24
Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding Design Practices Ted Tschang Singapore Management University Lee Kong Chian School of Business [email protected] Abstract This paper develops the theoretical cognitive basis for the design thinking process as a set of combinative mechanisms. I will illustrate this by using instances of data from a long-term qualitative study video game design This helps to reconcile the cognitive and engineered principles of design, while also adding additional contextual aspects of design. Jelcodes:O31,O33

Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

  • Upload
    others

  • View
    1

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

Paper to be presented at

DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015

(Coorganized with LUISS)

Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding Design

PracticesTed Tschang

Singapore Management UniversityLee Kong Chian School of Business

[email protected]

AbstractThis paper develops the theoretical cognitive basis for the design thinking process as a set of combinative mechanisms.I will illustrate this by using instances of data from a long-term qualitative study video game design This helps toreconcile the cognitive and engineered principles of design, while also adding additional contextual aspects of design.

Jelcodes:O31,O33

Page 2: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "!

!"#$%&'($(!)*"%+(",(-"./0102*(3*4)$/0'5'(,"%(6/&*%'1$/&0/.(7*'0./(

8%$4104*'(

(

(

9:'1%$41(

#$%&!'(')*!+),)-.'&!/$)!/$).*)/%0(-!0.12%/%,)!3(&%&!4.*!/$)!+)&%12!/$%25%21!

'*.0)&&!(&!(!&)/!.4!0.63%2(/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&7!8!9%--!%--:&/*(/)!/$%&!3;!:&%21!

%2&/(20)&!.4!+(/(!4*.6!(!-.21</)*6!=:(-%/(/%,)!&/:+;!,%+).!1(6)!+)&%12!#$%&!

$)-'&!/.!*)0.20%-)!/$)!0.12%/%,)!(2+!)21%2))*)+!'*%20%'-)&!.4!+)&%12>!9$%-)!(-&.!

(++%21!(++%/%.2(-!0.2/)?/:(-!(&')0/&!.4!+)&%127!

(

(

;<(=/1%"&>410"/(

(

!)0'(0'($/(*?@A"%$102*(@$@*%(1)$1(4"5:0/*'(,0/&0/.'(,%"5((!6:-/%!;)(*!&/:+;!

.4!@+)&%12!'*.0)&&A!(2+!(!'(*/%(--;!%2+:0)+>!'(*/%(--;!/$).*)/%0(--;<+)*%,)+!/$).*;!

.4!+)&%12!6)0$(2%&6&!!B9$%0$!8!-(3)-!C0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&DE7!#$)!(*)(!.4!+)&%12!

/$%25%21!(2+!+)&%12!%2!1)2)*(-!$(&!3)0.6)!(!'.':-(*!(*)(!4.*!/)(0$%21!(2+!

'*.'.&)+!'*(0/%0)7!82!(++%/%.2>!+)&%12!$(&!(-&.!3))2!'*.'.&)+!(&!(!'.':-(*!-)2&!

4.*!0.20)%,%21!.4!%2+:&/*;!(*0$%/)0/:*)!BF(0.3%+)&>!GHHIE>!.*1(2%J(/%.2(-!

&/*:0/:*)!BK.66)>!GHHLE>!(2+!3:&%2)&&!(2+!)2/)*'*%&)!+)&%12!BM&/)*9(-+)*!(2+!

N%12):*>!GHHOE7!

!

8!(6!'*%6(*%-;!%2/)*)&/)+!%2!+)&0*%3%21!(!&)/!.4!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!.3&)*,)+!

%2!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!P!6)0$(2%&6&!9$%0$!)?'-(%2!@9$;A!(2+!@$.9A!+)&%12!

$('')2&!%2!/$)!4(&$%.2!%/!+.)&7!#.!+.!/$%&>!8!$(,)!*)-%)+!.2!),%+)20)!4*.6!(2!

=:(-%/(/%,)!4%)-+!*)&)(*0$!(2+!./$)*!+(/(!4*.6!/$)!(*)(!.4!1(6)!+)&%127!Q:)!/.!/$)!

)44.*/!/.!+)&0*%3)!/$)!/$).*;!$)*)>!8!+.!2./!4.0:&!6:0$!.2!/$)!),%+)20)>!&.!/$%&!

'(')*!&$.:-+!%+)(--;!3)!,%)9)+!(&!(!/$).*;!+),)-.'6)2/!'(')*7!!!

!

Page 3: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! G!

R&!8!&$.9>!9$(/!6(5)&!/$)!1(6)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!%2/)*)&/%21!(&!(!1)2)*(-!0(&)!%2!

'.%2/!%&!/$(/!2./!.2-;!+.)&!%/!3*.(+-;!*)4-)0/!9$(/!%&!1.%21!.2!%2!+)&%12!/$%25%21!

(&!(!&)/!.4!'*(0/%0)&!/$(/!%&!%24:&%21!./$)*!4%)-+&>!3)0(:&)!.4!%/&!4.0:&!.2!:&)*!

)?')*%)20)!(2+!()&/$)/%0&>!%/!(-&.!$(&!2:(20)+!+%44)*)20)&!9$%0$!+.!2./!(-9(;&!

0.6)!.:/!%2!./$)*>!6.*)!/*(+%/%.2(-!4.*6&!.4!+)&%127!S(6)!+)&%12)*&!0*(4/!9.*-+&!

9%/$!(!'*.0)&&!/$(/!%2,.-,)&!2./!.2-;!/$)!+)&%12)*D&!%6(1%2(/%.2>!3:/!(-&.!&),)*(-!

./$)*!(&')0/&!.4!&)2&)<6(5%21>!2./!/$)!-)(&/!3)%21!(!0.20)'/%.2!.4!()&/$)/%0&!(2+!

'-(;)*!B)6./%,)E!%2,.-,)6)2/T*)&'.2&)7!U%/$.:/!(2;!.4!/$)&)!)-)6)2/&>!/$)!

+)&0*%'/%.2!.4!/$)!'*.0)&&!%&!(/!3)&/!%20.6'-)/)!.*!),)2!0.-+-;!*(/%.2(->!(2+!/$:&>!

'.&&%3-;!:2&:00)&&4:-7!V;!:-/%6(/)!1.(-!%&!/.!&$.9!/$(/!:2-)&&!/$)!0.20)'/%.2!.4!

+)&%12!&0%)20)!(&!-(%+!+.92!3;!W%6.2!B"OIOE!)24.-+&!6.*)!1)2)*(/%,)!0.20)'/&!

&:0$!(&!/$)&)!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!(2+!&)2&)<6(5%21!'*.0)&&)&>!/$(/!

0.20)'/%.2!9%--!3)!(2!%20.6'-)/)!.2)7!

!

B<(7*'0./($/&(7*'0./(!)0/C0/.($'(3*$/'(",(=//"2$10/.(

!

M2)!.4!/$)!*)(&.2&!4.*!/$)!*)0)2/!&:*1)!%2!%2/)*)&/!%2!+)&%12!/$%25%21!%&!3)0(:&)!

+)&%12!%&!(!6)(2&!.4!%22.,(/%.27!8/!6(;!3)!(!&/*(9!6(2!/.!&(;!/$%&>!3:/!9$)*)(&!

/$)!'*).00:'(/%.2!.4!%22.,(/%.2!&/:+%)&!/)2+&!/.!3)!.2!$%1$)*!-),)-!.*!3*.(+)*!

&0(-)!/$).*%)&!/$(/!$(,)!/.!+.!-)&&!9%/$!$.9!%22.,(/%.2&!0.6)!(3.:/!,%(!&')0%4%0!

0.12%/%,)!.*!-.1%0(-!6)0$(2%&6&>!(2+!6.*)!/.!+.!9%/$!%&&:)&!&:0$!(&!%/&!

B%22.,(/%.2&DE!6(2(1)6)2/!B)717!/)(6!+;2(6%0&!.*!'*.+:0/!+),)-.'6)2/E>!

0$(*(0/)*!B&:0$!(&!/;')&>!@&.:*0)&A>!(2+!0.2/%21)20;!4(0/.*&E!BX)2+)*&.2!(2+!

Y-(*5!"OOHE>!'*.0)&&)&!&:0$!(&!-)(*2%21!.*!%2+:&/*;!+;2(6%0&!BZ//)*3(05!!(2+!

R3)*2(/$;!"O[\E7!9$)*)(&!0*)(/%,%/;!&/:+%)&!/)2+!/.!4.0:&!.2!$%1$-;!1)2)*(-!

Page 4: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! L!

0.12%/%,)!6)(2&!3)$%2+!@%+)(A!4.*6(/%.2>!/*:)!6)&.<&0(-)!(''*.(0$)&!/$(/!6(5)!

&)2&)!.4!/$)!%22.,(/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!(2+!%2/)**)-(/%.2&$%'!3)/9))2!/$.&)!

6)0$(2%&6&!(2+!0.2/)?/!(*)!4)9)*!%2!2:63)*7!#$)!':*'.&)!.4!/$%&!'(')*!%&!2./!/.!

'*.,%+)!(!0.6'-)/)!*),%)9!.4!&:0$!/$).*%)&7!R/!/$)!&(6)!/%6)>!(!&)-)0/%,)!*),%)9!

.4!/$)!-%/)*(/:*)!/$(/!)?'-(%2&!/$)!0$(*(0/)*!.4!/$)!%22.,(/%,)!'*.0)&&!B.*!/$)!

),.-:/%.2!.4!%22.,(/%.2&!(0*.&&!%2+:&/*;!/%6)&0(-)E!%2!6.*)!.*!-)&&!0.6'-)/)!

6)0$(2%&6&!%20-:+)!/$).*%)&!.4!6.+:-(*%/;!4.:2+)+!.2!-.1%0(-!6)0$(2%&6&!

B](-+9%2!(2+!Y-(*5!GHHHE>!(2+!0.20)'/%.2&!.4!$.9!/)0$2.-.1%)&!(*)!9.,)2!

/.1)/$)*>!(2+!(&!0.63%2(/%,)-;!(2+!),.-,)+!BR*/$:*!GHHO^!_%20)2/%!"OOHE7!!

!

8)$'*'($/&(8%"4*''D(R!/;'%0(-!,%)9!.4!+)&%12!%2,.-,)&!4.0:&!.2!+)&0*%'/%.2&!.4!

/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!/$(/!0('/:*)!%/&!&.:*0)&!.4!%2&'%*(/%.2!B%7)7>!/$)!*)&)(*0$!'$(&)!

%2/.!:2+)*&/(2+%21!:&)*!2))+&E>!0*)(/%,%/;!B4.0:&%21!.2!(&')0/&!&))2!%2!/;'%0(-!

3*(%2&/.*6%21!'*.0)&&)&E>!(2+!4%2(--;>!/$)!'$;&%0(-!6(2%4)&/(/%.2!.4!+)&%12&!(&!

'*././;')&!4.*!-)(*2%21!(2+!4))+3(05!':*'.&)&!BM&/)*9(-+)*!(2+!N%12):*>!GH"HE7!!

#$%&!$(&!3))2!0('/:*)+!%2!/$)!'.':-(*!2./%.2!.4!+)&%12!/$%25%21!(&!(!&/;-%J)+!

'*.0)&&!(2+!&)/!.4!(//)2+(2/!'$(&)&!52.92!/$*.:1$!W/(24.*+D&!@+!&0$..-A!(2+!

