TOWARDS A GRAMMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF PALULA An Indo-Aryan language of the Hindu Kush

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Towards a grammatical description of Palula An Indo-Aryan language of the Hindu Kush

Henrik Liljegren

Stockholm University

Henrik Liljegren, Stockholm 2008 ISBN 978-91-7155-599-1 Printed in Sweden by Arkitektkopia AB, Stockholm 2008 Distributor: Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University

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Contents

1 Introduction................................................................................. 19 1.1 Language name ...................................................................................... 19 1.2 The general setting .................................................................................. 21

1.2.1 Where and by whom the language is spoken .................................... 21 1.2.2 The socioeconomic environment....................................................... 25 1.2.3 Local history and cultural identity...................................................... 25

1.3 The linguistic setting ................................................................................. 29 1.3.1 Genetic affiliation .......................................................................... 29 1.3.2 Areal affinities ............................................................................... 36 1.3.3 Next-door linguistic neighbours..................................................... 38 1.3.4 Patterns of language use ................................................................. 40

1.4 Internal variation ..................................................................................... 42 1.5 Previous research..................................................................................... 44 1.6 Current study .......................................................................................... 45 1.7 Remarks on the transcription ..................................................................... 49

2 Typological overview ................................................................... 51 2.1 Phonology .............................................................................................. 51 2.2 Morphology............................................................................................ 52 2.3 Syntax.................................................................................................... 55

3 Phonology .................................................................................. 58 3.1 Consonants............................................................................................. 58

3.1.1 Distribution and variation................................................................ 59 3.2 Vowels ................................................................................................... 63

3.2.1 Distribution and variation................................................................ 64 3.2.2 Vowel neutralisation ....................................................................... 65 3.2.3 The status of diphthongs.................................................................. 65

3.3 Phonotactics............................................................................................ 67 3.3.1 Syllable structure............................................................................ 67 3.3.2 Consonant clusters ......................................................................... 68

3.4 Suprasegmentals ..................................................................................... 71 3.4.1 Aspiration and breathiness.............................................................. 71 3.4.2 Nasalisation.................................................................................. 73 3.4.3 Pitch accent................................................................................... 74

3.5 Morphophonology................................................................................... 77

3.5.1 Morphophonemic alternations relating to accent ................................ 77 3.5.2 Morphophonemic alternations relating to syllable structure .................. 80 3.5.3 Umlaut.......................................................................................... 81

4 Nouns ........................................................................................ 83 4.1 The noun and its properties ....................................................................... 83 4.2 Noun morphology ................................................................................... 84 4.3 Gender .................................................................................................. 85

4.3.1 Gender assignment ........................................................................ 86 4.3.2 Gender stability and consistency...................................................... 89 4.3.3 Gender markedness ....................................................................... 90

4.4 Number ................................................................................................. 90 4.4.1 Non-count nouns............................................................................ 91 4.4.2 Collective nouns ............................................................................ 92 4.4.3 Proper names ................................................................................ 92

4.5 Case...................................................................................................... 92 4.5.1 Nominative case............................................................................ 93 4.5.2 Oblique case ................................................................................ 94 4.5.3 Genitive case ................................................................................ 94 4.5.4 Other cases or case-like categories................................................... 95

4.6 Declensions ............................................................................................ 96 4.6.1 a-declension.................................................................................. 97 4.6.2 i-declension................................................................................. 101 4.6.3 m-declension ............................................................................... 103 4.6.4 Smaller declensions and irregular nouns ......................................... 105

5 Pronouns and determiners........................................................... 109 5.1 Introduction and overview....................................................................... 109 5.1 Personal pronouns ................................................................................. 109 5.2 Demonstratives ...................................................................................... 112

5.2.1 Relationship to the larger pro-form system........................................ 112 5.2.2 Demonstratives and third person .................................................... 113 5.2.3 Exophoric use.............................................................................. 117 5.2.4 Anaphoric use ............................................................................. 119 5.2.5 Discourse-deictic use..................................................................... 121 5.2.6 Article-like uses ............................................................................ 123 5.2.7 Spatial specification ..................................................................... 125

5.3 Possessive pronouns............................................................................... 126 5.4 Reflexive pronouns................................................................................. 126 5.5 Reciprocal pronouns .............................................................................. 127 5.6 Indefinite-interrogative pronouns .............................................................. 127 5.7 Relative pronouns .................................................................................. 128

6 Adjectives and quantifiers........................................................... 129 6.1 The adjective and its properties ............................................................... 129

6.2 Semantic properties of adjectives............................................................. 131 6.2.1 Dimensional adjectives ................................................................. 131 6.2.2 Colour adjectives ......................................................................... 132 6.2.3 Age adjectives............................................................................. 134 6.2.4 Value adjectives .......................................................................... 135 6.2.5 Physical-property adjectives........................................................... 135 6.2.6 Speed adjectives.......................................................................... 136 6.2.7 Human-propensity adjectives ......................................................... 136 6.2.8 Adjectival quantifiers .................................................................... 137 6.2.9 Summary of findings..................................................................... 138

6.3 Morphological properties of adjectives ..................................................... 138 6.3.1 Inflectional morphology ................................................................ 138 6.3.2 Substantivisation .......................................................................... 140 6.3.3 Comparison of degree.................................................................. 141 6.3.4 Derivational morphology............................................................... 141

6.4 Numerals ............................................................................................. 142 6.4.1 Cardinal numerals........................................................................ 142 6.4.2 Substantivised numerals ................................................................ 144 6.4.3 Ordinal numerals ......................................................................... 145

7 Adverbs and postpositions .......................................................... 146 7.1 Adverbs ............................................................................................... 146

7.1.1 Symmetrical adverb sets................................................................ 146 7.1.2 Spatial adverbs ........................................................................... 148 7.1.3 Temporal adverbs ........................................................................ 153 7.1.4 Manner adverbs .......................................................................... 158 7.1.5 Degree adverbs ........................................................................... 159

7.2 Postpositions ......................................................................................... 161 7.2.1 Postpositions vis--vis case inflection ............................................... 161 7.2.2 Simple postpositions ..................................................................... 162 7.2.3 Compound postpositions............................................................... 171 7.2.4 Postpositional sequences ............................................................... 173

8 Verbs ....................................................................................... 175 8.1 The verb and its properties...................................................................... 175 8.2 Stems and verb classes........................................................................... 181 8.3 Morphological verb classes..................................................................... 182

8.3.1 Consonant-ending L-verbs.............................................................. 182 8.3.2 a-ending L-verbs........................................................................... 184 8.3.3 e-ending L-verbs ........................................................................... 185 8.3.4 Other L-verbs ............................................................................... 186 8.3.5 Consonant-ending T-verbs ............................................................. 187 8.3.6 e-ending T-verbs........................................................................... 188 8.3.7 Accent-shifting T-verbs................................................................... 189

8.3.8 aand-verbs.................................................................................. 189 8.3.9 i-ending T-verbs ........................................................................... 190 8.3.10 u-ending T-verb ............................................................................ 191 8.3.11 Suppletive verbs .......................................................................... 191 8.3.12 Irregular verbs and verbs with highly grammaticalised functions ......... 192

8.4 Inflectional categories ............................................................................ 193 8.4.1 Agreement morphology ................................................................ 194 8.4.2 Verb forms derived from the imperfective stem ................................. 197 8.4.3 Verb forms derived from the perfective stem..................................... 203

8.5 Valence-changing morphology ................................................................ 204 8.5.1 Valence addition ......................................................................... 204 8.5.2 Valence reduction ........................................................................ 208

8.6 Complex predicates ............................................................................... 209 8.6.1 Conjunct verbs............................................................................. 210 8.6.2 Compound verbs ......................................................................... 212

9 Verbal categories ...................................................................... 214 9.1 Tense-aspect categories and their functions ............................................... 214

9.1.1 Basic tense-aspect categories......................................................... 214 9.1.2 Future......................................................................................... 215 9.1.3 Present ....................................................................................... 216 9.1.4 Perfective (Simple Past) ................................................................. 217 9.1.5 Periphrastic tense-aspect categories ................................................ 219 9.1.6 Past Imperfective .......................................................................... 220 9.1.7 Perfect ........................................................................................ 221 9.1.8 Pluperfect.................................................................................... 224

