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Technical PaperTP01: Trends in Motor Vehicles and their Emissions
Advisory Committee on Tunnel Air QualityAuthor: NSW Environment Protection Authority
November 2018
2
Key Points
• Australian new vehicle emission standards are set out in the Australian Design Rules (ADRs) and have been progressivelyandsignificantlyimprovedoverthelast40years.
• The National Fuel Quality Standards have progressively required cleaner fuels to complement the ADRs andenableuseofimprovedemissioncontroltechnology.ProposedreformstotheStandardsareunderway,focusingonpetrol,becauseAustralia’spetrolisnotashighqualityaspetrolinotherOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)countries.
• Emissionsfromthein-servicevehiclefleet(i.e.thevehiclesdriveninNSW)havesignificantlyreducedasaconsequenceofthemorestringentemissionstandardsandcleanerfuel.
• Vehiclekilometrestravelled(VKT)areincreasingsteadily,withpassengervehicleVKTincreasinginlinewithpopulationgrowthataroundonepercentannually,whilefreightvehicleVKTisgrowinginlinewitheconomicgrowthattwotothreepercentannually.
• InspiteoftheincreaseinVKT,thestrongreductioninvehicleemissionrateshasresultedinsignificantreductionsintotalfleetemissions,andthesereductionsareprojectedtocontinueoverthenext10–20years.
• Heavydutydieselvehiclesandinparticularrigidtrucks,aredisproportionatelyhighcontributorstoexhaustparticulatematteremissions.
• AsthenewervehiclesinthefleethavesignificantlyreducedemissionsduetothetighterADRs,theoldervehiclesinthefleetbuilttolessstringentstandardsmakeasignificantanddisproportionatelyhighcontributiontothetotalfleetemissions.
• Fleet composition in terms of both vehicle type and age classes are important factors determining the level of emissionsfromanyspecificroadcorridor.
3
ContentsKey Points 2
1. National Vehicle Emission Standards 4
2. National Fuel Standards 6
3. In-service Fleet Performance 7
4. Vehicle Kilometres Travelled 8
5. Motor Vehicle NSW GMR Air Emission Inventory Projections 9
5.1 Emissioncontributionbyvehicletype 10
5.2 Emissioncontributionbyage 12
6. References 14
Appendix A: Australian ADR Emission Limits 15
4
1. National Vehicle Emission Standards
Newon-roadmotorvehicleemissionstandardsaresetbytheAustralianGovernmentviatheADRs.ThefirstADRgoverningvehicleemissionswassetin1972withADR26,whichsetalimitfortheexhaustconcentrationofcarbonmonoxide(CO)atidle.ThiswasfollowedbyADR27in1974whichintroducedstandardsbasedonmassof emissions per kilometre (g/km) measured under a transient drive cycle designed to represent urban driving conditions.Thefirstemissionstandardfordieselvehicleswassetin1976underADR30/00withtheadoptionofUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEuropeRegulation24/00whichsetlimitsforexhaustopacity(smoke)understeadystateloadedconditions.The emission standards for light and heavy duty vehicles have been progressively tightened over time based variouslyonUnitedStates(US)andEuropeanUnion(EU)standards.ThecurrentAustralianlightdutyvehicleemissionstandardsareapproximately20–30timeslowerthantheoriginaldrivecycle-basedstandardsinforcein1976,whilecurrentheavydutydieselstandardsarefourtimeslowerforNOx and more than 10 times lower for PMthanthosefirstintroducedin1995.Inadditiontothereductioninemissionlimits,therequireddurabilityofemissioncontrolshasbeensignificantlyextended.ThehistoryofAustralianstandardsforpetrolpassengercars,dieselpassengercarsandheavydutydieselenginesissummarisedinTable1,Table2andTable3.ChartsdisplayingtheADRsareincludedinAppendixA.1 