@/$)!8Q`M!6.+)-A7!82!/*:/$>!/$%&!'*.0)&&!6%6%0&!(2+!%20.*'.*(/)&!6:0$!.4!9$(/!%&!

2.9!0.2,)2/%.2(-!%2!/$)!+)&%12!4%)-+7!!

!

#$%&!+)&%12!/$%25%21!'*.0)&&!%&!&))2!/.!$(,)!0$(*(0/)*%&/%0&!/$(/!(*)a!B(E!$%1$-;!

:&)*<0)2/*%0>!%2,.-,%21!+)/(%-)+!.3&)*,(/%.2&!.4!%2+%,%+:(-!:&)*&>!B3E!$%1$-;!

%/)*(/%,)!(2+!4-:%+!(/!/%6)&!B9%/$!/$)!0)2/*(-!4.0:&!.2!/$)!)(*-;!&/(1)&!.4!/$)!

'*.0)&&!3)%21!6.*)!4-:%+E>!B0E!%2,.-,)&!*('%+!'*././;'%21!(&!(!-)(*2%21!'*.0)&&!

/$(/!%2,.-,)&!*)4-)0/%.2!:'.2!:&)*!%2/)*(0/%.2&!9%/$!/$)!'*././;')!B(2+!/$(/!%&!

Page 5: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! b!

(-&.!4-:%+-;!)6'-.;)+E>!(2+!B+E!%2,.-,)&!0.--(3.*(/%.2!B:&:(--;!%2/)*+%&0%'-%2(*;E7!

#$)!6)0$(2%&6&!/$(/!(*)!'.':-(*-;!+)'%0/)+!(2+!/(:1$/!%2!&:0$!'*(0/%0)&!%2,.-,)!

&.-:/%.2&!3)%21!1)2)*(/)+!/$*.:1$!3*(%2&/.*6%21!(2+!3)%21!'*././;')+!4.*!

,(-%+(/%.2!9%/$!(2+!4))+3(05!4*.6!:&)*&7!#$)!'*.0)&&!6(;!4))+!3(059(*+&!/.!*)<

)2(0/!)(*-%)*!&/(1)&!.4!/$)!'*.0)&&>!),)2!0$(21%21!/$)!'.%2/!.4!,%)9!B%7)7!'*.3-)6!

&/(/)6)2/E7!8/!%&!/$%&!@-(05A!.4!(!-%2)(*!'*.0)&&!/$(/!0(:&)&!+)&%12!/$%25)*&!/.!

0.2&%+)*!/$%&!-)&&!'*.0)&&:(-!/$(2!(!2.*6(-!'*.0)&&!.4!(+,(20%21!/$*.:1$!&/(1)&>!

.*!),)2>!/$(/!%/!%&!2./!&.!6:0$!(3.:/!&/(1)&!(&!%/!%&!(3.:/!)-)6)2/&!.4!(!'*.0)&&!%2!

9$%0$!/$)!&/(1)&!0(2!3)!*)(**(21)+7!

!

8/!%&!6;!0.2/)2/%.2!/$(/!9$%-)!/$%&!$(&!3))2!)?/*)6)-;!:&)4:-!4.*!!"#$%&'()*+,$+"!

(2+!/$)!,"*+-$&%'./'!"#$%&'()*+,$+"0'%/!$(&!2./!-)+!/.!(2;!1)2)*(-%J(3-)!%2&%1$/&!

%2/.!+)&%12!(&!(!4%)-+7!!

!

-"5:0/$102*($/&(E2"A>10"/$%+(3*4)$/0'5'($'(F+/1)*'0'($/&(G*/*%$10"/a!R!

/;'%0(-!6)(2&!.4!:2+)*&/(2+%21!+)&%12!/$%25%21!$(&!3))2!/.!0.20)%,)!.4!%/!(&!(2!

(-/)*2(/%21!'*.0)&&!.4!)?'(2+%21!/$)!&)/!.4!%+)(&!.*!./$)*!0.20)'/%.2&>!.*!/$)%*!

*)+:0/%.2!3;!&;2/$)&%&!(2+!./$)*!6)(2&!B]*.92!GH"b^!M&/)*9(-+)*!(2+!N%12):*!

GH"H^!M9)2!"OOcE7!U$%-)!/$%&!&.*/!.4!+%0$./.6;!+%+!2./!+%*)0/-;!)6(2(/)!4*.6!

(2;!4.*6(-!0.12%/%,)!.*!-.1%0(-<+)+:0/%,)!6)(2&!.4!(2(-;&%&>!%/!$(&!&)*,)+!(!:&)4:-!

':*'.&)!(&!(!3*.(+!0(/)1.*%J(/%.2!0('(3-)!.4!0('/:*%21!/$)!)&&)2/%(-!/)2&%.2!%2!

+)&%12!'*.0)&&)&7!!

!

#$)!=:)&/%.2!/$%&!(--!3)1&>!$.9),)*>!9$%0$!%&>!9$)*)!+.!9)!1.!9%/$!6(5%21!.4!(!

+)&%12!/$).*;!3(&)+!.2!6.*)!4:2+(6)2/(-!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&d!

Page 6: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! \!

!

F1>&0*'(",(7*'0./(0/(1)*(7*'0./(F1>&0*'(!%$&010"/(

#$)!4%)-+!.4!+)&%12!&/:+%)&!$(&!$(+!6.*)!&')0%4%0!(2+!2:(20)+!/$%21&!/.!&(;!(3.:/!

9$(/!$('')2&!+:*%21!&:0$!+)&%12!'*.0)&&)&>!%20-:+%21!.2!/$)!0.12%/%.2!)2+7!

!

!)0/C0/.(8%"4*''*'D(M2)!.4!/$)!6.&/!0.66.2-;!:2+)*&/..+!6)0$(2%&6&!/$)!

+)&%12!'*.0)&&!$(&!3))2!&))2!/.!%2,.-,)!%&!/$(/!.4!4*(6%21!P!(!0.20)'/!*)-(/(3-)!/.!

W0$.2!B"OcbE7!82!4*(6%21>!W0$.2!0('/:*)+!.2)!)&&)2/%(-!(0/!.4!/$)!+)&%12)*!(&!

%2,.-,%21!(+.'/%21!(!+%44)*%21!')*&')0/%,)7!U$%-)!/$%&!')*&')0/%,)!/(5%21!%&!6.*)!

.4/)2!/$(2!2./!/$)!*)&:-/!.4!(2!%2/)*2(-!,%&:(-%J(/%.2!B/$)!0*)(/%,)!/)0$2%=:)!.4!

@/(5%21!/$)!.''.&%21!,%)9A!0.:-+!3)!&))2!(&!.2-;!.2)!6(2%4)&/(/%.2E>!%/!(0/:(--;!

)?'-(%2&!/$)!$)(*/!.4!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!(&!3)%21!(!'*.0)&&!.4!),)*!0$(21%21!

(*/%4(0/&!(2+!0.20)'/%.2&!.4!(*/%4(0/&!P!(2+!'*.,%+)&!(!-.1%0(-!*)(&.2!4.*!+.%21!&.7!!

!

#$)!0.20)'/!.4!4*(6%21!0(2!3)!*)-(/)+!/.!9$(/!%&!52.92!/.!.00:*!%2!+)&%12!

/$%25%217!Q)&%12!/$%25%21!/)0$2%=:)&!%2$)*)2/-;!0('/:*)!/$)!4(0/!/$(/!+%44)*%21!

9.*-+!,%)9&!)?%&/!.:/&%+)!.4!/$)!+)&%12)*D&!.92!6%2+>!(2+!/$(/!&.6)!(*)!6.*)!

(5%2!/.!9$(/!:&)*&!4%2+!/.!3)!6.*)!(6)2(3-)7!#$)!:&)*D&!')*&')0/%,)!%&!/$:&!/$)!

6.&/!%6'.*/(2/!C9.*-+!,%)9D!*)'*)&)2/(3-)!%2!/$)!'*.0)&&>!3:/!/$(/!,%)9!%&!

52.92!/.!3)!%20.6'-)/)>!1%,)2!/$(/!/$)!+(/(!0('/:*%21!6)/$.+&!)6'-.;)+!B)717!

.3&)*,(/%.2!(2+!%2/)*,%)9&E!(*)!(/!3)&/!.2-;!(3-)!/.!0('/:*)!4*(16)2/&!.4!/$(/!

,%)9!B.4!:&)*!2))+&>!)?$%3%/)+!3)$(,%.*&>!)6./%.2&!(2+!&.!4.*/$E7!e:*/$)*6.*)>!

/$%&!9.*-+!,%)9!0(2!,(*;!9%+)-;!(6.21&/!+%44)*)2/!:&)*&>!(2+!6(;!),)2!,(*;!9%/$!

/$)!:&)*D&!)6./%.2(-!&/(/)!+)')2+%21!.2!/$)!&%/:(/%.27!#$)!&)*,%0%21!.4!/$(/!:&)*D&!

2))+&!*)=:%*)&!(!9%+)!)?'-.*(/%.2!.4!(!-(*1)!&.-:/%.2!&'(0)!/$*.:1$!

Page 7: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! I!

3*(%2&/.*6%21>!&.!(1(%2>!/$)!%20.6'-)/)2)&&!.4!9$)/$)*!/$(/!@'(*/%(--;!0('/:*)+!

9.*-+!,%)9!B%/&!2))+&EA!(2+!2.9!@&(/%&4%)+!3;!(!&.-:/%.2!/$(/!%&!.2-;!3)-%),)+!/.!

6))/!/$(/!2))+A!2))+&!/.!3)!/)&/)+!.*!,(-%+(/)+7!82!/$)!+)&%12!,%)9>!)(0$!.4!/$)&)!

0*%/%0(-!@(&&:6'/%.2&A!.*!'*.'.&%/%.2&!2))+&!/.!3)!/)&/)+!3;!'*././;'%21!(2+!

0:&/.6)*!,(-%+(/%.27!!

!

R2./$)*!.-+)*!3:/!6.*)!*)0)2/-;!'*.6:-1(/)+!2./%.2!.4!(!+)&%12!6)0$(2%&6!(&!

%2,.-,%21!%&!/$)!/;')!.4!/$%25%21!52.92!(&!(3+:0/%.2!BV(*/%2!GHHOE7!#*(0)(3-)!

3(05!/.!Q)9);>!(3+:0/%.2!%&!(0/:(--;!(!/$%*+>!4.*6(-!6)(2&!.4!-.1%0(-!/$%25%21!/$(/!

%&!&))2!%2!0.2/*(&/!/.!/9.!./$)*!0-(&&%0(-!4.*6&!.4!-.1%0a!+)+:0/%.2!(2+!%2+:0/%.27!

Q)+:0/%.2!'*.,%+)&!/$)!6%&&%21!-%25!3)/9))2!%20.6'-)/)!),%+)20)!.4!'.&&%3-)!

+)&%*(3-)!4:/:*)!&/(/)&!B.4!:&)*&D!9)--!3)%21>!4.*!%2&/(20)E>!(2+!/$)!+)&%12!%/&)-4!

/$(/!0.:-+!%2,.5)!:&)*!(2+!./$)*!*)(0/%.2&!/$(/!6(5)!/$.&)!4:/:*)&!'-(:&%3-)!

.2)&7!8/!/(5)&!/$)!'-(0)!.4!/$)!&0%)2/%4%0!$;'./$)&%&>!3:/!%&!%2!4(0/!/$)!3(&%&!4.*!