9.2 Non-indicative finite categories and their functions..................................... 227 9.2.1 Imperative................................................................................... 227 9.2.2 Conditional ................................................................................. 228 9.2.3 Obligative .................................................................................. 229 9.2.4 Hearsay and quotative .............................................................. 230

9.3 Nonfinite forms and their functions........................................................... 232 9.3.1 Converb (Conjunctive Participle) .................................................... 232 9.3.2 Perfective Participle ...................................................................... 233 9.3.3 Verbal Noun ............................................................................... 234 9.3.4 Agentive Verbal Noun.................................................................. 235 9.3.5 Copredicative Participle................................................................ 236 9.3.6 Infinitive...................................................................................... 236

10 Noun phrases and non-verbal agreement ..................................... 238 10.1 Noun phrase properties..................................................................... 238

10.1.1 Types of noun phrases .................................................................. 238 10.1.2 Modifiers in noun phrases ............................................................. 239 10.1.3 Apposition .................................................................................. 243

10.2 Word order in the noun phrase .......................................................... 245 10.3 Agreement patterns........................................................................... 247

10.3.1 Determiner agreement .................................................................. 247 10.3.2 Adjectival agreement.................................................................... 248 10.3.3 Predicate agreement..................................................................... 250 10.3.4 Extended agreement..................................................................... 251

11 Grammatical relations ................................................................ 254 11.1 Verb agreement................................................................................ 254

11.1.1 Accusative alignment.................................................................... 255 11.1.2 Ergative alignment ....................................................................... 255

11.2 NP case differentiation ...................................................................... 256 11.2.1 Inflectional case marking............................................................... 256 11.2.2 Pronominal case differentiation ...................................................... 258 11.2.3 Dependent marking...................................................................... 259

11.3 The split system summarised ............................................................... 259 11.4 Alignment and split features in the region and beyond........................... 260 11.5 The split system and possible explanations ........................................... 263

12 Simple clauses and argument structure ......................................... 268 12.1 Nonverbal predicates........................................................................ 268

12.1.1 Copular clauses with nominal predicates......................................... 269 12.1.2 Copular clauses with adjectival predicates ...................................... 271 12.1.3 Copular clauses with locative expressions ....................................... 272 12.1.4 Other copular or copula-like expressions......................................... 273

12.2 Verbal predicates ............................................................................. 275 12.2.1 Argument structure and transitivity .................................................. 275 12.2.2 Simple intransitive verbs................................................................ 276 12.2.3 Simple transitive verbs .................................................................. 277 12.2.4 Intransitive verbs with an indirect object .......................................... 278 12.2.5 Transitive verbs with an indirect object............................................ 279 12.2.6 Non-standard valence patterns ...................................................... 282 12.2.7 Verbs with clausal complements ..................................................... 285 12.2.8 Valence patterns of conjunct verb constructions ................................ 288

13 Complex constructions................................................................ 299 13.1 Introduction and overview.................................................................. 299 13.2 Coordination.................................................................................... 300

13.2.1 Conjunction................................................................................. 300 13.2.2 Presection and postsection ............................................................ 306 13.2.3 Disjunction .................................................................................. 307 13.2.4 Rejection..................................................................................... 308

13.3 Clause chaining ............................................................................... 310 13.3.1 Same-subject chaining .................................................................. 310 13.3.2 Different-subject chaining .............................................................. 312

13.4 Clauses with adverbial functions ......................................................... 313 13.4.1 Temporality and related functions................................................... 314 13.4.2 Purpose ...................................................................................... 321 13.4.3 Causality .................................................................................... 322 13.4.4 Conditionality.............................................................................. 325 13.4.5 Clauses with other adverbial functions ............................................ 331

13.5 Complement clauses.......................................................................... 334 13.5.1 Complement-taking PCU predicates ................................................ 335 13.5.2 Complement-taking modality predicates .......................................... 342 13.5.3 Complement-taking manipulation predicates .................................... 346

13.6 Relative clauses ................................................................................ 349 13.6.1 Relative clauses with a full NP........................................................ 350 13.6.2 Indefinite-conditional relative clauses .............................................. 351 13.6.3 Gapped relative clauses ............................................................... 352 13.6.4 Gapped relative clauses with a complementiser ............................... 354 13.6.5 Pronominal relative clauses ........................................................... 356 13.6.6 Nominalisation and the use of participials....................................... 357 13.6.7 Extraposed ki-constructions ............................................................ 359

14 Sentence modification ................................................................ 362 14.1 Introduction and overview.................................................................. 362 14.2 Interrogative sentences ...................................................................... 362

14.2.1 Polar interrogatives ...................................................................... 362 14.2.2 Constituent interrogatives .............................................................. 364 14.2.3 Subordinate interrogative clauses................................................... 368 14.2.4 Interrogatives in exclamative use .................................................... 369

14.3 Negation......................................................................................... 369 14.3.1 Basic sentence negation................................................................ 369 14.3.2 Negative pronouns/particles ......................................................... 372 14.3.3 The scope of negation .................................................................. 373 14.3.4 The pragmatics of negation ........................................................... 376 14.3.5 Prohibitive negation ..................................................................... 377

14.4 Switch-topicality................................................................................ 377

References......................................................................................... 384

Acknowledgements

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Abbreviations

General abbreviations ^K= ^=E==~==^=s~F=

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abc= =

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ap= ==

bod= ~=

bu`i= =

bum= =

c= =

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fabc= =

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fk`i= =

fkc= =

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fl= ==

fame= =

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k= =

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kk= =

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l_= =

l_id= ~=

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mcs= =

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mop= =

moq= ~=

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19

1 Introduction

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1 Introduction

20

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1 Introduction

21

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1.2 The general setting

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1 Introduction

22

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1 Introduction

23

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l==~===~===~===m~~J~=~~=

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~===`~I=~==~=~==~==~==

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1.2.2 The socioeconomic environment ^= = = ~== ~== ~== m~~= ~=

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c= = = I= ~== ~= = = J

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~=m~~J~=~= =p=h=s~FI= ===

h~~===m~~K=^==~=~=~==

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=~=~=~=~~==~==m~~===~J

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~= OMMNW= UUFI= ~= = ~= = a= h~= = _=

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1.3 The linguistic setting

1.3.1 Genetic affiliation m~~== =~=== f^= ~~== = =e=h=

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=

1 Introduction

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l=~====I==~=~I==~=~J

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s~= = ^~~K= _~= EOMMPW= UORF= ~= = = = h~=

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~==~=~FI=~=~====~I=r=~=

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a~= = = ~= s~~= = p~== = m~K= =

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FK=

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~K=q=~==~=~====E=q~=PF=~=

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p=~==~==~=~=rI=====~=

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l==~~=I==~=~=~====hJ

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p~=^~===~=~===~I==~=

= = p= ^~= = ~~= =t= ^~FX= ~= QF= J~~=~I==~==~=~=~~==p=^~K=

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~= ~= = = = = ~~= ~= I= =

1 Introduction

37

==~~=~=~=~====~=~===

=~==~=~=~K==

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q= = = = ~~= = = ~= = qJ_~=

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19=^=~~=~I===~==~======m~~K=

1 Introduction

38

1.3.3 Next-door linguistic neighbours p= = ~~= = = = = = NVOMI= j=

~=~=i=`~=======xz===^~= ENVQNW= TFI= ~= = = ~~= = ~= J

===m~~=~~I===~=~=~=~=J

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=~==~==I==~=~=~=NO=~J

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1 Introduction

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a~====~=RIMMM==EhKaK=a=NVVO~F==NN=~=~===a~=s~I===~==~==

==m~~J~=^=s~K=`~~=~====~=

~= = = = ~~I= ~= = ~= = ~= ~=

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= ~== ~= = ~= ~= ~= ~= ~FI= = m~=

E= m~~= ~= = ~= = = F= = ~= = ~= =

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K=t=~=~=m~=~==~=h~==

20=m~==~=f~~=~~==~=~==OM==~======

m~~J^~~=K=

1 Introduction

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==~===~I======~===

~~==~=m~==~=~==~==`~K=q=~=

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====~===^=s~K==

1.3.4 Patterns of language use m~~= = ~= = = ~= == ~= m~~= ~=

= = ~~K=t==_=~=^=s~I= = = ==

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q= = ~== ~= ~~= = = == =

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FK=

1 Introduction

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=~===J~=~~==~=J=~~K=qJ

I= = ~= ~= = h~~~I= ~= = = = = mI= =

m~~= = = ~I= ~= = ~= = = ~= h~J

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= K= q= I= = = = ~I= ~= ~= ~= ~= ~= =