Current emission standards in Australia are Euro 5 standards for new passenger cars and Euro V for new heavy dutyvehicles.TheAustralianGovernment’sMinisterialForumonVehicleEmissionsiscurrentlyconsideringadoptionoftheEuro6standardsforlightvehiclesandEuroVIstandardsforheavyvehiclesin2020,laggingEuropeby5–7years.Euro6standardsextendthelimitonparticlenumberintroducedforlightdutydieselvehicleswithEuro5toincludethosevehiclesfittedwithpetroldirectinjectionengines.Thisisexpectedtorequirenewpetroldirectinjectionvehiclestobefittedwithanexhaustparticlefilter.EuroVIlimitsforheavydieselvehiclesareexpectedtoresultinverylargereductionsinemissionsofNOx,andEuroVIintroducesaparticlenumberlimitwhichwilldriveparticleemissionslower.Beginningin2017,theEU’semissionstype-approvalprocedureforlightvehiclesincludesanewreal-drivingemissions(RDE)testconductedusingon-boardportableemissionsmeasurementsystems(PEMS),toensurevehiclesconformtotherequiredstandardsundernormalon-roaddrivingconditions.TheRDErequirementswillbefullyimplementedbyJanuary2021andwillensurethebenefitsofreducedNOx limits are not lost through test defeatdevices.Europehasnotformallyproposedstricterfuturestandards.TheUShasrecentlybroughtinTier3standardsforlightdutyvehicleswhichby2025willbearound80percentmorestringentforNOx and non-methane hydrocarbons(NMHC)thanEuro6,whilepossiblylessstringentforPM.Table 1: Petrol passenger car emission standards (g/km)
ADR Standard Date(1) CO HC/ NMHC(2)
HC+NOx NOx Particulate Mass
PN(3) Test cycle
ADR27A(4) July 1976 24.2 2.1/– – 1.90 – – US FTP 72ADR37/00 US’75 Feb 1986 9.3 0.93/– – 1.93 – – US FTP 75ADR37/01 US’90 Jan 1999 2.1 0.26/– – 0.63 – – US FTP 75ADR79/00 Euro 2 Jan2004 2.2 –/– 0.50 – – – ECE +
EUDCADR79/01 Euro 3 Jan 2006 2.3 0.20/– – 0.15 – – NEDCADR79/02 Euro4 July 2010 1.0 0.10/– – 0.08 – – NEDCADR79/03 Euro 5 Nov 2013(5) 1.0 0.10/0.068 – 0.06 0.0045(6) – NEDCADR79/04 Euro 5 Nov 2016 1.0 0.10/0.068 – 0.06 0.0045(6) – NEDCADR79/05 Euro 6 Proposed 2020 1.0 0.10/0.068 – 0.06 0.0045(6) 6x1011(6) WLTP
1. Standardappliestoallvehiclesbuiltafterthisdate,generallyappliestonewmodelsoneyearearlier2. Non-methane hydrocarbons3. PN (particle number) per km4. ADR27Awasthefirstintroductionofg/kmlimitsforCO,hydrocarbons(HC)andNOx5. Applies to new models only6. PMandPNstandardsapplytopetroldirectinjectionenginesonly.
1 More detailed information on the ADRs may be found at http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/environment/index.aspx
5
Table 2: Diesel passenger car emission standards (g/km)
ADR Standard Date(1) CO HC/ NMHC(2)
HC+NOx NOx Particulate Mass
PN(3) Test cycle
ADR70/00 Euro 1 Jan 1996 2.72 – 0.97 – 0.14 – ECE + EUDC
ADR79/00 Euro 2 Jan 2003 1.0 – 0.70/0.90(4) – 0.08/0.10(4) – ECE + EUDC
ADR79/01 Euro4 Jan 2007 0.50 – 0.30 0.25 0.025 – NEDCADR79/02 Euro4 Jan 2010(5) 0.50 – 0.30 0.25 0.025 – NEDCADR79/03 Euro 5 Nov 2013(6) 0.50 – 0.23 0.18 0.0045 – NEDCADR79/04 Euro 5 Nov 2016 0.50 – 0.23 0.18 0.0045 6x1011 NEDCADR79/05 Euro 6 Proposed
20200.50 – 0.17 0.08 0.0045 6x1011 WLTP
1. Standardappliestoallvehiclesbuiltafterthisdate,generallyappliestonewmodelsoneyearearlier2. Non-methane hydrocarbons3. PN (particle number) per km4. Firstlimitappliestoindirectinjectionengines,secondappliestodirectinjectionengines5. SamestandardasADR79/01(Euro4)butextendstomorevehicleclasses6. Appliestonewmodelsonly,appliestoallvehiclesfromADR79/04.