4.*6%21!(!@+)&%12!$;'./$)&%&A!3(&)+!.2!%20.6'-)/)!52.9-)+1)!(2+!),)2!'.&&%3-;!

0%*0:6&')0/!52.9-)+1)!9$%0$!6(;!3)!2))+)+!/.!0*)(/)!6.*)!*(+%0(-!,%&%.2&!.4!

/$)!4:/:*)7!W))2!/$%&!9(;>!%/!4.*6&!(2!%2,(-:(3-)!9(;!.4!+)&0*%3%21!/$)!+)&%12!

'*.0)&&>!3:/!6.*)!0*%/%0(--;!4.*!6;!':*'.&)&>!%/!0.:-+!3)!&))2!(&!(!-%25!3)/9))2!

+%44)*)2/!0.12%/%,)-;!%2+:0)+!@,%&%.2&A!B.4!/$)!(*/%4(0/E>!(2+!(!6)(2&!.4!&)-)0/%21!

(6.21&/!.*!./$)*9%&)!+)(-%21!9%/$!/$)!'.&&%3-)!&/(/)&!.4!/$)!9.*-+!/$(/!*)&:-/!

4*.6!/$.&)7!

!

G*/*%$10201+D(!R2./$)*!+)&%12!6)0$(2%&6!/$(/!%&!.4/)2!%2,.5)+!%2!(*0$%/)0/:*)!

(2+!*)-(/(3-)!/.!4*(6%21!B),)2!(!1)2)*(-%J)+!4.*6!.4!%/E!%&!/$(/!.4!/$)!2./%.2!.4!

+)&%12!(&!(!1)2)*(/%,)!+),%0)>!/$(/!%&>!/$(/!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!'*.,%+)&!4.*!

Page 8: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! [!

0*)(/%,)!/(21)2/&!/$(/!0(2!)6(2(/)!4*.6!2./!.2-;!(!1%,)2!+)&%12!')*&')0/%,)!

(+.'/)+>!3:/!),)2!0.2&/*(%2/&!Bf(9&.2!GHHIE7!

!

8%":A*5(F@$4*'D(Q)&%12!(&!(!4%)-+!&/:+;%21!'*(0/%0)&!B(2+!.2)!9%/$!(!-.21)*!(2+!

$%&/.*%0(-!/*(+%/%.2E!*.:1$-;!0.,)*&!/$)&)!@&/)'&A!.*!@'$(&)&A!.4!/$)!+)&%12!

/$%25%21!'*.0)&&>!3:/!(-&.!0.2&/*:)&!/$)!+)&%12)*!(&!+),)-.'%21!(!'*.3-)6!&'(0)!

/$(/!0.<),.-,)&!9%/$!/$)!&'(0)!.4!&.-:/%.2&!/$(/!%&!)?'-.*)+!BQ.*&/!(2+!Y*.&&!

GHH"E7!82!/$)!+)&%12!/$%25%21!'*.0)&&>!.2)!'*.3-)6!&'(0)!%&!.00:'%)+!3;!/$)!

@'.%2/!.4!,%)9A!P!(!:&)*<0)2/*%0!@'*.3-)6!&/(/)6)2/A!/$(/!+)&%12)*&!9%--!(-&.!

*)4)*!/.!(&!(!@+)&%12!'*%20%'-)A7!!

!

82!'*(0/%0)>!(!+)&%12)*!6(;!'(*/%/%.2!.*!3*)(5!+.92!/$)!'*.3-)6!&'(0)>!.*!

+%6)2&%.2&>!%2!.*+)*!/.!&.-,)!%/7!R!/*:)!+)&%12)*!6(;!&%6'-%4;!/$)!+)&%12>!/.!4.0:&!

.2!/$)!6.&/!%6'.*/(2/!+%6)2&%.2&>!:&%21!/$)6!/.!0:/!(0*.&&!./$)*!+%6)2&%.2&7!R!

/*:)!+)&%12)*!6%1$/!6.,)!.2!/.!(2./$)*!'*.3-)6!&'(0)!B%2!)44)0/>!/$)!'*.3-)6!

&'(0)<&.-:/%.2!&'(0)!@0.<),.-,)&A!BQ.*&/!(2+!Y*.&&!GHH"EE7!

!

U$%-)!/$)*)!(*)!./$)*!+)&%12<&')0%4%0!6)0$(2%&6&!/$(2!/$.&)>!8!3)-%),)!/$%&!

&)*,)&!(&!(!:&)4:-!/.:*!%2/.!/$)!@+)&%12)*D&!6%2+A>!.*!(&!Y*.&&!':/&!%/>!/$)!

@+)&%12)*-;!9(;A!.4!52.9%21!(2+!(0/%217!

!

82!6(2(1)6)2/>!/$)!5%2+!.4!+)&%12!/$%25%21!(''*.(0$!)'%/.6%J)+!3;!/$)&)!

@6)0$(2%&6&A!%&!3)%21!(''-%)+!B%2!'(*/&!.*!9$.-)&E!/.!)2/%/%)&!(/!(&!$%1$!(!-),)-!(&!

3:&%2)&&!6.+)-&!B.*!)2/)*'*%&)&>!(&!'*.'.&)+!3;!/$)!-)(2!&/(*/!:'!6.,)6)2/E>!

(2+!(&!-.9!(&!'*.+:0/!(2+!&)*,%0)!+)&%12&!B%7)7!9$(/!%&!/)*6)+!%2!/$)!3:&%2)&&!

Page 9: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! c!

6.+)-!0(2,(&!(&!/$)!@,(-:)!'*.'.&%/%.2A!.*!/$)!.*!'*.+:0/T&)*,%0)!3:2+-)&!/$(/!

&)*,%0)!/$)!0:&/.6)*D&!2))+E7!#.!/(5)!/$)!@-)(2!&/(*/:'A!,%)9!(&!(!0(&)!%2!'.%2/a!

%/&!,%)9!.4!/$)!)2/)*'*%&)!%&!/$(/!.4!.2)!/$(/!'*(0/%0)&!@0:&/.6)*!+%&0.,)*;A!(2+!

@,(-%+(/%.2A>!'*././;')&!3;!0*)(/%21!(!@6%2%6:6!,%(3-)!'*.+:0/A!B%2!'(*/!/.!-)(*2!

4*.6!/.!%6'*.,)!./$)*!'*.+:0/&E>!'%,./%21!B%7)7!%/)*(/%21E!%/&!,(-:)!'*.'.&%/%.2!

(2+T.*!3:&%2)&&!6.+)-!(&!%/!%6'*.,)&!/$)!.44)*%21>!/)&/&!$;'./$)&)&>!(2+!/$)!

6)(2&!.4!3:%-+%21!(!3:&%2)&&!/.!%6'-)6)2/!%/!BK%)&!GH""E7!

!

#$)!*)&/!.4!/$%&!'(')*!4.0:&)&!.2!/$)!+)&0*%'/%.2!.4!/$)!0.12%/%,)!(&')0/&!.4!1(6)!

+)&%12>!(2+!$.9!/$%&!&$)+&!-%1$/!.2!/$)!+)&%12!/$%25%21!'*.0)&&!.:/-%2)+!(3.,)7!

!

H<(!)*(E5@0%04$A(-"/1*?1D(G$5*(7*'0./(

(

V;!&/:+;!'*%6(*%-;!0.2&%&/&!.4!=:(-%/(/%,)!+(/(7!#$*.:1$!(!&/:+;!.4!1(6)!+)&%12!

(0*.&&!&),)*(-!&/:+%.&!B0.20)2/*(/%21!.2!/$*))E!&%20)!GHHb!/$*.:1$!GH"b>!8!$(,)!

(00:6:-(/)+!%2/)*,%)9&!9%/$!"O!+)&%12)*&>!./$)*!')*&.22)-!4*.6!4.:*!+)&%12!

&/:+%.&>!(2+!/*(2&0*%'/&!.4!bH!6))/%21&!B%20-:+%21!(3.:/!GH!+)&%12!6))/%21&E7!82!

/$)!-(&/!,%&%/!/.!.2)!&/:+%.!9$%0$!*)&/(*/)+!(&!(!&6(--!&/(*/:'>!8!$(,)!(-&.!3))2!

(3-)!/.!9%/2)&&!4%*&/!$(2+!(2+!'(*/%0%'(/)!%2!/$)!+)&%12!0$(21)&!%2!(!+)/(%-)+!9(;!

9%/$%2!(!&%21-)!'*.+:0/7!

!

G$5*(7*'0./($'($(7*'0./(I0*A&(

#$)!=:)&/%.2!(*%&)&!(&!/.!$.9!1)2)*(-%J(3-)!/$)!+.6(%2!.4!1(6)!+)&%12!%&>!(2+!

9$(/!0(2!3)!-)(*2/!4*.6!%/7!U$%-)!+)&%12!$(&!3))2!52.92!/.!3)!/$)!%2,.-,)!9)--!

52.92!4%)-+&!(&!@%2/)*(0/%.2!+)&%12A!B%7)7>!+)&%12!.4!$:6(2!0.6':/)*!%2/)*4(0)&E>!

Page 10: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! O!

&)*,%0)!+)&%12>!:*3(2!'-(22%21>!(2+!(*0$%/)0/:*)!B]:0$(2(2>!"OOGE>!2./%.2&!.4!

9$(/!0.2&/%/:/)&!(!+)&%12!+%44)*!9%-+-;!(0*.&&!/$.&)7!82!4(0/>!/$(/!%&!3)0(:&)!.4!/$)!

'(*/%0:-(*!+.6(%2&>!(2+!6)(2&!(2+!':*'.&)&!3;!9$%0$!$:6(2!:&)*&!%2/)*(0/!

9%/$!/$.&)!(*/%4(0/&7!!

!

82!/$)!&(6)!9(;>!1(6)!+)&%12!%/&)-4!$(&!+%44)*)2/!':*'.&)&!(2+!6)(2&!.4!

%2/)*(0/%.2!/$(2!/$)!(3.,)!6)2/%.2)+!/*(+%/%.2(-!(*/%4(0/&>!(2+!;)/>!(-&.!&$(*)&!

&%6%-(*!(&')0/&!9%/$!/$)67!S(6)&!$(,)!:&)*!%2/)*4(0)&>!'*)&)2/!(!,%*/:(-!9.*-+!.4!

&'(0)&!/.!%2/)*(0/!9%/$!B(&!.''.&)+!/.!/$)!'$;&%0(-!&'(0)&!'*)&)2/)+!3;!

(*0$%/)0/:*)!(2+!'-(22%21E>!(2+!$(,)!/$)%*!.92!'(*/%0:-(*!2./%.2!.4!

)2/)*/(%26)2/!/$(/!$(&!/.!3)!%20.*'.*(/)+!%2/.!/$)!+)&%12!B)717!W(-)2!(2+!

g%66)*6(2!GHHb>!e:--)*/.2!GH"bE7!

!

S(6)!+)&%12!(-&.!&$(*)&!%2!0.66.2!B9%/$!&.6)!.4!/$)!./$)*!4%)-+&E!(!'*.+:0/!

2(/:*)!/$(/!%&!$%1$-;!%2/)*+%&0%'-%2(*;>!%2,.-,%21!(*/>!(2%6(/%.2>!%2/)*(0/%.2!(2+!