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q= ~= ~= =~= ~= = ~= = ~J

K= j= = = = = hKaK= a= ENVVO~F= ~= =

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q= = ~~= = = ~= ~= = = ~~=

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~= = r= = = ~= = = = = =

1 Introduction

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= I= = = ~= = ~= = ~= ~~= = ~=

~K= f=~== = ~= ~= ~=== = =

=~= === = =r=~=~= ~~=== J

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I=qs=~==~I=~===~=~==~==

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b=~=~==~==~==rI=~== ===E~=

~= ~F= = = = = ~= = = = I=

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^~= = = ~= = ~= ~= ~= ~= = ~= = r= =

bI===========K=q=~=

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I= = ~= = = = ~= ~= = ~= = ~= ~=

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I= ~=~~== = ~= ~===^~= = mJ^~=

~= I= = ~= = = = = = = ~==

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a~=~=h~~~I=~=~==~K=m~I=~= =~=

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=~=~==r=~K==

1.4 Internal variation q= = = ~= ~= ~~= = = = m~~=

~I====~==~===~=~~I=~=J

=====~=~==m~~=~W=^=

~=_K==

^= = = = = ~= = = = ~= = d=

E= = = ~= F= ~= m= ~= = = =~= ~=

~~I==~~=~~~===m~~==m=~====

=_=~=~=====^=~K=t=~==

1 Introduction

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~==~==mI===~==h~~~I=~=~=~J

= = = _= ~K= q= = = ~= = = =

_= ~=^= ~= E~= =~= = = = = =

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K==

f~=~=====^=~=_==

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= = I= ~= = = = = ~= = = =

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= ~= I= ~= = ~= = ~= = = J

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a= == = =~= == ~==

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q~=QK=o====J==^=~=_=m~~=K=

mJ=E~F= = ^= = _= = =

*(C)aC *san >o son san ~=*(C)a# *sana >o sona >u suna ~=*(C)C *krm >a kram krm =*(C)hC *ht >a hat ht ~=*(C)(h)# *hta >a hata >a hata ~=*(C)eC *cheetr >i chiitr cheetr =*(C)e# *cheetra >i chiitra >i chiitra =

q~= = = ~= ~= = ~= ~= ~= = ^K= J

~= = ~= I= ~= = ~= = ~= =

==~==~== ~= ~= = =_KI= ~=

= ==~~I=~~= =~I=~=J

= ~~= = _K= EpdW= san, miW= suna; krm, krama; cheetr, chiitraF=~=~====^K=_=I=~===~=~I= = = ~~= ~= ~= = ^K= Esar= ~I= sar=~X=dar I=dar=F=~=~====_K=EsrI=sarX=drI=darFK=

^=~=~====~==~=~J

~=~====~=~=~~=~I=~==

~==~==~=========

= ~K= l= = = = LlLJ~~= E= PKNKNFI= ===_KI====h~~~=~~=K==

1 Introduction

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i~==~==I===~=~===

=~~===K=t=~==m~=~==

~==^KI===~=h~=~=====J

=~~=~=~=~=_K==K=p=~=~==~=

=~= === =~I=~= =~=== =

==E_K=niwe-=EK=h~F=K=^K=oo- FK==p==J~== =~=~=~=

I= ~= = ~== = == ~~= = = = =

~=~=====E_K=ha- K=^K=a- ~=FK=p~~I= = m= ~= = = m= = =

~= hin-= I= == = = = =^KI= = = ==~==_K=f~=~=====`J

=~=hin- =====~=~K=

1.5 Previous research q= = ~= = = = ~~= = = ~~=~= =

~= E NKNF= k~= ~= d=jK= f=NVOV===`~=~=I=~~==~===

~~I=m~~=~~=~~K=e=I=k==m~~==~==a~= ~~==`~= ENVQNFI= =~=~=== ^= ~K= _= E~K= R= ~FI= j= = =

~= ~= ==a~= ~~I== =

= = ~=I= ~= = ~= ~~= = ~= ~J

~==Eq=m~=pF=~=~==K=

q== ~= = ~~= = I= = = = J

~I=~==d=_I====~~==

=p~K=a= ===NVRRJRSI==~==~=~= ~=

==~I=~=~=~=~=~=====a=p~= = p~= = l~~~W= _= = h= =~=m~~= E_=NVSTFI= =~=== =J= ~== = = ~= = ~= ~J~~=

= ~= = ~==j=m~~=~J

~K= p~= = = = ~= = ~I= = NN= = = =

d~=~~=~=~===~==K=

^=====m~~=~=~====

p=f==i=EpfiF==NVUVJVMK=f=====

= I=i~~= = `~= EhKaK= a= NVVO~FI= ~= ~= =m~~===h~=a====J

= = = ~~I= = = ~~= I= ~= J

~= = = ~= = = = K= f= ~= = =

~=~===~===~=~==

== ~~= K=^~= = = = = ~= ONMJ== =

1 Introduction

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===^I=_I=m~=~=p~=I=~==~=

=~= ~=K=q=~~== ~==hKaK=

a= ENVVO=~=NVVSF=~= = ~= ~= == ~== =

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p=OMMMI=o~=p~=~=====f=

ENVVTLOMMUF===~=====~====

^= ~K= o= = ~= = = ~J~~=

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= = ~= ~= = ~= ~= ~= ~= = = ~~=

