-



Figure 4

The Growth Cycle

CONSUMPTION

j

INCOME

Source: Krippendorf 1984:3 1.

cantly, it is not only a few representatives of the so-called counter- culture scene who are demanding more meaning in life, time to live, humanism and humane moderation. These demands appear more and more often on the wish lists of many: more being instead of having. The followers of this motto of Erich Fromm’s (1979) are increasingly numerous every day.

This profound change in the society will bring, among other things, a new way of understanding leisure activities and tourism which cannot be described here but is fully discussed elsewhere (Krippendorf 1984). What matters is that one recognizes that the future of tourism will very likely be quite different from what has been said so far. One must understand that the linear continuation of present-day economic and technical trends will not bring man what is hoped for in the future. In no case will the future be the prolongation of the past.


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It can be further demonstrated that tomorrow everything will be different from what one knows today and that one can only ap- proach this future if he breaks down the usual framework of intellectual thinking and criteria ofjudgment. This is in reference to the inhabitants of the regions the tourist visits. They also are beginning to feel resentment against the negative effects of the exodus of the touristic masses. These populations feel more and more that they are being overwhelmed by development and at the same time excluded from it. Does not one get the feeling here and there that the native peoples are tired, even sick, of tourism? They want to shake off the yoke of tourism, take their destiny into their own hands, determine their development for thermselves, and take part in it as well. They want to be able again to consider their region as their own living space, their own country, and not to have to fashion it into a place of rest or a playground reserved for others.

This host population is in training for a revolt. Still the host are doing everything they can (almost) to make the tourists come. But they actually would like to do everything possible to prevent them from coming. Have they not also reached the psychological carrying capacity?

One thing appears certain: if one wants to discern what the society and tourism of tomorrow will be like, theories, economic calcu- lations, political programs, and doctrines are of little help. One must go beyond that, resorting to his intuition and imagination; the social imagination, defined as the aptitude not to believe in the definitive nature of the established order, to imagine new ways of looking at things, to formulate alternative solutions (Pestalozzi 1979:217).

In reflecting on the future of tourism, the questions one must ask are those concerning the alteration of the society. For example, what will be the consequences of the efforts tending to humanize daily life on tourism? How will people travel if one succeeds in humanizing the work; by giving a new content or meaning to the

work, by establishing greater participation, by broadening everyone’s responsibilities (job enrichment, job enlargement, job rota- tion), by emphasizing human and social relations in companies and by stressing the social benefits of the work accomplished? What will be the consequences of a second strategy of work humanization which strives to redistribute the given volume ofwork: work less so that everyone has a job. This strategy will require a spectacular diminution of work hours (shortening of work days, work weeks, annual schedules, or number of years of work during one’s life through early retirement), along with a certain lowering of income.



What will be the consequences of a third strategy of work humanization which will establish a new organization ofthe time, called supremacy of time? Everyone will then be able to decide more freely when and how much he would like to work and earn. For example, the thirty-five hour week a la carte: 5 X 7 or 4 X 8-3/4 hours of work per day; more variable daily work hours; more part-time job possibilities: variable weekly work hours (e.g., 30 hours in summer and 40 hours in winter]: annual work contracts (e.g., 1,500 hours of work per year with a minimum of 100 hours per month); introduction of new work cycles (e.g., 10 working days followed by 10 days off ); job sharing; sabbaticals, where one might have the right to take a six-month leave every ten years without losing his posi- tion; or even self-determination of retirement age starting with age 55, and so on (Teriet 1983:81ff).

Moreover, how will people travel if one succeeds in humanizing

the habitat, if man succeeds in restoring a friendly habitat? There are at present many encouraging initiations aiming at improving the habitat conditions in the cities. Everywhere people are taking matters into their own hands to make their apartments, yards, gardens, neighborhoods, surroundings, and subdivisions more lively and more human. This new movement, which is seen, for example, in the formation of countless associations of home- owners, renters, neighbors, etc., is not a kind of fleeting nostalgia, but rather meets the basic human need for holistic surroundings. It is the reconquest of lost living spaces.

Such a humanization of daily life, working conditions, surroundings, and leisure activities will also change the nature of tourism. Tourism, insofar as it will exist in its present forms, will no longer be an escape from daily routine into an artificial world of fleeting change, but may well become again a true discovery, a place of experiences and learning, a means of human enrichment, a stimu- lus for a better reality and a better society. That is the utopian and idealistic framework on which one should build: leave, not primar- ily to forget reality, but rather to travel and go towards new hori- zons, to jump at the chance to gain something, to experience freedom, reciprocal understanding, and solidarity, in order to come home and apply what one has learned outside of the everyday life. Thus tourism could contribute to a better life and to the building of a more humane society. It is a real opportunity which one should seize. What man needs in fact is not so much a different kind of tourism, but a different kind of people. The new society and new living conditions in day-to-day contexts will produce a new tourism. But man is not doomed to wait for society to be better before he can have better tourism. The humanization process can just as well


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begin in the tourism sector. The main thing is to act; it does not matter where to begin.

In short, to stress, today countless human beings are feeling the need to change something, to try something else, and this need is perhaps stronger than it has ever been. Therefore, one may sub- scribe with Ernst Bloch to the principles of hope: believing in the calm strength of awareness, which turns into a mighty force as soon as it grabs hold of the masses, if the masses grab hold of it (quoted in Huber 1982: 192). 0 0

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Translated from French by Martha Wallen and with emenda- tions by Jafar Jafari. The author reviewed the edited version, sub- mitted his changes, and reviewed the final version. The paper was originally presented as an address to the Academia Nationale dei Lincei in Rome on May 14, 1984, during an international seminar on the theme The Science of Systems at the Service of Tourism Development. The text considers some of the principal ideas of the recent book by Mr. Krippendorf, Die Ferienmenschen (The Holiday People), published in 1984, by Editions Ore11 Fuessli, Zuerich, Ger- many.

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Tourism in the system of industrial society