,%&:(-&!4(0%-%/(/)+!3;!/)0$2.-.1;>!(2+!.4!0.:*&)>!+)&%127!#$)!+)&%12!$.-+&!/$)!

9$.-)!(*/%4(0/!/.1)/$)*!(2+!'*)&)2/&!/$)!:&)*!9%/$!9$(/!%&!/$)!4:2+(6)2/(-!

)?')*%)20)7!U$(/!&)*,)&!(&!%2/)*(0/%.2!%2!1(6)&!%2,.-,)&!'-(;)*!)2/)*%21!/$)!

+)&%12)*D&!@9.*-+A>!(2+!@&/(;%21A!/$)*)!4.*!/)2&!.4!$.:*&!')*!1(6)7!#$)!'-(;)*!

)?')0/&!/.!3)!0$(--)21)+>!/.!+)*%,)!'-)(&:*)>!(2+!/.!3)!@%2,.-,)+A!%2!(2!

)?')*%)20)>!.4/)2!(2!@)'%0A!.2)7!#$);!+.!2./!&))5!/$)!&(6)!'-)(&:*)&!(2+!

0$(--)21)&!9$)2!.')*(/%21!(!6.3%-)!'$.2)7!

!

U$(/!6(5)&!/$)!'*.+:0/%.2!.4!1(6)&!+%44)*%21!4*.6!./$)*!+)&%12!'*.4)&&%.2&!%&!

/$)!4(0/!/$(/!1(6)&!*)&/!.2!(!/)0$2.-.1;!3)+!B%2,.-,%21!'*.1*(66%21E>!(2+!(*)!

Page 11: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "H!

0*(4/)+!3;!/)(6&!.')*(/%21!%2!&/:+%.&!B#&0$(21>!GHH[E7!S(6)!6(*5)/&!0(2!(-&.!3)!

$%1$-;!+%&*:'/)+!+:)!/.!/$)!%24-:)20)!.4!/)0$2.-.1;7!R!0(&)!%2!'.%2/!%&!/$)!*)0)2/!

&:*1)!%2!6.3%-)!1(6)&7!])0(:&)!/$)!1(6)&!6(*5)/!(*)!&.!&:3h)0/!/.!0.2&:6)*!

9$%6&>!(2+!'-(/4.*6&>!/$)!4%*6&!'*.+:0%21!1(6)&!$(,)!/.!%2!)44)0/!@'%,./A!3./$!

/$)%*!3:&%2)&&!6.+)-&!(2+!/$)%*!'*.+:0/&!/.!3)!(3-)!/.!&:*,%,)!BK%)&!GH"GE7!R2!

%--:&/*(/%.2!.4!/$%&!%&!/$)!4(0/!/$(/!/$*))!.4!/$)!4.:*!4%*6&!9$%0$!8!$(+!.*%1%2(--;!

&/:+%)+!%2!/$)!GHHbTGHH\!/%6)4*(6)!$(+!1.2)!.:/!.4!3:&%2)&&>!/9.!3)0(:&)!.4!

/$)!&$%4/%21!3:&%2)&&!)2,%*.26)2/!B(2+!*%&)!.4!6.3%-)!1(6)&E7!M2)!.4!/$)6!$(+!

*)&/(*/)+!(&!(!6.3%-)!1(6)&!6(5)*>!(2+!/$)!Y`M!0.2/%2:(--;!&.:1$/!/.!*)'.&%/%.2!

$%&!3:&%2)&&!4.*!,(*%.:&!%2,)&/.*&!B%2!)44)0/>!0*)(/%21!.'/%.2&!/.!'%,./E>!%20-:+%21!

*)'.&%/%.2%21!/$)!'*.+:0/!%/&)-4>!3:/!%2!/$)!)2+>!4(%-)+!(!&)0.2+!/%6)7!

!

8/!%&!3)0(:&)!.4!/$)&)!0.66.2(-%/%)&>!(2+!;)/>!+%44)*)20)&>!/$(/!8!'*.'.&)!/$(/!

1(6)&!(*)!(&!6:0$!(!+)&%12!4%)-+!*)=:%*%21!.4!/$)!&(6)!5%2+&!.4!%2&'%*(/%.2>!

0*)(/%,%/;!(2+!%6(1%2(/%.2!(&!/$)!./$)*!(3.,)!6)2/%.2)+!+)&%12!4%)-+&7!`?(6'-)&!

.4!+)&%12!0.12%/%.2!(*)!+.6%2(/)+!3;!&/:+%)&!%2!(*0$%/)0/:*)!(2+!'*.+:0/!+)&%12!

/$:&!4(*>!3:/!/$%&!%&!&/(*/%21!/.!0$(21)>!(&!%&!9%/2)&&)+!3;!/$)!0.20)'/%.2&!.4!

.*1(2%J(/%.2(-!+)&%12>!3:&%2)&&!6.+)-!+)&%12!(2+!%2+:&/*;!(*0$%/)0/:*)!+)&%127!

!

#$:&>!/.!*)%24.*0)!/$)!)(*-%)*!'.%2/a!(&!&%6%-(*!(&!/$)!6)0$(2%&6&!(2+!'*.0)&&)&!

6(;!3)!(0*.&&!+)&%12!/*(+%/%.2&>!%/!%&!/$)!+.6(%2&>!(2+!9$(/!/$);!*)'*)&)2/!/.!

:&)*&>!/$(/!+%44)*!1*)(/-;7!!

!

J<(!)*(-"./0102*($/&(K".04$A(3*4)$/0'5'(F**/(0/(7*'0./(

(

Page 12: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! ""!

L*'*$%4)(8%"4*''(

#.!*)/:*2!/.!/$)!'*%6(*;!0.2/*%3:/%.2!.4!/$%&!'(')*a!V;!'*%6(*;!%2/)*)&/!9(&!%2!

:2+)*&/(2+%21!$.9!+)&%12)*&!/$%25!0.12%/%,)-;!(3.:/!/$)%*!+)&%12!(&!/$);!0*)(/)>!

.*!%/)*(/%,)-;!%6'*.,)>!%/7!U$%-)!6;!&/:+;!9(&!'(*/-;!6)(2/!/.!%2+:0)!

6)0$(2%&6&>!*)-(/%21!%/!/.!/$)!)?/(2/!6)0$(2%&6<+*%,)2!/$).*%)&!&)*,)+!/.!3)!

3)2)4%0%(-7!

!

U$)*)(&!/$)!2./%.2&!.4!/$%25%21!%2$)*)2/!%2!+)&%12!&/:+%)&!'*.')*!0.2&%&/&!.4!

6)0$(2%&6&!(&!(3+:0/%.2>!4*(6%21>!1)2)*(/%,)!/$%25%21!(2+!/$)!&$%4/%21!.4!

'*.3-)6!B(2+!$)20)>!&.-:/%.2E!&'(0)&>!/$)!)?'-(2(/.*;!6)0$(2%&6&!8!$(,)!

:20.,)*)+!%2!1(6)!+)&%12!/*(0)!6.*)!+%*)0/-;!/.!/$)!0.63%2(/%,)!(2+!-.1%0(-!

2./%.2&!3)$%2+!(*/%4(0/!0*)(/%.27!#.!(**%,)!(/!/$%&!B(2+!/.!$%1$-%1$/!/$)!.*%1%2!.4!

6;!%2&'%*(/%.2E>!8!*)/:*2!/.!/$)!/9.!3.+%)&!.4!9.*5!P!/$.&)!.4!](-+9%2!(2+!Y-(*5!

BGHHHE!(2+!R*/$:*!BGHH[^!GHHOE7!`(0$!'*.,%+)&!(!+%44)*)2/!')*&')0/%,)!B(2+!

/%6)&0(-)E!.2!$.9!&;&/)6&!(*)!-.1%0(--;!0.2&/*:0/)+7!!

!

3"&>A$%(M@*%$1"%'D(](-+9%2!(2+!Y-(*5D&!BGHHHE!&/:+;!.4!CQ)&%12!K:-)&D!

&')0%4%)+!(!0.*)!&)/!.4!C6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*&D!/$(/!9)*)!&))2!/.!3)!(''-%)+!3;!

)21%2))*%21!+)&%12)*&!.4!/$)!8]V!LIH!B](-+9%2!(2+!Y-(*5>!GHHHE7!U$%-)!/$%&!

-(2+6(*5!&/:+;!%&!3)//)*!52.92!(&!(!4.:2+(/%.2!.4!6.+:-(*%/;!/$).*;!(&!9)--!(&!

.4!/$)!/*(2&(0/%.2&!0.&/!(''*.(0$!+),)-.')+!3;!](-+9%2!BGHHcE>!.2)!.4!/$)!

'*%6(*;!3(&)&!4.*!/$)!/$).*;D&!)?%&/)20)!$(&!*)6(%2)+!-)&&!9)--!52.92!%2!

6(2(1)6)2/7!#$%&!%&!/$)!&)/!.4!@6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*&Aa!(:16)2/%21>!)?0-:+%21>!

%2,)*&%.2>!&'-%//%21>!&:3&/%/:/%.2>!(2+!'.*/%217!#$)&)!(*)!%2!)44)0/!2./!.2-;!

@-.1%0(-A!3:/!(-&.!0.12%/%,)!B%7)7!)2(0/)+!(/!&.6)!0.12%/%,)!-),)-E!6)0$(2%&6&!/$(/!

Page 13: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "G!

+)&0*%3)!-.1%0(-!.')*(/%.2&!/$(/!+)&%12)*&!:&)!/.!0*)(/)!+)&%12&7!U$%-)!/$)!8]V!

LIH!%&!,)*;!6:0$!(2!)21%2))*)+!(*/%4(0/>!&.6)!.4!/$)!&(6)!0(2!(-&.!3)!&))2!%2!

&.6)!.4!/$)!*:+%6)2/(-!(0/&!.4!1(6)!+)&%12>!(-3)%/!0.2&/*:)+!%2!&.6)9$(/!

+%44)*)2/!(0/&!.4!+)&%12!4.*!+%44)*)2/!':*'.&)&!B%7)7>!/.!4(0%-%/(/)!:&)*!%2/)*(0/%,%/;E7!!

!

#$)!-.9)*!(6.:2/!.4!(//)2/%.2!'(%+!/.!&:0$!.')*(/.*&!6(;!3)!+:)!/.!/$)!$%1$-;!

0.2/%21)2/!6(22)*!3;!9$%0$!6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*&!.')*(/)7!e.*!%2&/(20)>!/$)!

(''-%0(/%.2!.4!/$)&)!6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*&!/.!'*.,%+)!(!6)(2&!.4!+)/)*6%2%21!/$)!

0.2/%21)2/!2(/:*)!.4!'*.+:0/!(2+!&)*,%0)!),.-:/%.2!9%/$%2!+%44)*%21!3:&%2)&&!

0.2/)?/&!4(%-)+!/.!4%2+!(!1)2)*(-%J(3-)!'(//)*2!BU..+(*+!)/!(-!GH"GE7!8/!%&!:2-%5)-;!

$.9),)*!/$(/!/$%&!*)'*)&)2/&!/$)!)2+!.4!/$)!(''-%0(3%-%/;!.4!/$)!/$%25%21!

*)'*)&)2/)+!3;!/$)!6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*&!(''*.(0$>!&%20)!/$)!4.*6)*!&/:+;!9(&!