Table 3: Heavy duty vehicle diesel emission standards (g/kWh)ADR Standard Date(1) CO HC/
NMHC(2)NOx Particulate
MassPN(3) Test cycle
ADR70/00 Euro I Jan 1996 4.5 1.1/– 8.0 0.36 – ECE-R49ADR80/00 Euro III Jan 2003 2.1/5.45(4) 0.66/0.78 5.0/5.0 0.10/0.16 – ESC/ETCADR80/02 Euro IV Jan 2008 1.5/4.0 0.46/0.55 3.5/3.5 0.02/0.03 – ESC/ETCADR80/03 Euro V Jan 2011 1.5/4.0 0.46/0.55 2.0/2.0 0.02/0.03 – ESC/ETCADR80/04 Euro VI Proposed
20201.5/4.0 0.13/0.16 0.4/0.46 0.01/0.01 8x1011/
6x1011WHSC/ WHTC
1. Standardappliestoallvehiclesbuiltafterthisdate,generallyappliestonewmodelsoneyearearlier.2. Non-methane hydrocarbons3. PN (particle number) per kWh4. FirstlimitappliestoESCtestcycle,secondtotheETCcycle.
6
2. National Fuel Standards
Complementingtheprogressivetighteningofthevehicleemissionstandards,thenationalfuelstandardshavealso been revised to reduce vehicle emissions in several ways:• Specificationswhichsupporttheimplementationofnewemissioncontroltechnology(e.g.eliminationoflead
inpetrolandreductionsofsulfurlevelsinfueltoenabletheuseofexhaustcatalysts)• Specificationstodirectlyreduceengine-out(i.e.beforeexhaustcatalyst)emissions(e.g.reductionsin
benzene concentrations in petrol)• Reductionofpetrolvolatilitytoreduceevaporativefuelemissions.Generally,AustralianfuelspecificationshavebeenalignedtoEuropeanfuelstandards.ThishasbeenappliedtomatchtherequirementsofvehicletechnologydesignedtotheEUemissionstandardsthatAustraliahasadopted.KeyfuelspecificationsaredetailedinTable4forpetrolandTable5fordiesel.2 Table 4: Key petrol fuel standard specifications
Property Standard Fuel Grade Implementaion DateSulfur ≤500ppm Unleaded petrol 1 Jan 2002
≤150ppm Premium unleaded petrol 1 Jan 2002≤150ppm All 1 Jan 2005≤50ppm Premium unleaded petrol 1 Jan 2008
Benzene ≤1%byvol. All 1 Jan 2006Lead ≤0.005g/L All 1 Jan 2002Olefins(1) 18%poolav.over6months;20%cap All 1Jan2004
≤18%byvol. All 1 Jan 2005Aromatics(1) 45%poolavover6months;48%cap All 1 Jan 2002
42%poolavover6months;45%cap All 1 Jan 2005Reid Vapour Pressure(2) 62 kPa from Nov to March All 1Nov2004(3)
1. Poolaverageoverallbatchesinanysixmonthperiod,capappliestoanysinglebatch2. Vapour pressure limit is NSW regulation3. Lowvolatilityfuelwasintroducedbyamemorandumofunderstandingin1998butwasnotregulatedinNSWuntil2004.
