Träff 1IntroduktionLärande samtal

Theories of LearningDay 4

TEMP

2012-03-14

08.30 – 16.00

Program

08.30 Learning Theories

10.00 Break

10.00 Learning Theories

12.00 Lunch

13.30 Learning Theories

AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVEDALE H. SCHUNK

LEARNING THEORIES

Learning theories – an Educational PerspectiveDale H. Schunk

Primary objectives of the book

a)To inform students of learning theoretical principles, concepts, and research findings, especially as they relate to education

b)To provide applications of principles and concepts in settings where teaching and learning occur

Content

• Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study of Learning

• Chapter 2: Neuroscience of Learning

• Chapter 3: Behaviorism

• Chapter 4: Social Cognitive Theory

• Chapter 6: Constructivism

• Chapter 7: Cognitive Learning Processes

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study of Learning

Definition of learning:

No one definition, but many agree on:

“Learning is an enduring change of behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other form of experience”

Psychology as a science

Systematic psychological research from the latter part of the nineteenth centuryImportant for the study of learningExperiments and observations, not just philosophical discussions.

Wundt, Ebbinghaus

Structuralism: a combination between associations and experiments, studied the structure or makeup of mental processes, the mind is composed of associations of ideas, studied the parts, but did not say how you acquire these associationsIntrospection – self-analysis

Functionalism: mental processes and behaviors of living organisms help them adapt to their environments. A holistic view, mind and body is interactingFocus on how mental processes operate, what they accomplish and how they vary with environmental conditions

Research Paradigms

A theory is a scientifically acceptable set of principles offered to explain a phenomenon, framework for interpreting environmental observations, a bridge between research and education.

Research from hypothesis/assumptions if I do X, then Y should occur, e.g. X = praise students for their progress in learning, Y= raise their self-confidence. Will the result strengthen the theory or does it require a revision of the theory?

One can also start research by asking questions

How Does one Know that Learning has Occurred and how to Measure it?

• Direct observation• Written responses• Oral responses• Ratings by others• Self-reports

Questionnaires Interviews Stimulated recalls Think-alouds Dialogues

Instructional Principles Common to Many Learning Theories

Research is ultimately to improve teaching that promotes learning

Learners progress through stages/phases

Material should be organized in small steps

Learners require practice, feedback, and review

Social models facilitate learning and motivation

Motivational and contextual factors influence learning

Learning Theory and Educational Practice

Theory and practice complement and refine one another.

Many theoretical developments eventually become implemented in the classrooms.

Contemporary educational practices – such as cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching, and differentiating instruction for individual learners have strong theoretical underpinnings and research to support them.

On the contrary – experience can support or revive theory. For example - research on processing information did not take into account different individuals and the classroom environment

Critical Issues for Learning Theories

How does learning occur?

What is the role of memory?

What is the role of motivation?

How does transfer occur?

Which processes are involved in self-regulation?

What are the implications for instruction?

Chapter 2: Neuroscience of Learning

Educational practices that are derived from learning theories and supported by both learning research and brain research.

•Problem-based learning

•Simulations and role-playing

•Active discussions

•Graphics

•Positive climate

COGNITIVE-To create meaning-To understand- To master

KonwledgeUnderstandingSkills

EMOTIONAL-To mobilize mental energy

MotivationFeelingsWill

SOCIAL

ActCommunicationCooperation

Three dimensions of learning

Discussion in pairs•Analyze one of the five texts from the three dimensions•Have you done something simular in your own practice or do you get an idea of something you would like to do? Describe it!

Chapter 3: Behaviorism

Conditioning theories of learning - explain learning in terms of environmental events. Observable and measurable phenomena = behavior

Connectionism Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949).The most fundamental type of learning involves the forming of associations (connections) between sensory experiences (perception of stimuli or events) and neural impulses (responses) that manifest themselves behaviorally.