6(%2-;!%2,.-,)+!%2!/$)!&)(*0$!4.*!(!0.20%&)!;)/!)?'-(2(/.*;!6)0$(2%&6!/$(/!

0-)(2-;!*)&.-,)+!/$)!+)&%12!'(/$&!(0*.&&!/$)!4.:*!0(&)&7!e:*/$)*6.*)>!/$)!+)&%12!

'*.0)&&!%/&)-4!%&!2./!(-9(;&!/*(0)(3-)!/.!0.20*)/)!)?/)*2(-!&/%6:-%!.*!-.1%0(-!

*)&.-:/%.2&!(2;!6.*)!/$(2!$%&/.*%0(-!&/:+%)&!.4!)21%2))*)+!(*/%4(0/&!9.:-+!

&:11)&/!BY.2&/(2/!"OcG^!_%20)2/%!"OOHE7!82!&$.*/>!$%&/.*%0(-!&/:+%)&!&:11)&/!/$(/!

6(2;!+)&%12!+)0%&%.2&!(*)!%20%+)2/(->!3(&)+!.2!/$)!'(*/%0:-(*!0%*0:6&/(20)&!/$(/!

(!/)0$2.-.1;!4(0)&!(/!/$)!1%,)2!/%6)!.4!%/&!@2)?/!),.-:/%.2(*;!&/)'A!.*!@-)('A7!

!

-"5:0/$102*(3*4)$/0'5'D(#$)!%&&:)!.4!$%&/.*;!*(%&)&!/$)!&)0.2+!3.+;!.4!9.*5!

P!/$(/!.4!]*%(2!R*/$:*D&!BGHH[^!GHHOE!<!9$%0$!+)&0*%3)&!$.9!)21%2))*%21!&;&/)6&!

),.-,)!3;!6)(2&!.4!)21%2))*&!0.63%2%21!0.6'.2)2/&!B)(0$!4.:2+)+!.2!&.6)!

'$;&%0(-!&0%)2/%4%0!'*%20%'-)E!%2/.!&;&/)6&!P!/$%&!%&!9$(/!8!)44)0/%,)-;!/)*6!

@&/%/0$%21A7!U$)*)(&!](-+9%2!(2+!Y-(*5!(*)!)44)0/%,)-;!+)&0*%3%21!(!-.1%0(-!&)/!.4!

Page 14: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "L!

6)0$(2%&6&!%2!/$)%*!6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*!0.20)'/>!%2!&/%/0$%21>!R*/$:*!%&!*)<

%2/*.+:0%21!/$)!0.20)'/!.4!(!*)-(/%,)-;!:252.92!@4:/:*)A!P!.2)!/$(/!%&!@4.:2+A!

/$*.:1$!),.-:/%.2>!0.2/%2:(-!)?')*%6)2/(->!(2+!%2!)44)0/>!/*%(-&!(/!0.63%2(/%.27!

R*/$:*!%&!*)+%&0.,)*%21!(2+!'*.6./%21!/$)!0.63%2(/%,)!'*%20%'-)&!.4!

W0$:6')/)*>!3:/!(/!/$)!&(6)!/%6)>!3;!.')*(/%21!(/!/$)!-),)-!.4!/$)!)21%2))*%21!

&;&/)6D&!+)&%12>!%&!1%,%21!4.*6!/.!/$)!(0/:(-!0.63%2(/%,)!'*.0)&&7!!

!

W%20)!]*%(2!+%+!2./!(//)6'/!/.!'*.,%+)!(!/$).*;!9%/$!)?'-(2(/.*;!'.9)*>!$)!+%+!

2./!4(--!(4.:-!.4!/$)!'*.3-)6&!/$(/!3)+),%-!/$)!+),)-.'6)2/!(2+!(''-%0(/%.2!.4!

0.12%/%,)!(2+!./$)*!@+)&%12A!6)0$(2%&6&!BU..+(*+!)/!(->!GH"GE7!X.9),)*>!

(6.21&/!/$)!6(2;!'*.3-)6&!$)!-)(,)&!.')2!%&!/$)!'*.3-)6!/$(/!/$)*)!%&!6.*)!/.!

/$)!0.63%2(/%,)!(2+!),.-:/%.2(*;!'*.0)&&!/$(2!h:&/!&/%/0$%21!(-.2)7!X)!%&!(-&.!

+)&0*%3%21!/$%&!&/%/0$%21!'*.0)&&!%2!(!/)0$2.-.1;D&!),.-:/%.2(*;!/%6)>!3:/!3(&)+!

.2!6;!),%+)20)!.2!1(6)!+)&%12>!8!&))!%/!(''-;%21!)=:(--;!9)--!%2!(!1%,)2!

'*.+:0/D&!+)&%12!'*.0)&&>!(2+!%/&!),.-:/%.2!+:*%21!/$(/!'*.0)&&7!!

!

3*4)$/0'5'(N01/*''*&(0/(1)*(E20&*/4*("/(G$5*(7*'0./(

8!9%--!/:*2!2)?/!/.!(2!)?(6%2(/%.2!.4!+(/(!/.!%--:&/*(/)!9$)/$)*!/$)&)!(2+!./$)*!

0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!(*)!'*)&)2/!%2!+)&%12!'*.0)&&)&7!#$%&!%&!(!$%1$-;!&)-)0/%,)!

)?'.&%/%.2!.4!/$)!+(/(>!(&!8!(6!)&&)2/%(--;!&)-)0/%21!4*.6!,(*%.:&!&)/&!.4!+(/(!/$(/!

$(,)!3))2!'*)&)2/)+!6.*)!)?/)2&%,)-;!%2!6.2.1*('$!4.*6(/7!!

!

#.!&;2/$)&%J)!/$)&)!+)&%12!(2+!0.12%/%,)!&/:+%)&>!8!9%--!:&)!/$)!),%+)20)!8!$(,)!3;!

0-(&&%4;!/$)!+(/(!(&!,(*%.:&[email protected]%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&A7!8!:&)!/$%&!3./$!0.24%*6!9$(/!

%&!&))2!%2!/$)!9%+)*!+)&%12!-%/)*(/:*)!<!3:/!/$(/!(-&.!(++!/.!%/!%2!9(;&!0.2&.2(2/!

Page 15: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "b!

9%/$!/$)!@2)9)*A!+)&%12!-%/)*(/:*)!(&!*)'*)&)2/)+!3;!/$)!/9.!3.+%)&!.4!9.*57!8!

%--:&/*(/)!&)-)0/)+!.4!/$)!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!'*)&)2/)+!)(*-%)*!4*.6!/$)!

-%/)*(/:*)7!#$%&!+.)&!2./!'(;!$))+!/.!/$)!%/)*(/%,)!'*.0)&&!3;!9$%0$!/$).*;!(2+!

),%+)20)!9(&!3*.:1$/!/.1)/$)*7!#$)!6)0$(2%&6&!8!$(,)!&)-)0/)+!/.!$%1$-%1$/!(*)!

2./!1(6)<&')0%4%0!3:/!(*)!6.*)!*)-),(2/!/.!3*.(+)*!0-(&&)&!.4!/)0$2.-.1;!(2+!

$:6(2<0*)(/)+!(*/%4(0/&!(&!9)--7!!

!

82!/*:/$>!/.!+),)-.'!(!4:--!&)/!.4!/$)&)!4.*!(2!)?')*%)20)!+)&%12!.*!%2+:&/*%(-!

+)&%12!0.2/)?/!0.:-+!3)!4.*6%+(3-)!(/!/$%&!&/(1)!(&!/$)!4:--!&)/!.4!+)&%12!

)?'*)&&%.2&!/$(/!0.2,);!6)(2%21!/.!:&)*&!%&!(-6.&/!(&!,(&/!(&!/$)!&)/!.4!,)*3&!

/$(/!0(2!+)&0*%3)!:&)*!%2/)*(0/%.27!e.*!%2&/(20)>!h:&/!4.*!(!&%21-)!'*.+:0/!/;')D&!

+)&%12!(&!5%/0$)2!5)//-)!+)&%12>!/$)!4.--.9%21!+)&%12!@(0/&A!$(,)!3))2!+)&0*%3)+!

3;!.2)!&/:+;a!e*(6%21^!82/)*-.05^!`?/*(!W/)'^!W)16)2/(/%.2!(2+!W'(0%21^!W)-4<

6.2%/.*%21^!Y.-.:*!(2+!Y.2/*(&/^!W%6:-(/%.2!(2+!e))+4.*9(*+^!`?/*(!&/)'>!

N*.6%2)20)!(2+!_%&%3%-%/;!Bf.05/.2!)/!(-!GH"LE7!M4!0.:*&)>!/$)!0.6'-)?%/;!1.)&!

:'!9%/$!/$)!%20*)(&%21!1*(2:-(*%/;!.4!+)/(%->!(2+!9%/$!/$)!%2/*.+:0/%.2!.4!/$)!

(&')0/&!.4!/$)!':*'.&)&!B.4!+)&%12E!(2+!4.*6&!.4!:&)*!)?')*%)20)!B3./$!4:20/%.2(-!

(2+!()&/$)/%0(-E7!8/!%&!3)0(:&)!.4!/$%&!/$(/!8!9%--!/*;!/.!&/(;!(/!/$)!-),)-!.4!9$(/!/$)!

-%/)*(/:*)!':*'.*/&!/.!3)!/$)!6.&/!1)2)*(-!6)0$(2%&6&!.3&)*,)+!%2!+)&%12>!(2+!

.2-;!/.!.')2!/$)!)2,)-.')!(!3%/!4:*/$)*!/.!(00.66.+(/)!/$)!/9.!(++%/%.2(-!

3.+%)&!.4!9.*5!B](-+9%2!(2+!Y-(*5D&>!(2+!R*/$:*D&E7!!

e.*!&'(0)!':*'.&)&>!8!-%6%/!/$)!),%+)20)!%2&/(20%21!)(0$!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6!/.!

.2)!%--:&/*(/%,)!)?(6'-)>!:&:(--;!+*(92!4*.6!&)0.2+(*;!+(/(7!

!

Page 16: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "\!

I%$50/.D(M2)!.4!/$)!'*%6(*;!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!9)--!52.92!/.!+)&%12>!3:/!

/$(/!&:*4(0)&!%2!6;!&/:+;>!%&!/$(/!.4!4*(6%217!U$)*(&!W0$.2D&!B"OcbE!%+)(!.4!

4*(6%21!3)-%)&!/$)!3)-%)4!/$(/!+)&%12)*&!B(2+!&%6%-(*-;>!3:&%2)&&!+)&%12)*&E!&))!

/$)!9.*-+!(&!0.2&/(2/-;!0$(21%21!(&!2)9!),%+)20)!5))'&!0.6%21!%2>!:&:(--;!

/$*.:1$!/$)!+)&%12)*D&!*)4-)0/%,)!'*.0)&&>!%2!1(6)!+)&%12>!4*(6%21!%&!(&!6:0$!(!

'(*/!.4!/$)!0.2/%2:(-!'*.0)&&!52.92!(&!%/)*(/%,)!+),)-.'6)2/!P!%/&)-4!(!$%1$-;!

*(/%.2(-%J)+!'*.0)&&!B#&0$(21!GHH[E7!82!1(6)!+)&%12>!4*(6%21!&.6)/%6)&!&))2!%2!