= = =e=h= I== ~= = =k~=

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b~=_~I===~===h~~~=~=h~I=

= ~= = = m~~= =q= fJ^~= ~~I= ~= == ~~= = EOMMPFK= ^= ~= ~= =

j= ENVQNFI= = = ==_~= = = =

==_K=~K=p=~=_K=~~====~==~=

= =~=~==~=~== = = =

ENVVSFK=

^== = = = I= ~= = = =

I===~==~===^=~=^=`~J

~=EOMMNFK=f=d~==m~==I==~====e=hI===~==^=`~~= ===m~~=~=~=I==~==~===~=~==

~==~==~=~I===~=~=

= ~= = = ~=~= ~= K=^=J

= = ~= = NVUTI= = = = = ~=

^~= p~= E=^FI= = = ~= ~= ~K= f= I= p~=

~==~=~J~~=~== = =~=

=~~===~~===~I=~====~=

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p~=~===~=~=I===~=

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~~==~===~======~~=~=

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l=m~~==I=~===~=~==~=

===~===~===I==f===

~=~=~==~=~==~===K==

1.6 Current study q=~== = == = ==~=~~===

m~~= I=I= ~= ~I= ~== = ~=~~=

1 Introduction

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~== ~== ~= =~~=K= p=J

= ~=~~= = = ~~==~==I==

==~=~====~===K=k===

===~=~=I=======

==~K==

q=~=== =~~= == = ~~~= J

==~=~===~======m~J

~= =NVVU= =OMMSK= f= =~=== ~= =m~~=

= = =I= = ==NVVUJOMMMI=~=~= ==

m~= ~= = ^~= p= `= = m~~= rI= ~= =

OMMPJOMMS=====~=~====

c=i~~=f==m~~K=j====`~=J

= =~= =~= === ==~= ~= I= ~=

~==aI=h~~~I=_=~=^K=

j=~==~== == = ~===

~==m~~= L~=~= = =~==

~= I= = ~= ~= K= qI= f= ~=

~~= ~== = ~= ~= ~== = ~~I=

=~=~==~== f=~== = = ~==m~~=

~K=eI=f=~=====~=~==~=~=

=~===~K=b=~=m~=~=~=

=~=~=~~K=^==~=~=J

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^=~= =~====~=~=J~=I= =

= ~~= = = = ~= ~~= ~I= ~=

===~======m~~==

~===~=~= ==~I= =~=J

W=

k~=e~I=~= ~= =^I= ~= ====~~= ~K=e== J= === =m~J

~I==JOMMP==OMMSI=~==~====pI==

=~===~=~K=^==~===

c=i~~=f=EcifF==~=~~=~I==

~==~=~====~=====

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= ~~= =bI= = =~===~I=~J

~= = ~= ~= ~~= = = = J= ~~I= ~=

==~=m~~=~=~~~K==

^= r~I= ~= = ~= = a~~I= _I= ~= =~= _= ~~= ~= = NVVUK= ^= = = ~=

~= ~I= = ~= ~= = ~~= =

===~~===~===`~=~====

===~~=~~=~===~===J

1 Introduction

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~=~=~~~=K=e====~=~=~=cif=

~=k~=e~K=

=

m=NK=j~=~~=~=k~=e~=~=^=r~K=

f~=Je~I=~=~==^I=~==~== = ~= = = = NVVUJOMMMK= e= ~= = =

~=~=~===~=~=~=== J

~= =~= = I===~= ~=~=

===~~K===

p= e~I= ~= ~= = ^= ~= = = =k~=e~I= ~==~===~I= =

= ~I= = ~~= ~= ~= ~= ~=

~= = = ~~K= e= ~~= = ~= = = cif= ~=

~K=

^=====~===I===

~= ~= = = ~I= ~= ~= ~= = ~=

m~~W=p~=^~I=h~~~X=^~=r~I=_X=~=p~~=e~~I=

^K=

j=~~====~=~==~~=_K=~=^K=

= 22= ~= f= ~= = ~= = = ~= =

22=q= = =E~==~=F==== =

=~==~=====~=~==~K==

1 Introduction

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NVVVK= q= ~= = = ~= = = = ~= J