Table 5: Key diesel fuel specifications
Property Standard Implementaion DateSulfur ≤500ppm 31 Dec 2002
≤50ppm 1 Jan 2006≤10ppm 1 Jan 2009
CetaneIndex ≥46 1 Jan 2002Density 820-860 kg/m3 1 Jan 2002
820-850 kg/m3 1 Jan 2006Distillation T95 370°C 1 Jan 2002
360°C 1 Jan 2006Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons 11%bymass 1 Jan 2006
InDecember2016,theMinisterialForumonVehicleEmissionsreleasedadiscussionpaperonimprovingfuelqualitystandardsandinvitedpubliccommentuntilMarch2017.Thediscussionpaperhighlightedtwofuelparametersofparticularconcern:sulfurandoctaneinpetrol.Sulfurreducestheefficiencyofvehiclecatalyticconverters,soreducedpetrolsulfurlevelswillsignificantlyreduceemissions.Higheroctanefuelscanbeusedinhighcompressionpetrolengineswhicharemorefuelefficientandproducelessgreenhousegasemissions.A draft regulation impact statement proposing improvements to fuel standards under the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 was releasedinJanuary2018.ThesechangesaredesignedtobringkeypropertiesofAustralia’sfuelqualityintolinewithinternationalstandards.
2 More detailed information may be found at http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/environment-protection/fuel-quality/standards.
7
3. In-service Fleet Performance
Theeffectivenessofthetighteremissionstandardsonthein-servicepetrolpassengervehiclefleetisdemonstratedwithdatafromtheCommonwealth’sSecondNationalIn-ServiceEmissionStudy(NISE2)(DEWHA,2009).Theaveragehydrocarbon(HC)emissionsforthefourADRclassestestedintheNISE2projectareshowninFigure1.Thedatashownisforthe20kmAustralianCombinedUrbanEmissionDriveCycle3 (CUEDC) for both a startfromcoldandastartwithafullyhotengine.TheemissionratesareseentohavedecreasedbyanorderofmagnitudefromtheADR37/00carsofthe1990stothelatestvehiclestestedinthisproject,2006–07ADR79/01(Euro3)vehicles.ThecorrespondingNOx emissions are shown in Figure 2 and are also seen to have decreased by an order of magnitudefromADR37/00toADR79/01.The Sydney Particle Characterisation Study showed that PM2.5emissionsfromvehicleshavefallenbyaround40percentoverthelast15years,despiteincreasesinvehicleuse(ANSTO,2016).European real world in-service test data on Euro 5 and 6 petrol vehicles has demonstrated that these standards havebeeneffectiveindrivingsignificantemissionreductions.
Figure 1: HC emissions for petrol passenger vehicles from NISE2 project (DEWHA, 2009) (numbers are a percentage of hot emissions compared to cold emissions)
Figure 2: NOx emissions for petrol passenger vehicles from NISE2 project (DEWHA, 2009) (numbers are a percentage of hot emissions compared to cold emissions) 3 TheCombinedUrbanEmissionsDriveCycleisa‘real-world’vehicletestcycledevelopedfrommonitoringofthousandsof kilometresofactualvehicleoperationacrossAustraliancapitalcities.
8
VKTareestimatedbyTransportforNSW’sTransportPerformanceandAnalytics(TPA).TheTPAestimatesVKTusing sophisticated strategic transport models calibrated with pooled data from the annual NSW Household TravelSurvey(HTS)forpassengertransportandcommercialtransportsurveysforfreighttransport(BTS,2011,TDC,2010).TPAestimatesaregenerallyinagreementwithotherVKTsourcessuchastheAustralianBureauofStatisticsSurveyofMotorVehicleUse(SMVU).The TPA modelled growth in VKT for passenger vehicles and freight vehicles for the NSW greater metropolitan region(GMR)areshowninFigure3.Thevehicleclassesrepresentedbythedashedlinesrefertotherighthandaxis.ThetotalfleetannualVKTgrowthrateisaroundonepercentperyear.PassengervehiclesdominatetheVKTandgrowatpopulationgrowthofalsoaroundonepercentperyear,whileVKTgrowthratesforbothrigidandarticulatedtrucksareinlinewitheconomicgrowthataroundtwotothreepercentperyear.