/$)!(0/!.4!%2&%1$/!3:/!6.*)!%&!(&!.4/)2!/$)!*)&:-/!.4!+%&&(/%&4(0/%.2!&))2!%2!/$)!

+)&%12!'*.0)&&>!.*!/$)!*)&:-/&!.4!/)&/%21!'*.0)&&)&7!R!&%6'-)!(0/!.4!*)4*(6%21!/$(/!

@&.-,)&A!(!'*.3-)6!3;!@:&%21!%/A!9(&!&))2!%2!/$)!+)&%12!.4!1,-'23"#,!<!S*()6)!

Q),%2)!(2+!K.3!f(2+)*.&!(+('/)+!/.!(!6(h.*!.3&/(0-)!.*!)**.*!%2!/$)!4.--.9%21!

9(;!BQ)6(*%(!(2+!U%-&.2>!GHHGEa!!

4567' ().89":' ,-";' "&+.3&,")"!' ,3)&"!' $&,.' *' /"*,3)"' $&' ,-"' %*:"<'

=-";' #-.,' *99' ,-"' *+,.)#' *%*$&#,' 893"' #+)""&#0' 83,' *((*)"&,9;0' ,-";'

"$,-")' 3#"!' ,-"' >).&%' #-*!"' ./' 893"' .)' #-.39!' -*?"' 3#"!' *' %)""&'

#+)""&<'@-*,"?")',-"'().89":'>*#0'"?");'$:*%"'-*!'*'%-.#,9;'*3)*'

*).3&!'$,0'*&!'$,'>*#'().-$8$,$?"9;'"A("&#$?"'*&!',$:"'+.&#3:$&%',.'

)":.?"' *99' ,-.#"' ($A"9#0' #.' ,-";' ,3)&"!' ,-"' *+,.)#' $&,.' %-.#,#0' *&!'

*!*(,"!',-"'%*:"',.'/$,',-"'%)*(-$+#<B'

!

3"&>A$%( "@*%$1"%'( O*<.<( '>:'101>10"/( P( $'( Q$&&0/.R( "%( Q%*5"20/.R( &*'0./(

*A*5*/1'SD( 82!](-+9%2! (2+!Y-(*5! BGHHHE>! &:3&/%/:/%.2! %&! (! 4:2+(6)2/(-! -.1%0(-!

.')*(/%.2>!(&0*%3)+!&/(/:&!(&!.2)!.4!.2-;!&),)*(-!6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*&7!U%/$%2!/$)!

+)&%12!'*.0)&&>! /$%&!6)0$(2%&6! %&! (:/.6(/%0(--;! (&&:6)+>! (&! +)&%12)*&! 0$(21)!

+)&%12&>!(2+!&9%/0$!&.-:/%.2&!%2!(2+!.:/7!8!/$%25!%/!%&!6.*)!4:2+(6)2/(-!/$(2!/$(/>!

Page 17: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "I!

3)0(:&)>! (&! ')*! ](-+9%2! (2+! Y-(*5>! &:3&/%/:/%.2! %2,.-,)&! &)-)0/%21! .:/! .*! %2!

)-)6)2/&!.4!(!+)&%12>!(2+!%&!+))'-;!*)-(/)+!/.!4*(6%21!B&%20)!(-/)*2(/)!4*(6)&!9%--!

-)(+! /.! +%44)*)2/! )-)6)2/&! 3)%21! )6'$(&%J)+>! .*! -)4/! .:/! %2! /$)! *)+)&%12E7! #$)!

./$)*! 6.+:-(*! .')*(/.*&! +.! (-&.! 4%2+! (! '-(0)! %2! +)&0*%3%21! (&')0/&! .4! 1(6)!

+)&%12>! 3:/! /$)! +)1*))! %&! 6.*)! (/! (! -.1%0(-! -),)-! /$(2! (/! (! 0*)(/%,)! -),)-! .4!

)?'*)&&%.27! 8! $(,)! -)4/! .:/! /$)! 6.+:-(*! .')*(/.*&! .4! &'-%//%21! B9$%0$! %&! 6.*)!

*)-(/)+! /.! )21%2))*%21E>! )?0-:+%21! B9$%0$! %&! (-*)(+;! &.6)9$(/! *)-(/)+! /.!

&:3&/%/:/%.2E>! .*! /$(/! $(,)! 2./! 4.:2+! /$)%*! )=:%,(-)2/! %2! +)&%12! B(:16)2/%21E>!

(2+!%2,)*&%.2!B9$%0$!$(&!(2!)=:%,(-)2/!)?'*)&&%.2!%2!0*)(/%,)!/$%25%21!P!9$%0$!

%&! 2./! (! 4.0:&! .4! /$%&! &/:+;E7! 8! $(,)! (-&.! -)4/! .:/! &.6)! .4! /$)!6.*)! 1(6)<! (2+!

6)+%(<&')0%4%0! )-)6)2/&! &:0$! (&! 2(**(/%,)! +)&%12! (2+! ./$)*! 4.*6&! .4! B'-(;)*E!

'*.1*)&&%.27! 82! (! +)&0*%3%21! $%&! '(/$<3*)(5%21! )(*-;! 1(6)! %2! (2! %&&:)! .4!

C.:(3,")' 2*:$&%'@.)9!>!D<E<F<G<>! Q(22;! ]:2/)2<])**;! '.%2/)+! .:/! $.9! 3./$!

(++%/%.2&!(2+!&:3&/%/:/%.2&!.00:**)+a!!

4@$,-'.3)':*$&'!"#$%&'+.&+"(,#'*#',-"'#H"9",.&'*&!'.3)'#+"&*)$.#',.'

4/9"#-' .3,B' .3)' $!"*#0'>"'8"%*&' ,.' !"#$%&' ,-"'>*;' ,-"' %*:"'>.39!'

9..H'*&!'>.)H'5$&+93!$&%',-"'H$&!#'./',"))*$&0'+.::.!$,$"#0'*&!',-"'

)39"#7I6#' >"' >"&,' *9.&%' >"' !"?"9.("!' :*&;' ./' ,-"' !",*$9#' ,-*,'

:*!"' ,-"' %*:"' /9.>' 8",,")I' 5/.)' "A*:(9"7' @"' *!!"!' 4,$+H$&%'

,$:")#BID*&;' ,-$&%#' >")"' *9#.' ,*H"&' .3,' *#' ,-"' !"#$%&' >*#'

"A"+3,"!I=-"'9*#,'($"+"#'>)$,,"&'$&,.',-"'%*:"'>")"',-"'8"#,'*#'/*)'

*#'J'>*#'+.&+")&"!B'

!

8"%10/.($'(9&$@1$10"/D!#$)!6.+:-(*!.')*(/.*!.4!'.*/%21!$(&!(2!%2/)*)&/%21!

)=:%,(-)2/!%2!/$(/!%/!%2,.-,)&!(+('/(/%.27!82!/)*6&!.4!6)+%(!(2+!9.*-+!0*)(/%.2>!

Page 18: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "[!

$)(,;!:&(1)!.4!(!6)0$(2%&6!/$(/!8!-(3)-!(+('/%21!/(5)&!'-(0)7!e.*!%2&/(20)>!/$)!

/*(2&4)*!.4!52.9-)+1)!4*.6!.2)!@9.*-+A!/.!(2./$)*!B)717!4*.6!/$)!*)(-!/.!/$)!

,%*/:(-E!9(&!&))2!9%/$!K$9"&,'K")?$+">!.2)!.4!/$)!4%*&/!&:36(*%2)!&%6:-(/%.2&!/.!

+)'%0/!/$)!@*)(-!9.*-+A!.4!&:36(*%2)!9(*4(*)!(&!(!&%6:-(/%.27!82!$%&!+)&%12)*!2./)!

.2!K$9"&,'K")?$+"!':3-%&$)+!%2!Y.6':/)*!S(6%21!U.*-+!B(!*)&')0/)+!3:/!2.9!

+)4:20/!6(1(J%2)E>!V)%)*!+%&0:&&)+!/$)!%+)(!.4!6.+)-%21!/$)!*)(-!9.*-+a!

4,-"'*++"9")*,"!L)"*9',$:"'5/"*,3)"7I>*#'!"#$%&"!',.'.?")+.:"',-"'

!$//$+39,;' ,-*,' -*#' 8"#",' :.#,' ()"?$.3#' +.:(3,")' #38:*)$&"'

#$:39*,$.&#M' ,-"' /*+,' ,-*,' #38:*)$&"' >*)/*)"' $#' #.' "($#.!$+0I6#' *'

+.&#"N3"&+"0' !"#$%&#' -*?"' ,"&!"!' ,.' #$:(9$/;' *&!' !$#,.),' ,-"'

#$,3*,$.&' $&'.)!")' ,.' +)"*,"'*':.)"'*)+*!"L9$H"' /""9$&%<' J&' +.&,)*#,0'

.3)' /$)#,'!"#$%&'!"+$#$.&'>*#' ,.':*H"' ,-"' #$:39*,$.&'*#' )"*9$#,$+'*#'

(.##$89"' 5,-"' #"+.&!' !"#$%&' !"+$#$.&' 8"$&%' ,.' (9*+"' ,-"' (9*;")' $&,.'

,-"'+*(,*$&O#').9"7<B'

'

R&!0(2!3)!&))2!4*.6!/$%&!4*(16)2/>!(+('/%21!B%7)7!/$)!1(6)!+)&%12!)=:%,(-)2/!.4!

'.*/%21E!%2,.-,)&!/$)!./$)*!6)0$(2%&6&!&:0$!(&!&'-%//%21!B/.!6.+:-(*%J)E!(2+!

&:3&/%/:/%.2!B/.!%6'*.,)!/$)!'-(;!.4!/$)!1(6)E7!!

!

TA*/&0/.D(R2!%6'.*/(2/!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6!/$(/!$(&!3))2!-)4/!.:/!(-6.&/!(--!

+)&%12!+%&0:&&%.2&!&.!4(*!%&!3-)2+%217!Y.20)'/:(-!3-)2+%21!$(&!(0/:(--;!3))2!

0.2&%+)*)+!/.!3)!(!4:2+(6)2/(-!0.12%/%,)!(0/!Be(:0.22%)*!(2+!#:*2)*!GHHGE>!3:/!

0(2!3)!0.2&%+)*)+!/.!3)!/$)!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6!+))'-;!%6'-%0(/)+!%2!(2;!$%1$)*!

-),)-!%22.,(/%.2!/$).*;!*)-(/%21!/.!0.63%2(/%.2!B&))!4.*!)?(6'-)>!R*/$:*!GHH[E7!

M*%1%2(--;>!(2(-.1%0(-!/$%25%21!9(&!/$)!+)4(:-/!6)0$(2%&6!4.*!+)&0*%3%21!3-)2+&>!

Page 19: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "c!

(2+!$(&!3;!2.9!3))2!9%+)-;!:&)+!%2!)?'-(%2%21!9.*5!P!3./$!&0%)2/%4%0!(2+!

&/*(/)1%0!Bf.,(--.>!Y-(*5)>!i!Y(6)*)*>!GH"GE7!X.9),)*>!9$(/!/$%&!+.)&!2./!)?'-(%2!

%&!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!(&!(!0.63%2(/%,)!P!/$)!0.2/*%3:/%.2!.4!R*/$:*!BR*/$:*!GHH[>!