K==

q= ~= ~= ~= ~= = = = ~= ~=

~===~~I==~=SM===PS=~LI==J

= =~=~~==~=~~=~=~K=j==

= = ~= = ~= ~= ~= ~~I= = ~= =

~==~=K=^=====~~===

~= = =~== ~= == ~=K=eI= =

= = = = ~= ~= ~= ~= ~= ~= I= ~=

= == ~= ~K=^= ~=~=~= =

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~= ~= = = K= q= ~= ~~= ~= J

== ~= = = ~~I= = ~= I=

~=~===~~====K==

c=~==~=I= ==~~=~=~=~=

~===~I====o=~========K=q===~=~=~=~=

===~====~=W=bK=^WpevMOU===

~= ~~= ~~= E~~= pevF= = =^= ~= E=

^WF===p=e~I==~==OU===~==

~~~K23=

^==~~= = =~=I= ~= = ~= =

= ~= = ~~= = = m~~= ~= ~= = = =

W=

^=~~==~=~I==p~=~~=~===OMMMI==^~=k~

24=~=I==q~=`~==i=aI==

~= ~~= = = = = p~= = ~= = K= i~I=

^~=k~I===I==~=~=~===

=~==I===m~~=~==p~=E^~~FK=

^===~I=~====h~==a=hJ

~= ~= ~= = = g~= _~~= EpfiF= ~= = ~= =

k~= e~= ~= ~= cif= I= j~~= w~~= p~=

E=h~~I=p~FI= =OMMSK=^~==~==J

~I===~==h~=I=~=====J=~I=~=~====~=~==

=K=

^==a~I=~~=~=======~=J~= E~= = = ~= = ~F= = = = =

==OMMR==j~~=e~~= g~==^~= Ea~=s~FI=

23=^===~===~=~==~====~=

===~==K=24=^~=k~=~==k~=~===~===p~I==

==~=~=m~=~====~=~===`~K==

1 Introduction

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= ~~= = = cif= ~= ~K= q= ~~= ~= J

= = = ~= = = = b= m= EpJ

=rFK25==

=

=

m=OK=`====j~I=_=s~K=Ea~=mF=

^==OMMRI=f=~====E~===~=

~== =a~F= =h~~~==j~~=p~~~=~=c~=

j~~I==d~~~=~I=====~=J~==k~==^~~=~===~=NVUM====

====~=h~~~K26=

=

1.7 Remarks on the transcription q=~====m~~===~=====

E~~=== ~I= K=paaluulaF= ~= ==~= =~== =p=^~= =~=== =

E~=j~~===~=p~~=l~I=NVVNW=I=~==

===~=~=~=I=o~=NVVVW=VFK==

25= b= m= ~= = = = a~= = OMMPI= = cifI= ~= = =

~= j~~= e~~= ~= ^~= r~I= ~= = ^~I= ~= J

~=~=~K=26=f=~=====~=cif=~=c~=a==h~~~==~~J

==K=

1 Introduction

50

p= = =~==~==E===~~F==

= = ~= ~= = p~= ~= E_= NVUTI=

NVVPI= NVVSX= p=C=h~= OMMNI= OMMUX= p= OMMMI= OMMNI=

OMMOI= OMMPI= OMMQX= o~= NVVOI= NVVVX= o~= K= p~= NVVUF27I=

= = = = = ~= E= ~I= =

PKQKPFI=f=~===~==~~===~==~==~J~I==~=~====fm^=I==~===

= ~= J~= ~= = = ~= =

~J~K= q= ~= ~I= ~= = ~=

~==~I=f====~=m~~==~K==eI= =~= ==~= = =~= ==

~==~~===~~=I=fm^=~=EJ

=f~~=m=^~I=NVVVF=~===E~~J

===m~~==~==~F==J

=~==~==p= PKNJ PKQ===m=~I= = = = = = ~= ~I= K=

LpalulLI=~==~==~=~I=K=xpauzK=q====~=~==fm^=~===q~=RK=

t=====~==~=f^=~~I=f=

~= == ~= = = ~= = = I== ~=

~= ~=~= = = = = ~~= = =

=m~~=~K=

q~=RK=p===m~~==~=Em`qF=~==fm^=~K==

m`q= fm^= m`q= fm^= `=

= =c y j = h ^~=Eh==`==m`qF= aa a a==K==fm^=J~=LL= a cJ~=~= a pJ~=~= a~ k~~~=

f==~==~=~==m~~==~====

= = ~= ~~= ~K= c= ~= = ~= ^~J

~======~====J

K=

27=^==~==e=ENVVM~I=NVVSF=~=e=C=w~=ENVUTF=~==~=

~=====~====~K=

51

2 Typological overview

q= = = ~= = = = == ~= ~= =

m~~K=c==J=~==~=I=~==~=

=====I==~=~=====

K=

2.1 Phonology t==OTJPM=I==m~~=~===~=

~= Ej~= OMMR~W= NMJNPF= ~== = ~= ~= =

~~==~=~~I= ==~=~=OM=J

== = ~= = = K= q= ~= = ~= ~= =

~~=E~~I=~I=I=~~~=~=~FI==~==

~====~=~=W==

/p t k (q) b d (f) s x h z () m n r l

w j/

k=~=~~=== =m~~I== =~~=~=~=

====E=FK=

m~~=~= == I= = =~=~I= ~=

~=~==~=~==~K=q===~=J

~=~=~==W==

/i i u u e e o o

a a/ =

2 Typological overview

52

s=~~~==~=~~I==I=~===~J

~I====~==~K=

q=~~=~=~=~==~==Ej~=

OMMRW= RQJRTFI= = ~= = = = ~= ~J

===~===K=^==~==~=

== I= = = ~= = = = = ~= J

~===~=W=

_=sW= `=H=/r/= /kram/ == `=H=~~= /swanu/ ==^=sW= ~~=H=`= /re/ == ~=H==EL=H=LI=L=H=LF= /o/ == `H=Lr/ (/t + r/)= /putr/ =

^~==~~=~=~=====~=~===m~~K=

q=~I=~=~=[]==~==~=~=~=[]==~==~= E~=~== = ==~J

=~=FI=====~=I=~====

= = = ~= ~= = =K= p=~=~= J

~==~===~W==

/bola/ =~== /bola/ ~=/karei/ = /karei/ ~=/wi/ L==== /wi/ ~=

j~==~===~===~=~===~=

K= q= = ~= = = ~I= ~= ~=

~W=~F====~==~===x ]I=====~==E=~=I===~FX=F===~===x ], aX==F=~==~===x ]I==~ a. m=~==~W==

/set/ seet =~= /sti/ seti = = = =

/ddi/ dedi =c= /ddi/ dedi ~= = = =

/hr/ har = /hr/ har ~= /hr/ har ~=~~>=

2.2 Morphology m~~== = I=~= ~=~=~= =

~~=E_=C=k=OMMR~W=USJVFI==~=~==

===E_=C=k=OMMRW=VQJTFK==

k=~====E~I=~F=~=~=E~I=

I=FK=f====~=~=~=~=

2 Typological overview

53

~== ~= ~= ~= = ~= = ~= E_=C=

k=OMMRW=VMJVPFK=q==E~=~===~F=~==~~J

=~=====~=~===~=K=q=

===~==in=W== p~= m~=k~= in n-a l= n-a n-am d= n-ii n-am-ii

q=~==~=====~==W=~F=~==

~====mX=F=~======

~=~X=~=F=~=~= ~K=^====~J==

E=~=F=~==~=~=~~=~=J

~=~K=

m~~=~=J~=~=Ef=OMMRW=OMSJVFI===

~===~==~= =km=~= ~= E===J

FK=t= = = ~= ~= ~J= I= =

~= ~= = ~~= = = ~= = = ~= ~I=

~=====~=~===J=~J

J~~J~=W=

= ~= ~= Ppd=k~= mi ki so lL^~ mia ki tas b~= mia ki ti

m~~=~=~=~=~=fJb~=J=I===

~=J~=E`=OMMR~W=NPMJPPFK=^====~J

== I=~==~= =~=~J

K= q= ~= = = ~= = ~= ~== ~= ~=

E`=OMMRW=NPQJTFK=

^=~===~===E~I=FI=

= E~I=~F=~=~= E~I=J~FK=q=

~===~==paaru=W== j~= = c=

= p~= m~= =

k~= paaru paara paeri kJ~= paara paara paeri

c==~===J~I==E=~==F=~=

~= = ~F= LI= = F= = E= = = ~====I== OKP=FK=q=~=~==J=K=c==~==~==~=~=~=~=

= = = ~= ~= = ~I= ~= = ~= ~~J

2 Typological overview

54

=~=~=~==~=~=J=K=q====

~==til-=~W== = p~= m~=

kJ== = = =m= j= til-an-u til-an-a = c= til-en-i til-en-im c= N= tl-um til-ia = O= tl-a tl-at = P= tl-a tl-an f~= = tl tl-ooi f= = til-ai `= = til- l~= = til-eeeu `~=m~= = til-im s~=k= = til-aini ^=s~=k= j= til-a-u til-a-a = c= til-e-i til-e-im m== = mLm=m~= j= till-u till-a = c= till-i till-im

q== == EKK=N=~=O=F= = = =

~==~=====~=~===~W=

= k~= ^~= d= b~=N= ma ma mi mi O= tu tu thi thi N= be asam asi asm O= tus tusam tusi tusm

q==ma=~= tu=~== = ==~=~=~=mi=~ thi=~=I=~======~K=q= ~I== ~= = ~= J= I= J

~=~==~=~==~==~=~=K=

^~==~===E==~=J

~F=~==~=~=J~==~W=

2 Typological overview

55

= = = k~= ^~= d= l=m~= pd= j= nu nis nisi ni = = c= ni nis nisi ni = mi= = ni ninam nini ninm a~= pd= j= lo las lasi li = = c= le las lasi li = mi= = le lanam lani lanm o= pd= j= so tas tasi ti = = c= se tas tasi ti = mi= = se tanam tani tanm

q= = ~= = ~= = ~~= J

= = = ~~I= = ~= = = = = =

==~====~~=~==~===

==J~== ====~==~= the-= =~=bhe-=W=

madd = H= the- [= madd thilu =tan ~= H= the- [= tan thilu =milau = H= bhe- [= milau bhlu =aaq = H= bhe- [= aaq bhlu ====

2.3 Syntax t== = m~~= = ~= = ~J~K=q= = = =

=====~=EJI=~JI=J

~JI= JFI= ~= ~= E~J~FI= ~=

~=~=EkmJFI=~==~==~=Eps=~=

^lsFI==~==========~=

=K=

^=~=~=~==I=m~~=~=~=~==J

K=f==mI==~==~=~I===~J

= ENF=~=~=J~=~=~J=~=~=~J= = = = = I= ~= = = J=

~I= = =~=~~I==~=====

~=~=~J== EOFI===~==km=~==~==~====~=K=

ENF [c-a] [heli] khel-i ~xjpdzJl_= K~xcpdz= ~KmcsJc=

^= = l=q=~=~==~K=E^Wm^pMRSF=