Figure 3: Average weekday VKT growth 2003–2036
4. Vehicle Kilometres Travelled
120,000,000
100,000,000
80,000,000
60,000,000
40,000,000
20,000,000
12,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
6,000,000
4,000,000
2,000,000VKTAvW
eekday(C
ars,LCV)
VKTAvW
eekday(R
igid,A
rtic,Bus,M
C)
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040Year
0 0
Cars Motorcycles Articulated TrucksRigid Trucks LCV Bus
9
5. Motor Vehicle NSW GMR Emission Inventory Projections
TheNSWEnvironmentProtectionAuthority(EPA)motorvehicleemissioninventorymodelisusedtoprojecttheentirefleetemissionsfortheNSWGMRtofutureyearsasshowninFigure4(EPA,2012).VKTgrowthandcongestionareestimatedfromtheTPAdataabove,andthemodelincludesfleetturnoverandtheresultantadoptionofnewtechnology.4
TheprojectionsdepictedwiththesolidlinesinFigures4and5excludeproposedadoptionofEuro6/VIforlight/heavyvehicles.ThedashedlinesdemonstratetheimpactofadoptionofEuro6/VIanda10ppmsulfurlimitforpetrol.Theprojectionsdonotaccountforanyuptakeofhybridorelectricvehicles.In2016,newregistrationsofelectricandhybridvehiclescomprised0.1percentand1.2percentrespectivelyofnewlightvehicles.Asnewpetrolanddieselvehicleshaveverylowemissions,andthecontributionofoldervehiclesdominatesfleetemissions,alargeuptakeofelectricvehicleswouldberequiredtohavesignificantimpactonthefleetemissions.Figure4showstwolinesforPM2.5.ThelightbluelineshowsexhaustemissionsofPM2.5 and shows strong decreaseswiththepenetrationofnewtechnologyintothefleetasadirectresponsetothelargereductionsinemissionslimitsintheADRs.ExhaustPMismostlylessthan1.0µmindiameter)(PM1),andrepresentsmorethan 99 per cent of the number of PM1 particlesemittedandmorethan85–90percentofthemassofPM1 particlesemitted.AdoptionofEuro6standardsforlightvehiclesandEuroVIforheavyvehicleswouldsignificantlyreducetheprojectedPM2.5exhaustemissions.The dark blue line is the total PM2.5whichincludesnon-exhaustsourcesoftyre,brakeandroadwearaddedtotheexhaustemissions.Non-exhaustparticlescompriselargersizefractionsthanexhaustPM,withonly34percentoftotal PM as PM2.5,ofwhichsevenpercentisPM1.Asthereisnocurrentabatementtechnologyorlegislatedstandardsforthenon-exhaustsourcesofPM,emissionsfromthissourcegrowasadirectfunctionofVKT.HencethetotalPM2.5 reaches a minimum around 2026andthenstartstogrow.
Figure 4: Projected NSW GMR PM2.5 motor vehicle emissions (EPA, 2017)
The PM2.5dataonthebluelinesisplottedagainstthelefthandaxis.VKTdatarepresentedbytheredlineisplottedagainsttherighthandaxis.Note:VKTisinmillionsofkilometresperyear(millionkm/year).
4 Fulldetailsofthemotorvehicleinventorymodelaregiveninthereportathttp://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air/airinventory2008.htm with projectionassumptionsgiveninAppendixB.
PM
2.5 (
tonn
es p
er y
r)
2003 2008 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 20360
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
VK
T (M
km
per
yr)
Tot PM2.5 BAU
Exh.PM2.5 E6/VI
Exh.PM2.5 BAU
VKT (M km)
Tot PM2.5 E6/VI
10
Figure 5: Projected NSW GMR NOx and VOC motor vehicle emissions (EPA, 2017) Note:TheNOxdataisrepresentedbytheredlinesandareplottedagainsttherighthandaxis.VOCdataarerepresentedbythebluelineandareplottedagainstthelefthandaxis.