GHHOE7!#$%&!%&!&$.92!%2!/$)!4.--.9%21!/)?/!(3.:/!/$)!.*%1%2(-!P)$&+"'./'P")#$*'

1(6)!B9$%0$!8!(-&.!$(,)!(*0$%,(-!+(/(!.2!9$.&)!+),)-.'6)2/Ea!

4=-"' :.#,' !$)"+,' $&#($)*,$.&I' 5,-"' %*:"' =-"' C*#,9"#' ./' Q.+,.)'

C)""(7'-*!' ,-"#"' $&%"&$.3#'(3RR9"#'./' ,-"'S38"'2.9!8")%' #.),I'K.0'

,-"' .&"L#"&,"&+"' $!"*' /.)' P)$&+"' ./' P")#$*' >*#' ,.' !.' *' %*:"' ,-*,'

+.:8$&"!' ,-"' $&%"&3$,;' ./' =-"' C*#,9"#' ./' Q.+,.)' C)""(' >$,-' ,-"'

#:..,-' *&$:*,$.&' ./' T*)*,"H*I6&.,-")' $&#($)*,$.&' >*#' ,-"' /$)#,'

"$%-,':$&3,"#'./'S*$!")#'./' ,-"'F.#,'6)H<' J'>*&,"!',.':*H"'*'%*:"'

>$,-',-*,'H$&!'./'*+,$.&'/""9$&%',.'$,<'6&!',-"&',-")"'>*#',-"'6)*8$*&'

U$%-,#'#",,$&%<' J'>*#' 9..H$&%' /.)'*'#",,$&%',-*,'-*!&O,'8""&'!.&"',.'

!"*,-'$&'+.:(3,")'%*:"#<B'B'7!L\H>!K.:&)>!GHHGE7!

!

U$)*)(&!/$)!4%*&/!3-)2+!6(;!3)!(2!(0/!.4!%2&%1$/!.*!@%2&/(2/!3-)2+A>!/.!%6'-)6)2/!

/$%&!%+)(!6(;!*)=:%*)!6(2;!./$)*!(0/&!.4!0.63%2(/%.2!(2+!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&7!

!

]-)2+%21!%&!(-&.!%6'-%)+!%2!(0/&!.4!0*)(/%,%/;>!/$.:1$!%/!%&!$(*+)*!/.!&/:+;!/$)!

0*)(/%,)!'*.0)&&!/$(2!@)?%&/%21!(0/&A!(&!&))2!%2!+)&%127!8/!%&!(-&.!9.*/$!'.%2/%21!

.:/!/$(/!/$)!./$)*!+)&%12!/$%25%21!6)0$(2%&6&!.4!(3+:0/%.2!B.*!'*.&')0/%,)!

/$%25%21E!+.!2./!)?'-(%2!/$)!'*.0)&&)&!.4!+)&%12!/$(/!(*)!%2,.5)+!3;!0.63%2(/%,)!

4.*6&!.4!0*)(/%,%/;!(2+!&)*)2+%'%/;>!.*!9.*&)!B&(;!%2!/$)!)?/*)6)!4.*6&!.4!+)&%12!

&0%)20)E>!&:3&:6)!&:0$!1)2)*(/%,)!'*.0)&&)&!/.!9$(/!&))6&!/.!3)!(!&0%)2/%4%0(--;<

%20-%2)+!'*.0)&&7!e:*/$)*>!(2!(0/:(-!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!%2,.-,)&!6.*)!%/)*(/%,)!

Page 20: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! "O!

'*.0)&&)&!)63.+;%21!/$)!&)/!.4!6)0$(2%&6&!3)%21!'(%+!.:/!P!/.!/*;!.:/!%+)(&>!

,(-%+(/)!/$)6>!(2+!*)h)0/!.*!)63*(0)!/$)67!!

!

F1014)0/.D(R2./$)*!6)0$(2%&6>!4.--.9%21!4*.6!R*/$:*!BGHHOE>!%&!/$)!%+)(!.4!

&/%/0$%217!W/%/0$%21!%2,.-,)&!3-)2+%21>!3:/!-%5)!(+('/%21>!%/!%2,.-,)&!./$)*!$%1$)*!

0.12%/%,)!(3%-%/%)&!2))+)+!/.!@6(5)!&)2&)A!.4!/$)!+)&%12!4*.6!/$)!:&)*D&!

')*&')0/%,)7!#$(/!%&>!%/!%2,.-,)&!/$)!+)&%12!)=:%,(-)2/!.4!&)2&)<6(5%217!8/!%2,.-,)&!

&.6)!)6'(/$%0!:2+)*&/(2+%21!.4!9$(/!/$)!:&)*!)?')*%)20)&7!W/%/0$%21!%&!.4/)2!

0.2,);)+!%2!1(6)!+)&%12!/$*.:1$!/$)!+),)-.'6)2/!.4!(!2(**(/%,)!/.!@&/%/0$A!/$)!

1(6)!/.1)/$)*>!3:/!0.:-+!(-&.!3)!)6'-.;)+!/.!0.63%2)!/9.!.*!6.*)!)-)6)2/&!

/.1)/$)*!%2!(!6.*)!&)(6-)&&!(2+!)-)1(2/!B%7)7!3)//)*!)?')*%)20)+E!6(22)*>!.*!/.!

*)+:0)!0.6'-)?%/;!3;!*)6.,%21!)-)6)2/&!9$%-)!@&/%/0$%21A!3(05!/$)!*)6(%2%21!

0.6'.2)2/&7!82!/$%&!&)2&)>!%2!6;!)6'-.;6)2/!.4!/$)!0.20)'/>!&/%/0$%21!$(&!6.*)!

/.!+.!9%/$!/$)!:&)*!)?')*%)20)!/$(2!%/!+.)&!9%/$!/$)!)21%2))*)+!%6'-)6)2/(/%.2!

.4!/$)!1(6)!B)2&:*%21!%/!9.*5&!/.1)/$)*!(/!/$)!0.+)!-),)-E7!S(6)!+)&%12)*&!$(,)!

/.!6(5)!&)2&)!.4!/$)!'*.+:0/!(&!/$);!%/)*(/%,)-;!%6'*.,)!%/7!W/%/0$%21!0(2!(-&.!3)!

0.2&%+)*)+!/.!3)!(!$%1$)*!-),)-!6)0$(2%&6!(&!%/!(--.9&!/$)!+)&%12)*!/.!)6'-(0)!

/$)!0.6'.2)2/!%2!(!'(*/%0:-(*!-.1%0(-!.*!0*)(/%,)!.*+)*>!/.!*)0.22)0/!/$)6!

+%44)*)2/-;!B(5%2!/.!&:3&/%/:/%.2!(2+!*)<3-)2+%21E>!.*!/.!*)6.,)!/$)6!B%7)7>!

&:3&/%/:/%.2E7!C"&,$("!"!0*)(/.*!`+!f.11!2./)+!$.9!(++%/%.2&!9)*)!&/%/0$)+!%2!

.20)!$)!$(+!/$)!3(&%0!0.20)'/a!

BIQ*&' V*&' G9!")"&' *#H"!' >-;' ,-"' (9*;")' +.39!' &.,' #-..,'

:3#-)..:#<'J')"*9$R"!'"*)9;'J'>.39!'&""!'#.:"':"*&#',.'+)"*,"'&">'

:3#-)..:#<'=-$#'9"!',.'.&"'8"$&%'9"/,'>-"&'*'+"&,$("!"'#"%:"&,'>*#'

#-.,<' J' *9#.' +)"*,"!' ,-"' /9"*' >-$+-' 9"/,' *' ,)*$9' ./' ,-":' >-"&' -"'

Page 21: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! GH!

!).(("!' ,.' +)"*,"' :.)"' )*&!.:&"##' $&' ,-"' (*,,")&IB' BK.:&)>! '7!

"HGE7!

!

8!$(,)!&:*4(0)+!(!4)9!./$)*!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&>!(2+!&),)*(-!-.1%0(-!.2)&!B)717!

.2)!.2!0)2/*(-%J(/%.2E>!3:/!6.&/!.4!/$)&)!(*)!-)&&!0.2&)=:)2/%(-!4.*!0('/:*%21!/$)!

4:--!+)&%12!'*.0)&&)&!&))2!%2!6;!+(/(7!8!&:36%/!/$(/!8!$(,)!-(%+!.:/!(!&)/!.4!0.*)!

6)0$(2%&6&>!%20-:+%21!.2)&!2./!&))2!%2!6.&/!'(&/!+)&%12!&/:+%)&7!

(

U<(-"/4A>'0"/'(

(

#$%&!'(')*!+%&0:&&)&!&.6)!.4!/$)!/$)6)&!)6)*1%21!4*.6!(2!%/)*(/%,)!/$).*)/%0(-!

+),)-.'6)2/!3)/9))2!(2!)6'%*%0(-!+)&%12!&)//%21!(2+!5);!'*.'.&)+!

6)0$(2%&6&!.4!6)&.<&0(-)!+)&%12!/$).*;7!#$)&)!(*)!/$)!-(;%21!.:/!.4!(!

/$).*)/%0(-!3(&%&!4.*!$.9!,(*%.:&!0.12%/%,)!6)0$(2%&6&!(2+!6)(2&!.4!$:6(2!

*)4-)0/%.2!0(2!'.*/*(;!+)&%12!'*.0)&&)&>!(2+!$)-'!:&!)?'-(%2!+)&%12!.:/0.6)&7!R!

&%+)!3)2)4%/!.4!/$)&)!%&!/$(/!/$);!(*)!1)2)*(/%,)>!(--.9%21!+)&%12&!/.!),.-,)!

0.2&%+)*(3-;>!(2+!$)20)>!(,.%+%21!/$)!/*('&[email protected]':/(/%.2(-!0.6'-)?%/;A!/$(/!

/$)!/$%25%21!/$(/!X)*3)*/!W%6.2!%2/)2/%.2(--;!(2+!:2%2/)2/%.2(--;!@'-(0)+A!

+)&%12!@4%)-+&A!:2+)*7!8/!%&!9.*/$!0.2/*(&/%21!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!(&!:2+)*&/..+!%2!

/$%&!'(')*!9%/$!/$(/!)(*-%)*!,%)9!.4!(!+)&%12!&0%)20)>!3)0(:&)!/$%&!%--:&/*(/)&!/$)!

0-(&&%0(-!+)&%12!'*.3-)6!.4!$(,%21!/.!)?'-.*)!6:0$!9%+)*!(!&'(0)!/$(2!%&!

'.&&%3-)7!82!W%6.2D&!/)*6&!BW%6.2!"OIOE>!3.:2+)+!*(/%.2(-%/;!9.:-+!$(,)!3))2!

)6'-.;)+!(&!/$)!'*%6(*;!%2&/*:6)2/!(2+!0.6':/(/%.2(-!6)(2&!:&)+!/.!&.-,)!/$)!

@%2/*(0/(3-)A!'*.3-)67!X.9),)*>!8!&:36%/!/$(/!/$%&!+.)&!2./!6.+)-!/$)!*)(-%/;!.4!(!

/*:)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&>!.*!)24.-+!%/&!'(*(+%167!!

Page 22: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! G"!

!

8!9.:-+!2./)!/$(/!%2$)*)2/!9%/$%2!(--!.4!/$)&)!0.20)'/&!%&!(!52.9-)+1)<3(&)+!