2 Typological overview

56

EOF [ic] ac-a khiyan-u ~xjpdz= ~xjzJmi= ~KmobpJjKpd=

^= = l=q=~==~=~K=E^Wh^qNQRF=

p~=km===~==K=

^==~==~===I===~~=~=

~=~=~=~==L~K=f=c=~=m~=fJ

I= ==~== = ~= =I=~= = EPFI=~= =m= ~= = ~= ~== =mI= = = ~= =

=~=I=~=~==== EQFK=

EPF mi se pre-i se bhraaw ma NpdKdk= abc= KK~Jdk= abc= Kmi== NpdKklj=

[ha-in] de ~JPmi== mpq=

q===~=JJ~===~=K=

E^Wer^NOOF=

EQF tapa-a turi c-a heli [hal-i] hn-i = = ~Jl_=K~xcz= ~KmcsKcpd= KmopJc=

_==I==~=~=~==~K=Em^pMRQF=

p=~=~==~=~=~I=~==~=J

~===m=I=~===== ERFI==~=~K=

ERF mi babu ak zamindar mi NpdKdk= ~= fabc= ~= = ~=

j=~==~=~K=ElroMMOF=

^======~==~===E~=

====~FI==~=~=I==

~= ~= = ~= ~= = = = ~J

=`= I= = = ESFI== = = = ~=~=~==~J=~=~K=

ESF ti ba [bhun whay- ba] [so PpdKl_= moq= = KJ`s= moq= abcKjpdKklj= =

mhas mu- bhun wheel- ba] [teei hoo- ~= Jdk= = ~KJ`s= moq= obci= Jl_==

the hin-] u = ~J`s= KmcsKjpd e=~==x~==zI====~===

=x~=~===~===zI=~=====

K=E_Wpe_TSOF=

f==I==~===~==~=

= = E= = F= = ~= ~= ETFI= ~= ~= ~=

2 Typological overview

57

~~=~===EI=~~I==F==~=~=

EUFK===

ETF [neeir theni-a] di-a xalk-im xwaa thil-i = KskJmi=~Jl_= JmiKl_= == KmcsJc=

m===~=~===K=E_W^s^OMMF=

EUF [raaa m-u ta] putr-om tasi = KmcsJjpd= moq= JmiKl_= PpdKdk= =

hukumt bulooel-i == ~KmcsJc=

t===I=====K=E^Wj^_MMPF=

eI=~=J=====ki==~=== EVFI=~==~=K=

EVF hueei-am manit-u ki [ni bi-a m~JmiKl_= ~KmcsJjKpd= `ljm= PmiKmoluKklj= Jjmi=

zinaawr xlaka hn-a] = = = KJjmi=

q=m~=~W=q=~===K==E`e^MMUF=

m~=~=~===~=~==~=-ee= E_K=-aaFI= ~= = ENMFI=~=~= J~== E==FI= =~=kase= E_KF= = = ENNFI= = = = = J~K==

ENMF ux- di khoool-u ki tu insan-ee ~Jl_== ~KmcsJjpd= moq= OpdKklj=~KJn=

e=~==~W=^==~=~\==E^WhfkMMTF=

ENNF an [kase] ziaarat- than moluKkljKmi= = Jmi=nq=

t==~=\=E_WcloMOSF=

k~====~=~~=~=~~=~=~=naI===~= ENOFK=

ENOF muk-a xlak-a dhii- di [na] K~Jjmi= Jmi== ~Jl_= = kbd=

khoo-on de ~JPmi= = mpq= ==

m====~===~==~=x==

~==~zK=E^Wj^oMNUF=

==

58

3 Phonology

3.1 Consonants

q~=SK=f==~=Efm^FK=j~~==~=~J==~~==~X=KZI=KZK=

= = i~~= a~= o= m~~~= s~= m~= d~=

m= K= p t k (q) = = (p) (t) () (k) = K= b d = = (b) (d) () () ^~= K= = = () () () c~= K= (f) s x h = K= z () = = (z) () () k~~= = m n = = (m) (n) c~= = r = = (r) i~~=~~= = l = = (l) ^~= = w j = = (w) (j)

q= ~= = = ~= ~I= = = ~= ~=

=~==~~=~===J=J

==~=~K=q=~=Elf^F=~====

~=Ls L===E`~~=NVUTW=QQOFI====J=~=~=====I=~==

===~~I=~===~K==

t===~=~===~=~===~=

I==~=~== = = ~=~~= K=

j= ~= = ~= ~= ~= ~~= E= F= =

=~=~=~~=~K=q==~~~= ~J

= = ~== = ~= ~= ~= ~~I= ~= ~= = ==

=~= E~= = =^K=~FI== ===

3 Phonology

=

59

===I=f=~=====~===

~I28=====~====~=K=

q=J~= E= ~F= ~= = ~~= = == ~=

=J~==~==/q/=~K=q=~~======J~== = ~= ~= =

~===~= ==== = ~==

~=mJ^~=K=f=~=~=~I=I=

= ~= = = ~~= ~= ~= ~= ~= [x]I=== ~== == /x/K=q= ~= /z, x, / ~=~===J~=m~~I=~=~====~=

~=~=====~~I=~===~=~==~=

==~~===~~===~=I=

~==~====~====~~=~=

= ~= K= ^= ~J~= [f]= = = ~= == = ~I= ~= =r= ~= bI= ==~=

~= = ~~= == = = = ~= = = ~=

==[p]I=~====~~I==/f/===~=~~=K==

q===~=//==~=~=~~=I======~~=~X=~===~===

=~~==[]==~=~~=~=~=~===~=K==

q== ===~=~=~=~~=[]=~=~====/n/I=~=====/k/=~=//I==~=~=~~=~==/n/W=[]~[]K==

^=~I=~~====~=~==J

~=~=====E~=~===~J

~=~==q~=SF=~===== PKQKNK=

3.1.1 Distribution and variation b~=====~=~===q~=TK==

q= = ~= ~= = = = ~= ~=

Ep=C=h~=OMMUW=NSF==~=Ej=NVQNFX==

~=====~==ehf^=~~=~=

= = = ~= == = = ~==~= = =~=kf^=

~~===a~~=~~K==

28= ^= = = = w= EOMMRW= PQFI= = ~~= ~= = = ~J

~L~= = =~= ~= ~==~=== ~~===m~~I=

= = ~= xz= = == == ~~= = ~= = = = J

=~==~====K=

3 Phonology

60

q~=TK=q===~W=J~I=~I=~=~K29=q===~=~=~==~=E= PKOKPI= PKQKNFK==/p/ /pili/ ~=EcF= /opu/ ~= /ip/ =/b/ /bii/ ~=EcF= /abal/ =~= /ab/ ~=/f/ /fasil/ /xafa/ = /muaf/ =/m/ /mia/ = /himal/ ~= /bram/ =/w/ /wiwaj/ == /hewand/ = (/aw/ F=/r/ /reti/ = /beri/ = /anor/ =/l/ /ledi/ =EcF== /bali/ == /al/ ~==/t/ /teti/ =EcF== /putu/ = /bat/ =/d/ /dedi/ ~== /ledi/ =EcF= /id/ =/n/ /nei/ ~== /anu/ = /son/ ~=

/s/ /seti/ =~=E`sF=

/busi/ = /des/ ~=

/z/ /zeri/ ~= /bazor/ ~~~= /anrez/ _=// (ts) /ipi/ =E`sF= /buu/ = /u/ // () /emi/ = /hui/ = /di/ ~=// () /eri/ == /kuuru/ = /balba/ =// () /eli/ =EcF= /bei/ = /ra/ =/j/ (y) /jii/ == /laja/ == (/babaj/ ~F=// () /aka/ ~>= /bei/ ~= /ba/ =// () /aka/ = /ei/ =EcF= /ha/ =// () -- = /dei/ ~=E=F= /be/ =// () -- = /dei/ ~= /kiro/ =// () /eti/ =EcF= /kai/ = /ba/ ~=// () /ami/ =~= /aa/ = /ri/ ~=/ / (c) /inki/ =E`sF= /tei/ == /dra/ ~=/k/ /kati/ =~\= /bakara/ = /ok/ ~=// /ai/ ~==E`sF= /sial/ ~= /pa/ =/x/ /xati/ = /maxam/ = /mux/ ~=/q/ /qisa/ /alaqa/ ~~= /aaq/ =// /eri/ ~= /kaaz/ ~= /ba/ ~=/h/ /hari/ =E`sF= (/kuhi/ F= -- =

f=~========~=~==J

==m~~I==f=I=I==~==I=~===

29= f=m~~= = ~W=pili, pu, ip, bii, abl, ab, fsil, xaf, muaf,

mia, hiimal, bram, wiwai, heewand, hau, reet, beri, anor, ledi, bali, hal, teti, phtu, bat, dedi, ledi, id, nei, anu, son, seet, busi, des, zeer, baazor, anrez, tsiip, btsu, uts, emi, hui, di, eri, kuru, baalb, eli, bei, ra, yii, lhaya, babai, aak, bee, ba, aak, ei, ha, dei, bhe, dei, kiro, eti, khai, ba, am, a, ri, ciinki, teeci, dhraac, kat, bakara, ok, a, sal, pha, xat, maaxam, mux, qis, alaaq, aq, eer, kaaaz, ba, har, kuhi.

3 Phonology

=

61

=~===~====~==

= ~~== = == = =~~= ~=~= ~= = ~=

= = = ~~= = ~= ~== = = = =

~K=q=~=~====~=~==~I==

~~=~~= = =~==~= == K=d~= =

~~==~====~==~==~~==~J

=~===~====~K=

q=~~~=~=~=~===~=~J~~~I==

=~== = =~~= =~~== = ~=~== =

~~=~===~===~~I=~=======

===K====

Plosives /p/: [p], /b/: [b], /t/: [t], /d/: [d], //: []~[], //: []~[], /k/: [k], //: [], (/q/: [q]~[x]).

t= = = I= === ~== =

= ~= I= = ~= = ~= = ~= = =

~K=q=======J~I=

~========K==

f~~I====~==~I=~==

= ~~= E= PKQKNFK= ^I= = = = = = =I= KK= /p/== ~= ~~= ~= [f]~[]~[p]I= ~= =/perima/ (pheerima)=c~=Emi^`b=k^jbFK==

q==~==[q]=~=~~===~K=

Affricates //: [ts]~[s], //: []~[], //: [t].

^~= = ~= = ~= = ~~I= == = =

==~=~===~====K=q=

~~= = = = = ~= = ~= ~~= E~=

~~===~F===~==~~==

=~~=~=~=K==

q==~=~===~~===~==

~~= ~= ENPF= ~= = = ENQF= ~~= ~= == ~= ~= E= ~= ~= ~= f= ~= = ~= = J

I= = = ~~= = ~~= ~= ~FI= ~J

~===~=~=K==

ENPF /aaret/: [aat]~[asat] (atsharet) ^==

ENQF /aa/: [a]~[a] (aaa) ~== = =

3 Phonology

62

Fricatives (/f/: [f]~[p]), /s/: [s], /z/: [z], //: [], //: []~[], //: [], //: [d]~[], /x/: [x], //: [], /h/: []~[h].

^=~~=== = == =~~I= = =~=

= = = = ~~= = ~= = ~= I= = =

~= ~= ~~= ~= ~= = K= q= =