Figure5showstheprojectedemissionsofNOxandVOCemissionswithnewvehiclestandards.NOx emissions canbeseentostronglydeclineintothefutureasaresultofthenewlowemissionvehiclesenteringthefleet.Thedashed red line shows that the adoption of Euro 6/VI standards for light/heavy diesel vehicles and adoption of 10 ppmsulfurpetrolwouldsignificantlyreduceNOxemissions.Althoughmotorvehicleemissionsareprojectedtodecline,healthevidenceindicatesthatparticulatematterisanon-thresholdpollutantandO3(formedfromhydrocarbonsandoxidesofnitrogen)isalsolikelytobeanon-thresholdairpollutant.Hence,ongoingemissionreductionswillcontinuetodeliverpositivepublichealthbenefits(WHO2013,Bell&Dominici2008).ThedatatrendsshowninFigures4and5asanaggregationacrosstheGMRmaynotreflectchangesinanyonelocationorroadcorridorwhichmayhavesignificantlydifferentVKTgrowthratesandtrafficmixes.Forinstance,rigidtruckstendtobereplacedatamuchslowerratethanarticulatedtrucks.Theemissioncontributionbyvehicletypeispresentedinthenextsection.
5.1 Emission contribution by vehicle typeThe NSW EPA motor vehicle emissions inventory estimates the contribution by vehicle type to the total 2008 NSWGMRmotorvehicleemissions.ThisisshowninFigure6,Figure7andFigure8forPM10,VOCandNOx respectively.ThevehicletypeabbreviationsusedaregiveninTable6.Table 6: Vehicle type abbreviations
Abbreviation Vehicle TypeART Articulated trucks and heavy truck-trailer combinationsBUS Heavy diesel public transport busesDLCV Diesel light commercial vehicles (utes and vans)DPV Dieselpassengervehicles(carsandSUV/4WD)
HDD Heavy-dutydiesels(rigidtrucks,articulatedtrucks,heavybuses)HDCP Heavy-dutycommercialpetrol(>3,500kg)LDD Light-dutydiesels<3,500kg(lightcommercialvehiclesandcarsandSUV/4WD)MC Motor cyclesMC+HDCP Motor cycles and heavy-duty commercial petrolPLCV Petrol light commercial vehicles (utes and vans)
VOC(tonnesperyr)
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
NO
x (to
nnes
per
yr)
NOx BAU NOxE6/VI&10ppmSPetrol ExhaustVOCTotalVOC
70,000
80,000
90,000
0,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
2003 2008 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036
11
Abbreviation Vehicle TypePPV Petrolpassengervehicles(carsandSUV/4WD)RIG Rigidtrucks(>3.5tto~25t)
Figure 6: Contribution by vehicle type to 2008 NSW GMR PM10 emissions Non-exhaustsourcesofPM10 account for more than half of the total motor vehicle PM10,ofwhichmost(60percent)isgeneratedbypetrolpassengervehiclesduetotheirdominanceinVKT.Heavy duty diesel vehicles are disproportionately high contributors to PM10exhaustemissionsatmorethan60percent,whileaccountingforonlysixpercentofVKT.Lightdutydieselvehiclesarealsosignificantcontributorsat23percentwhileaccountingforfivepercentofVKT.
Figure 7: Contribution by vehicle type to 2008 NSW GMR VOC emissions
EvaporativefuelemissionsandexhaustemissionsareestimatedtocontributeequallytototalmotorvehicleVOCemissions.Ofthe50percentemittedbyexhaust,petrolvehiclesdominate.Evaporativeemissionsareonlyemittedbypetrolvehiclesandincreasewhentheweatherishotter.Vehiclesstandardsnowrequiresomecontrolonvehicleevaporativeemissions.NSWlimitspetrolvolatilityinsummertomanagetheincreaseinevaporativeemissionsduringwarmermonths.