,%)9!.4!$.9!'*.0)&&!),.-,)&7!R&%+)!4*.6!/$)!4(0/!/$(/!/$)!(*/%4(0/!%&!0.2/%2:%21!/.!

),.-,)!+:*%21!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&>!2)9!52.9-)+1)!%&!(/!/%6)&!)2/)*%21!/$)!+)&%12!

'*.0)&&>!'(*/-;!/$*.:1$!*)0.--)0/%.2&>!3:/!&.6)/%6)&!/$*.:1$!2)9!%2&'%*(/%.2&7!

#$%&!52.9-)+1)!&.6)/%6)&!)2/)*&!/$*.:1$!/$)!+.6(%2!%/&)-4!(&!B1(6)E!+.6(%2!

52.9-)+1)>!3:/!&.6)/%6)&!.*%1%2(/)&!4*.6!./$)*!+.6(%2&>!(2+!$)20)>!(&!

@)?/)*2(-</.</$)<+.6(%2A!52.9-)+1)>!0(2!/*(2&4.*6!/$)!B1(6)&E!+.6(%27!!

!

M2)!%6'-%0(/%.2!/$(/!%&!'.&&%3-)!%&!.*1(2%J(/%.2(-!+)&%12!B.*!(2;!$:6(2<6(+)!

4.*6D&!+)&%12E!'*.0)&&)&!6%1$/!3)!(3-)!/.!)6'-.;!&.6)!.4!/$)!@+)&%12!*:-)&A!/$(/!

/$)&)!6)0$(2%&6&!)63.+;>!(--.9%21!/$)!0*)(/%.2!.4!.*1(2%J(/%.2(-!+)&%12&!4*.6!

(!&)/!.4!@3.//.6!:'!*:-)&A!BK.66)>!GHHLE7!

(

8!(-&.!3)-%),)!/$(/!/$)&)!6)0$(2%&6&!$)-'!)?'-(%2!9$(/!%&!$('')2%21!%2!1(6)&!(&!

1(6)&!(*)!)&&)2/%(--;!(!0:-/:*(--;!%24-:)20)+!'*.+:0/>!(2+!$)20)>!(*)!6:0$!6.*)!

6(--)(3-)7!#$)&)!6)0$(2%&6&!(-&.!*)4-)0/!9$(/!%&!52.92!%2!/$)!+)&%12!-%/)*(/:*)!

.2!0.12%/%.27!#$)&)!5%2+&!.4!0.12%/%.2!0(2!3)!.3&)*,)+!%2!+)&%12!/$%25%21!

'*.0)&&)&!(&!'*(0/%0)+!%2!3:&%2)&&!&0$..-&>!)717!%2!/$)!'*.0)&&!.4!3:&%2)&&!6.+)-!

%22.,(/%.27!

!

L*,*%*/4*'(

(

R*/$:*>!U7!]7!BGHH[E7!#$)!&/*:0/:*)!.4!%2,)2/%.2>!K)&)(*0$!N.-%0;>!LI!BGEa!G[b<

Gc[>!GHH[!

!

R*/$:*>!U7!]7!BGHHOE7!=-"'&*,3)"'./',"+-&.9.%;M'@-*,'$,'$#'*&!'-.>'$,'"?.9?"#7!

W%6.2!(2+!W0$:&/)*7!

!

Page 23: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! GG!

](-+9%2>!Y7!j7!BGHHcE7!U$)*)!+.!/*(2&(0/%.2&!0.6)!4*.6d!V.+:-(*%/;>!

/*(2&(0/%.2&>!(2+!/$)!3.:2+(*%)&!.4!4%*6&7!82+:&/*%(-!(2+!Y.*'.*(/)!Y$(21)>!

"[B"E>!"\\<"O\7!

!

](-+9%2>!Y7!j7>!i!Y-(*5>!k7!]7!BGHHHE7!Q"#$%&')39"#M'=-"'(.>")'./':.!39*)$,;!B_.-7!

"E7!V8#!'*)&&7!

!

]*.92>!#7!BGH"bE7!Y$(21)!3;!+)&%127!X(*')*Y.--%2&7!

!

]:0$(2(2>!K7!B"OOGE7!U%05)+!'*.3-)6&!%2!+)&%12!/$%25%217!Q)&%12!8&&:)&>!\<G"7!

!

Y.2&/(2/>!`7!U7!B"OcGE7!#$)!M*%1%2&!.4!/$)!#:*3.h)/!K),.-:/%.2>!Z2%,)*&%/;!.4!

Y$%0(1.!N*)&&7!

!

Q)6(*%(>!K7!(2+!F7!f7!U%-&.2!BGHHLE7!X%1$!W0.*)la!#$)!8--:&/*(/)+!X%&/.*;!.4!

`-)0/*.2%0!S(6)&7!V0S*(9!X%--<M&3.*2)7!

!

Q.*&/>!k7>!i!Y*.&&>!m7!BGHH"E7!Y*)(/%,%/;!%2!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&a!0.<),.-:/%.2!.4!

'*.3-)6P&.-:/%.27!Q)&%12!W/:+%)&>!GGB\E>!bG\<bL[7!

!

e(:0.22%)*>! S7! (2+! #:*2)*>!V7! BGHHGE7!=-"'@*;'@"'=-$&HM'C.&+"(,3*9'W9"&!$&%'

*&!',-"'D$&!X#'Y$!!"&'C.:(9"A$,$"#7!](&%0!]..5&!

!

e:--)*/.2>!#7!BGH"bE7!S(6)!+)&%12!9.*5&$.'a!(!'-(;0)2/*%0!(''*.(0$!/.!0*)(/%21!

%22.,(/%,)!1(6)&7!YKY!N*)&&7!

!

X)2+)*&.2>!K7!V7>!i!Y-(*5>!k7!]7!B"OOHE7!R*0$%/)0/:*(-!%22.,(/%.2a!#$)!

*)0.24%1:*(/%.2!.4!)?%&/%21!'*.+:0/!/)0$2.-.1%)&!(2+!/$)!4(%-:*)!.4!)&/(3-%&$)+!

4%*6&7!R+6%2%&/*(/%,)!W0%)20)!n:(*/)*-;>!O<LH7!

!

F(0.3%+)&>!V7!S7>!i!]%--%21)*>!W7!BGHHIE7!Q)&%12%21!/$)!3.:2+(*%)&!.4!/$)!4%*6a!

e*.6!@6(5)>!3:;>!.*!(--;A!/.!/$)!+;2(6%0!3)2)4%/&!.4!,)*/%0(-!(*0$%/)0/:*)7!

M*1(2%J(/%.2!W0%)20)>!"[BGE>!GbO<GI"7!

!

f(9&.2>!]7!BGHHIE7!X.9!+)&%12)*&!/$%25a!/$)!+)&%12!'*.0)&&!+)6;&/%4%)+7!

K.:/-)+1)7!

!

f.05/.2>!Q7>!X(**%&.2>!Q7>!W/(2/.2>!m7R7!BGH"LE7!C`?'-.*%21!+)&%12!'(//)*2&!4.*!

&:&/(%2(3-)!3)$(,%.:*D7!#$)!Q)&%12!F.:*2(-!_.-7"I!m.7!b>!''7!bL"<b\O>!GH"L7!

!

f.,(--.>!Q7>!Y-(*5)>!Y7>!i!Y(6)*)*>!Y7!BGH"GE7!K.3:&/!(2(-.1%J%21!(2+!/$)!.:/&%+)!

,%)9a!/9.!)6'%*%0(-!/)&/&!.4!0(&)<3(&)+!+)0%&%.2!6(5%217!W/*(/)1%0!V(2(1)6)2/!

F.:*2(->!LLB\E>!bOI<\"G7!

!

V(*/%2>!K7!f7!BGHHOE7!#$)!+)&%12!.4!3:&%2)&&a!9$;!+)&%12!/$%25%21!%&!/$)!2)?/!

0.6')/%/%,)!(+,(2/(1)7!X(*,(*+!]:&%2)&&!N*)&&7!

!

M9)2>!Y7!f7!B"OOcE7!Q)&%12!*)&)(*0$a!3:%-+%21!/$)!52.9-)+1)!3(&)7!Q)&%12!

W/:+%)&>!"OB"E>!O<GH7!

Page 24: Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms for Understanding ... · Paper to be presented at DRUID15, Rome, June 15-17, 2015 (Coorganized with LUISS) Towards a Theory of Cognitive Mechanisms

! GL!

!

K%)&>!`7!BGH""E7!#$)!-)(2!&/(*/:'a!X.9!/.+(;o&!)2/*)'*)2):*&!:&)!0.2/%2:.:&!

%22.,(/%.2!/.!0*)(/)!*(+%0(--;!&:00)&&4:-!3:&%2)&&)&7!K(2+.6!X.:&)!ffY7!

!

K.66)>!R7!S7!f7!BGHHLE7!V(5%21!(!+%44)*)20)a!M*1(2%J(/%.2!(&!+)&%127!

Z)%*&$R*,$.&'K+$"&+">!"bB\E>!\\c<\[L7!

!

K.:&)>!K7!888!BGHHGE7!2*:"'Q"#$%&M'=-".);'*&!'P)*+,$+"7!U.*+9(*)7!

!

W(-)2>!k7>!i!g%66)*6(2>!`7!BGHHbE7!K:-)&!.4!'-(;a!S(6)!+)&%12!4:2+(6)2/(-&7!

V8#!'*)&&7!

!

W0$p2>!Q7!R7!B"OcLE7!=-"')"/9"+,$?"'()*+,$,$.&")M'Y.>'()./"##$.&*9#',-$&H'$&'*+,$.&!

B_.-7!\"GIE7!](&%0!3..5&7!

!

W0$p2>!Q7!R7!B"OcbE7!N*.3-)6&>!4*(6)&!(2+!')*&')0/%,)&!.2!+)&%12%217!Q)&%12!

W/:+%)&>!\BLE>!"LG<"LI7!

!

W%6.2>!X7!R7!B"OIOE7!#$)!&0%)20)&!.4!/$)!(*/%4%0%(-!B_.-7!"LIE7!V8#!'*)&&7!

!

#&0$(21>!e7!#7!BGHH[E7!](-(20%21!/$)!/)2&%.2&!3)/9))2!*(/%.2(-%J(/%.2!(2+!

0*)(/%,%/;!%2!/$)!,%+).!1(6)&!%2+:&/*;7!M*1(2%J(/%.2!W0%)20)>!"cBIE>!OcO<"HH\7!

!

Z//)*3(05>!F7!V7>!i!R3)*2(/$;>!U7!F7!B"O[\E7!R!+;2(6%0!6.+)-!.4!'*.0)&&!(2+!

'*.+:0/!%22.,(/%.27!M6)1(>!LBIE>!ILO<I\I7!

!

_%20)2/%>!U7!S7!B"OOHE7!U$(/!)21%2))*&!52.9!(2+!$.9!/$);!52.9!%/7!](-/%6.*)a!

#$)!F.$2!X.'5%2&!Z2%,)*&%/;!N*)&&7!

!

U..+(*+>!Y7!F7>!K(6(&:33:>!m7>!#&0$(21>!e7!#7>!i!W(63(6:*/$;>!_7!BGH"GE7!Q)&%12!

0('%/(-!(2+!+)&%12!6.,)&a!/$)!-.1%0!.4!+%1%/(-!3:&%2)&&!&/*(/)1;7!V8W!n:(*/)*-;7!

(

(