~~~=~==~~=~=~=[]=~=[d]=E===~= ~~= ~= = ^KF= ~= = = = ~= []= ~=[]I=~= /z/= = ===~= [z]= ~===~=~~=~K=

q=~~== /f/= == ~=~= [p]I= =~==/p/I=~==/fajda/ (faaid)=W=[pajd]~[fajd].=

q=== ~= ==~I=== =~=

= I= = []= = = ~= ~= = = = /air/ (hair) ~W=[a ].==

q= = ~= = ~= = /h/I= ~= = ==~I=~=~~=E PKQKNFI=//=E==~=~===m~~==~FI=~=~====J

= ~= = ~~= = ~K=e~= = =

=~= /h/= ===~==~==== ~= = ~~K= f= = = ~~I= = =

~== ~~I=~== ===~= ~J

~=~~W=[ai] (rhayi) W=/raji/==/rahi/K=

Nasals /m/: [m], /n/: [n ]~[]~[], //: [].

m~==~=~=~==~==~~=~==

~~W= ~~I= ~I= I= ~~~= ~= ~K= q= ~~~= ~~I=

I==~~=~===~===LL=H=~=~~~=J

~I=~=====~==K=q=~=~~=

~==~===~=~~I====LL=H=~=~==

~====K=

q=~==~===~====~~I=//K=^J===~===~I=~======~J

~==~=~~==~I==~=~~==J

K=t~= ~= = ~~= ~= = = == J

~= E~= = = /ie/ (ie) = ~= = = ~= ~=~=~FI==~=~~I=K=(deni)===~=(dei)= ~= E= = F= = ENRF= E~=J~= (kan)= = K=(ka)=~==_K= ENSFFI==~=LLK==

3 Phonology

=

63

ENRF /deni/ - /dei/=

ENSF /kan/ - /ka/=

q= ~~=~= =~=~~=~== = = = ~~I=~=

===~=~=======~=

===~~K=

Flaps /r/: [], //: [].

t= LL= = = J~I= ~~I= ~=

J~I= === //= ==K= f=_K= ====J~=~=~I=~==^K=====~~==

/l/= =~===~===~= ENTFI=(lo)==(o)= I=~I=KI=~======~===~=J

~=//, (ee)=I=~I=KI===K=ENTF Llo/~/o/

I=~==

Lateral approximant /l/: [l](~[] _K).

m==~=~== /a a o o u u/I= LL= ==~I===~====_K=~W=K=J~=(kheli)=~=c=~=~=(khulu)=~=jpdK=ENUF /keli/ [kli] - /kulu/ [k u]

Approximants /w/: []~[], /y/: [j].

f=====~=^K=~I==J=~~=

/w/= = ~= = ~~= []I= ==~= ~= ====~~==~=~~=~====

~=~~=[]=~K=q==~~=~==~====J

~I= ~=~= =~=~= = =~~= ~J

= = ~~I= ~= = = ~~I= ~= =

~========K=

3.2 Vowels

c==I==~==~=~==~~I=~=~=

===q~=UW=~F==I=F==~I=F==I=F==

~=I=~=F==~=K=q===

=~===~=J=K=^==~=J

3 Phonology

64

= ~= E~= = = = = d= p~I= o~= NVVVW= NVF=

=~=~=~~==~===K=f~I=~~J

~= = = = ~= ~~= ~~= ~= = ~= =

==K=^~==I=~~~==~=J~=

=====~~==~=~~=~K==

q~=UK=f==I==fm^=K=

= = c==

_~==

_~==

`= = i u = = i u l= = e a o = = e a o

3.2.1 Distribution and variation

q~=V==~=~~===I=~===~=

==~=~= =~~=~==K=dJ

~I====/i/I=/a/I=~=/u/=====~==J~= ~= = = ~K= q= = /i/= = = ~===~=== /i/I== =~=~=~==~=J~X===/u/,====~I=====~=== ~= ~= = = /u/X= = = /a/= = ~= = = =~===~===/a/K==

q~=VK=s=~==E= PKQKP==~===~F30K /i/ /ir/ =~>= /i/ (ii) /r/ ~= /ki/ ~= /t:i/ ~=/e/ /pre/ JJ~= /e/ (ee) /k/ ~= /ka/ ~= /ek/ ~=/a/ /ak/ = /a/ (aa) /k/ ~= /ka/ = /aak/ ~>=/u/ /sum/ == /u/ (uu) /k/ = /tki/ = /ti/ ~=/o/ /ko/ ~>= /o/ (oo) /k/ ~= /trki/ I== /ok/ >=

m~I= = = ~= ~= = = = ~= =

K=q=~==~====/a/=~=~====~= /a/= == == ==~=~= ~===~K=

30= f=m~~= = ~I= ==~W=ir, ir, ki, tii, pre, ke, ka,

teek, ak, ka, ka, aak, sum, ku, thki, thui, kho, ko, trki, ook.=

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65

b=~==~=~=E= PKQKPF====~=~= = ~= = = = K= r= ~= I=

=~~=~=~=E==FK==

^= = = ~~= =j= ENVPOWRUFI= == J

~====~==~=~===^K=~=_K=

===~=~==~K==

3.2.2 Vowel neutralisation t===~==~==~====~=

~==~=~=~==I====~=~=E=pJ

= PKQKP==~==~FI==~=~==~==J= ~== = = ~=~K=q= =~=~=

~======~K==

t~=_K=~~==/a/=K=/e/=~==~==~====~=~===~===-a=~===~=-e==~=~=====~===~==~====^KI===~=

==~==/i/I=~==~==/e/=~=/a/=== = ~K= cI= = ~~= E= ~~~= ~F=

~==[o]=~=[u]==^K=====~==J~~=[u]==_K==

d~=~I==~~=~=~=~~==

= = I= ~= = = ~= = = = =

= ~= = = ~K= qI= ~= ~= ~= ^K= = J

I= ~= ~= = ~= [u]= ~= [o]= ~= = ~J= ~=u= = =m~~= = ~I= ~= ~= ~= =~=[a]=~=[e]=~==~=aK=

3.2.3 The status of diphthongs ^======~====~==

= = ~= ~= ~= = ~= =

K=eI===========

~=~====~=~=~~==~=

====~~==K=

q= = = = = = = ~= = ~= = = ~=

~= = = = E~= ~= ~= ~= ~~FI= = ~=

[ai], [ai], [ui], [oi], [oi], [ei], [ue], [ua], [ia], [io], [iu], [au], [au]K=m~=I===~I=~==~====~=~J

= = = = = ~= K= p= ~= ~= = =

ENVFK=

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66

ENVF [badai] (bhraai) JJ~ [baba:i] (babai) ~=[dabui] (abi) =[boi] (bhoi) ~JJ~ [loilo] (lhilu) =[jei] (yei) [niaa] (nhiaa) ~=[pio] (phio) =E=~=~~F [biui] (bhiui) _ [a:u] (hau) [maau] (mau) ~~

q~= ~= = = ~= = ~I= = ~= J=

~= = EF= ~I= = ~~= ~= =

===~======xz=~=xzI=~==

==~~==J~=~==~= J

~~=E~======~~=~=~=

~=J~FI==~=~=~~=~I==

=====W=/braj/, /babj/, /abj/, /bj/, /ljlu/, /jj/, /nja/, /pj/, /bji/, /w/, /maw/.

eI==~=====~==H=xz=I==J

~= xz= ~= = = ~= = = = E= = ~= J

= = ~= I= ~= ~= ~~I= = ~=~= FI=

~===~=~===I==~=

= = ~I= = = ~= ~~~= = = ~= = = ~=

== LL== LL= E~= ~=~=~F= K=qJ

= f= ~= = = = = ~= bhraaiI= yeiI= KI= = m~~== ~I= = ~= = = = = ~=

=~==~===K31==

q= ~= ~= ~= = = = = = =

=I==~=dhiomii ==~==dhi + -om El_KmiF= H= -ii EdkFI= ~= = ~= = ~J== = /djomi/I= = ~= ~== ~= ~~= =~=~=====~~K=q===J

====~=W=^===~==

~= /swnu/= = =jpd== = ~= ~==~==~==sJ= = ==m= = -anI=~==~=m~~==~=suanu ~====K=

tI====~I===~====~===

=~=~=~====I=====

31=^==~=I=~=~~=~~==[i]======

~=~==J~=~=/e/K=

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67

J= = I= ~= ~~I= y= =wI= = = ~= JW=khilay /kilaj/=~I=bhooyomii /bojmi/===~JJ~I=~=bhariwa /bariwa/=~K=