12
Figure 8: Contribution by vehicle type to 2008 NSW GMR NOx emissions
Heavydutydieselscontributeadisproportionatelyhigh35percentofNOxemissions,whileaccountingforonlysixpercentoftheentirefleet’sVKT.Petrolpassengervehiclesandpetrollightcommercialvehiclescontributethemajorityoftheremainder.Thesignificantlydifferentratesofemissionspervehicletypeindicatethatthecompositionofthevehiclefleetonanyparticularroadcorridorwillbeanimportantfactorinthelevelofemissionsinthatcorridor.
5.2 Emission contribution by ageThe contribution to the total daily emissions by age class (ADR compliance) and vehicle type are shown in Figure 9andFigure10forexhaustPM2.5andNOxrespectivelyforthe2008calendaryear.Thestackedbarsshowtheemissionsbyageclasswiththeoldestvehiclesatthebottomandthenewestatthetop.Thepercentfiguresshownarethetotalcontributionofallagesofeachvehicletypetototalfleetemissions.
Figure 9: PM2.5 emission contribution by age class by vehicle type (2008)
PPV PLCV MC HDCP DPV DLCV RIG ART BUS
8.8%4.6%
0.4% 0.3%3.7%
19.4%
41.6%
16.7%
4.5%
0
400
Exha
ust P
M2.
5 (k
g/da
y)
800
1,200
1,600
2,000
ADR79/01 2006-09
ADR79/002004-05
ADR37/01 1999-03
ADR37/00 1989-98
ADR27 < 1989
ADR79/01/02 2007-13
ADR79/00 2003-06
ADR70/00 1996-02
ADR30/00 1988-95
Pre-ADR30 < 1988
ADR80/02 2008-10
ADR80/00 2003-07
ADR70/00 1996-02
ADR30/00 1988-95
Pre-ADR30 < 1988
13
Asshownintheprevioussection,exhaustPMisdominatedbyheavydutydiesels(RIG,ART,BUS)withasignificantcontributionfromdiesellightcommercialvehicles(DLCV).Forthetwolargestcontributors,DLCVandrigidtrucks,togethercomprisingover60percentoftotalexhaustemissions,around50percentoftheemissionsareproducedbyvehiclesolderthan1996(ADR70/00andoldercertification).Thesepre-1996vehiclesaccountforonly15percentand18percentoftherespectivevehicleclassVKT,andarethussignificantlydisproportionatecontributorstoemissionsataroundthreetimesthefleetaverageemissionrate(perkilometre).Forarticulatedtrucks,thepre-1996vehiclescontribute17percentofthePM2.5 emissions and account for nine percentoftheVKT,andhenceareemittingataroundtwicethefleetaveragerate.
Figure 10: NOx emission contribution by age class by vehicle type (2008)
ForNOxthedominantcontributorsarepetrolpassengervehiclesandpetrollightcommercialvehicles.Thepre-1999petrolvehicles(pre-ADR37/01)contributeapproximatelyhalfoftheirrespectivevehicletypeemissions,butonlyaccountforaround30percentoftheVKT.Thehighemissionratesofoldervehiclesinthefleetindicatethatthefleet’sageprofileandvehicletypecompositionarebothimportantfactorsinestimatingthelevelofemissionsfromanyspecificroadcorridor.
PPV PLCV MC HDCP DPV DLCV RIG ART BUS
44.8%
14.2%
0.1% 0.4% 1.5%3.5%
13.5%
17.2%
4.7%
0
1,000
NO
x (kg
/day
)
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
ADR80/02 2008-10
ADR80/00 2003-07
ADR70/00 1996-02
ADR30/00 1988-95
Pre-ADR30 < 1988
ADR79/01 2006-09
ADR79/002004-05
ADR37/01 1999-03
ADR37/00 1989-98
ADR27 < 1989
ADR79/01/02 2007-13
ADR79/00 2003-06
ADR70/00 1996-02
ADR30/00 1988-95
Pre-ADR30 < 1988
2,000
8,000
7,000
14
6. References
ANSTO(2016),SydneyParticleCharacterisationStudy.PM2.5SourceApportionmentintheSydneyRegionbetween2000and2014. http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/regional-air-quality/sydney-particle-characterisation-study.