3.3 Phonotactics

3.3.1 Syllable structure ^=~=~==m~~==~==~===~=~=

~=~=K=q========~==~J

K=iI=~==~=== EOMFI=======~=~W=`sI=`ssK=q=~=~==(/be/, /wi/) === =~=`s=~I====~=J

~I======`s=E=`ssF=~=E=~=/u.li/=~=/ku.a.komi/FK=

EOMF /be/ (be) /wi/ (wi)== ~=/u.li/ (uli)== ~=/ku.a.komi/ (kuaakomii)== ===

q= J~= ~I=`sEsF`I= = ~= ~= = = ~I=

=~== EONFI=~======~=~K=q= = = = ~= ~= = ~= = ~= K=

`I=I=~===~===~=~===~=

=~K==

EONF /pil/ (pil) >=/in/ (in) =/in.uk/ (inuk) =/ban.um/ (bhanum) f==~=/om.bu/ (mbu) =/pi.u.ru/ (piuru) =/he.wan.da/ (heewand) =El_F=

b== ~I=sE`F==ssE`FI== =m~~= EOOFI= == K= q~= ~= ~= = = = ~= = ~= = J

~I= KK= ~= == ~== ~==~= ~=J~K=

t===~==J~==J~==~=J

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68

~~=I===~=~I==~=====

==~==K32=

EOOF /u.i/ (u) >=/ux/ (ux) ~=/o.ol/ (oohol) =

q=~== ~= = = = ~= = = ~= =

===~===~=~=~K=q==~==

==~======~==~=~=

=====~=====~=K=

kI= ~= ~= = E= = f~= = ~= ~= =

~=F====~=~=~====~=~I==

~===~==I=====~==J

=======I=~=~=I=~=~=J

~K= mI= = = = ~I=~= == = = = ~=

===~=W=/ma/=fI=/be/=I=K=

3.3.2 Consonant clusters q= ~= = ~= = = I= ~= = ~= =

= ~I= = m~~= = ~= = ~= ~= = =

p~=~K==

f=~~=~~=~=~=~===~=~==

E~==~===~=~====FI===~=~=

== =~= =m~~=I=~=~=== = EOPFK=q=====~====LL==~=~~=E==

= = = ~~= = ~I= PKOKPFI= ~I= = = JI===~=K==

^====~======~=

H=LL=~~=J==~~I=~==~~=J

====~=~=I===/prajanu/ (phray-F=====~===~===~~K==

p===~~=~== =~I=

~= = =^K=~W= /wei/ (hueei) m~ < /uhei/ E=====~===_K=~FK=l======

==I===~~= W= /ukandu/~/kwandu/ (ukhandu) =L==jpd, ~===~===`=~=`==JJ==~=sJ~K=

=

32=^=~~=~~==~=======~=~=~==

~= ~= ~= = = ~= = ~= ~= = = J~I=

==~~===~=~K=

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69

EOPF /pr/ /prau/ (prau) == /pr/ /prajanu/ (phrayanu) ==EjpdF= /br/ /bro/ (bhro) == /tr/ /troki/ (trki) I=~=EcF== /dr/ /druk/ (dhruk) I=~=== /kr/ /kram/ (kram) === /r/ /re/ (hre) === /mr/ /mrina/ (mrna) == /nj/ /njaa/ (niaa) ~>I=~>== /nj/ /njaa/ (nhiaa) ~== /pj/ /pjala/ (piaal) == /pj/ /pjo/ (phio) =E=~~F== /dj/ /djui/ (dhiui) ~~== /sw/ /sweni/ (sueni) ==EcF== /w/ /wei/ (hueei) m~== /dw/ /dweli/ (dhueli) ~=EcF=

`~== = ~=I= = EOQFI= === = =~=====~~I=~===~===

= ==K=q== = = = J

= = ~~= H= L~~L~I= = = = = =

~~==K==

EOQF /nd/ /dand/ (dand) =// /re/ (hre) =/nk/ /ronk/ (hronk) =/n/ /on/ (on) ~=/n/ /pan/ (pan) ==/n/ /ben/ (bhen) ~==// /i/ (ic) ~==/tr/ /sutr/ (sutr) ~==/st/ /rast/ (hrast) ==// /o/ (ho) =

q=~=~~==~= =~~=~~I====

=~I=~==~~=E~===~~==~J

F=======~=~==~=J

===~==~=~==~=~=~==~J

~~== ==K=b= =~~=H== =

~= = ==~~K=t= =~=~=~I==

= = = = = = = ~= ~I= = =

~~= E= ~= = = = ~~I= K= /nan/ (nan)=

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70

~= _KW= [na ]FI= = = = EK= /an/ (an)= ~= _KW=[]FI= ~= = = = = = = = == = W= [n u a] (nuna), [a] (una)K= q= ~=~=== /n + d/===~=I========~==~==~===I=~==

_KI=~==~=~=~~===J~= =

= = W= /dan/ (dn) tooth B., but /danda/ (danda) teeth; /pan/ (pn) path B., but /panda/ (panda) pathsK=

^=~=~===~==/ndr/==/jandr/ (yandr) millK=q== == J~= =~=~==~== =

~I= = = ~= = ~~= = = = ~= = = =

= = K=t= = ~I= = /n/= = ~= ~~I=~= = /dr/= ~= = = ~= I= ~= = = ~J= = ~= /r/= = ~= ~J= = ~~= = I= = ~=~== ===~=~~=~K=^===~=J

===~====~=I==~==

= = ~= ~= ~= = ~= = = = = ~=

==~=~=~=~~W=/jan.dra/ millsK=f==~=/tr/JI==/r/===~=~======

~==~I===~~===~=~===J

~= ~= E~= = = = = = = ~= ~= FK=

q==~===========J

I=~=~~===~==~===~=

~===~J=W=[put()]==/putr/ (ptr)=K==^===~~===~=/st/ and //-I==~=J

= = = ~I= ~= = = = ~J

=~=K=j=_K=~===~~=====

I===~=I=====~=I=

~==^K=~========~=

=~=I=K=[]=I=[nas] (nas)=K=eI==~== ~= = = ~= ~= = = ~= ~= =

= = ~I= KK= = = = = W=

[o], [nast]K=`== ~~=~=~== =~==~= =

= = ~X= = ~~= H= L~~L~= = =

~= W= /ombar/ (oombar)= ~~= I= /ombu/ (mbu)=I=/kantiru/ (kaantiru)=~=I /inuk/ (inuk)=I=/bana/ (bhan)= ~>I /air/ (hair)= ~I= /hensili/ (heensli)=~I==cK==

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71

3.4 Suprasegmentals

3.4.1 Aspiration and breathiness

f= ==I=~~=~==~~=~=~==

=~==~==E====~=FI=~=~=~=

~===~=~=~~==~==K=q=~I=

[]==~==~=~=[]==~==~I=====~=

33=E=~=~===~=J~F=~==

========~K34=p=J

~=~== EORF=~==~===~K=

EORF /bola/ (bhola) =~== K= /bola/ (bola) ~=

/karei/ (kharei) = = /karei/ (karei) ~=

=

/wi/

(whi)

==

=EPpdF==

/wi/ (wi) ~==

q= = ~~= = ~= ~= ~= ~= =

~= = = = ~= ~L= = ~= =

====E~=~=~~F=~=W=[bo la]K=j= m~~= ~= = ~= = ~~= E~= ~=

F= = ~~I= ~= ~= = ~= = q~= S= ~=

=~== EOSFI====~~K==

EOSF /pepi/ (phepi) ~~=~== /dut/ (dhut) == /oni/ (hni) ~== /eli/ (heli) J~== /a/ (ha) ~=~== /lo/ (lho) ~== /mas/ (mhas) ~== /jui/ (yhi) =

33= q= = = ~= = ~~= = = = ~= = = ~=

d~~=i~==fJb~=~==Ep=NVVSW=NVI=RSI=i~= NVSOW= VOJPF= ~= ~= = ~= = = = = lf^= ~= = ~=

dK=^==== = = ===~~== =

===~=~==~===kf^=~~=E==~=i=

OMMOW=PO==dI=~=p~=NVTSW=PQJR==p~FK=q=I=I===

==fJb~=~~=EK=qJ_~=j~I=_~=C=k~=

NVVTW=NPJQFK=34=f==~==~=~==~=~~====~=~==LL=E=

=~=~=======~==~=F==

~=~=~~I=KK=~=~====~=~=~=K=

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72

l=== ~= /s x/I= =~= = / /I=~====/ x/===J=E~=~=F==~~K=q=I=~===~~===

~= ~= = = = ~~= = = ~= I= =

= = = = f=h~I==lf^= ~~I= = =

m~~I= ~= = = ~== ~~= = ~==

===~=Ee~=C=e~=NVVVW=NVJORFK==

q=~==~~==J== =~J

~= /ts/= ~= //= = ~= = ~= = = I==~=~K=^=~===~I==I===~=

= ~= = = = ~= ~~K= ^= ~= ~= ~=