BellML,DominiciF(2008).Effectmodificationbycommunitycharacteristicsontheshort-termeffectsofozoneexposureandmortalityin98UScommunities.AmericanJournalofEpidemiology,167(8):986–997.
BTS(2011),SydneyStrategicTravelModel(STM),Modellingfuturetravelpatterns,BureauofTransportStatistics,February2011.
DECCW(2007),AirEmissionsInventoryfortheGreaterMetropolitanRegioninNSW,TechnicalReport1:CriteriaPollutantEmissionsforAllSectors. https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/~/media/EPA/Corporate%20Site/resources/air/tr1aei0712.ashx
DepartmentofEnvironmentandEnergy(2018)Betterfuelforcleanerair-Draftregulationimpactstatement,January2018.
DEWHA(2009),SecondNationalIn-ServiceEmissionsStudy(NISE2),Lightdutypetrolvehicleemissionstesting:RTA.07.2828.0309finalreport,DepartmentoftheEnvironment,Water,HeritageandtheArts,March2009.https://www.environment.gov.au/archive/transport/publications/nise2.html
EPA(2012),AirEmissionsInventoryfortheGreaterMetropolitanRegioninNSW,2008CalendarYear,TechnicalReport7:On-roadMobileEmissions,EPA2012/0256,ISBN978-1-74293-557-7. https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/air-emissions-inventory/air-emissions-inventory-2008
EPA(2012a),AirEmissionsInventoryfortheGreaterMetropolitanRegioninNSW,2008CalendarYear,TechnicalReport1:ConsolidatedNaturalandHuman-MadeEmissions:Results,EPA2012/0255,ISBN978-1-74293-556-0. https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/air-emissions-inventory/air-emissions-inventory-2008
EPA(2017),CleanAirSummitBackgroundPapers http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/clean-air-nsw.
TDC(2010),2008/09HouseholdTravelSurvey;SummaryReport,2010Release,TransportDataCentre,June2010.
WHO(2013),Reviewofevidenceonhealthaspectsofairpollution–REVIHAAPproject,TechnicalReport,WorldHealthOrganisationRegionalOfficeforEurope,2013.
15
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Hydrocarbons
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Oxides of Nitrogen
0
1
2
3
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Carbon Monoxide
0
0.5
1
1.5
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
HC + NOx
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Particulate Matter
0
2
4
6
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Carbon Monoxide
0
0.5
1
1.5
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Hydrocarbons
Appendix A: Australian ADR Emission Limits
Figure A1: Petrol light duty carbon monoxide emission limits Figure A2: Petrol light duty hydrocarbon emission limits
Figure A3: Petrol light duty oxides of nitrogen emission limits Figure A4: Diesel light duty carbon monoxide emission limits
Figure A5: Diesel light duty combined hydrocarbon Figure A6: Diesel light duty particulate matter emission limits and oxides of nitrogen emission limits
16
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Hydrocarbons
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Oxides of Nitrogen
0
1
2
3
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Carbon Monoxide
0
0.5
1
1.5
1990 2000 2010 2020gr
ams
per k
ilom
etre
HC + NOx
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Particulate Matter
0
2
4
6
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Carbon Monoxide
0
0.5
1
1.5
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
met
re
Hydrocarbons
Figure A7: Diesel heavy duty carbon monoxide emission limits Figure A8: Diesel heavy duty hydrocarbon emission limits
Figure A9: Diesel heavy duty oxides of nitrogen emission limits Figure A10: Diesel heavy duty particulate matter emission limits
0
2
4
6
8
10
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
wat
t.hr
Oxides of Nitrogen
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1990 2000 2010 2020
gram
s pe
r kilo
wat
t.hr
Particulate Matter
17