The consequences of behavior: responses resulting in satisfying (rewarding) consequences are learned; responses producing annoying (punishing) consequences are not learned

Operant conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)Learning: the strengthening of behavior which results from reinforcement (rewards)

Thorndike’s Contributions to Educational Practice

Principles of teaching: Teachers should help students form good habits. Students need to understand how to apply knowledge and skills they acquire. Uses should be learned in conjunction with the content.

Sequence of curricula: A skill should be introduced: when it can be used, when there is a useful purpose, most suited in difficulty to the ability of the learner.Knowledge and skills should be taught with different subjects (not as segregated subjects as is common)

Key Operant Conditioning Concepts

Reinforcers are defined based on their effects (do not depend on mental processes) Cannot be determined in advance, are situationally specific: they apply to individuals at given times under given conditions.

- positive reinforcement – when presented increases the future likelihood of that response occurring in that situation

- negative reinforcement – remove negative reinforce

punishment: punishment does not teach how to behave, can hinder future learning by creating a conflict

Generalization

Once a certain response occurs regularly to a given stimuli, the response also may occur in other situations (e.g. good academic habits, strategies …)

Facilitating generalization:•Parental involvement•High expectations•Self-evaluation•Contingencies (withdraw artificial contingencies e.g. points and replace with natural ones e.g. privileges)•Participation•Academics•Benefits•Reinforcements•Consistency

Discrimination; complementary process to generalization, responding differently

Behavioral Change (shaping)

• Identify what the students can do now

• Identify the desired behavior

• Identify potential reinforcers in the student’s environment

• Break the desired into small substeps

• Move the student from the initial behavior to the desired behavior by

successively reinforcing each approximation to the desired behaviorShaping is learning by doing with corrective feedback

- Premack’s principle; (how to predict reinforcers) the opportunity to engage in a more valued activity reinforces engaging in a less valued activity,

Key Educational Applications of Operant Principle to Education• Behavioral objectives; clear statements of the intended student outcomes of

instruction. Objectives can range from generic to specific.• Learning time• Mastery learning (contains cognitive elements)

Define mastery: teachers prepare a set of objectives and a final exam (summative)Planning for mastery: teachers plan instructional procedures for themselves and students which include feedback (formative evaluation)Teaching for mastery: teachers orient to the mastery procedures and provide instruction (entire class, small groups, individuals)Grading for mastery: a summative end of course test

Includes a progression. The students are allowed to progress at their own rates. Mastery learning can build students’ self-efficacy for learning as they note their progress.

• Programmed instruction; computer programmes • Contingency contracts: an agreement between student and teacher

Discussion in pairs

• Talk about your reflections on the text. • How would you solve a simular situation?

Chapter 4: Social Cognitive Theory

People learn from actual doing (enactive learning)

- but people can also learn by observing others (vicarious learning)

Modeling

Reinforcement is not necessary

Much learning occurs in a social environment

People desire to control the events that affect their lives

Learning and performing are distinct processes

Conceptual Framework for Learning

Albert Bandura (1925 -)

Triadic reciprocality

Person Behavior

Environment

Modeling Processes

Imitation-Instinct-Development. - (Piaget) Imitation is restricted to existing schemes.- Imitation is not a simple reflection of developmental level, instead serve an important role in promoting development (Rosenthal & Zimmerman)-Conditioning- (Skinner) if reinforcement. - (Bandura) even without reinforcement

Observational learning

• Attention. Student attention is directed by physically accentuating relevant task features, subdeviding complex activities into parts, using competent models, and demonstrating usefulness of modeled behavoirs

• Retention. Retention is increased by rehearsing information to be learned, coding in visual and symbolic form, and relating new material to information previously stored in memory.

• Production. Behaviors produced and compared to one’s conceptual (mental) representation. Feedback helps to correct deficiencies.

• Motivation. Consequences of modeled behaviors inform observers of functional value and appropriateness. Consequences motivate by creating outcome expectations and raising sel-efficacy.

Influences on Learning and Performance

Observing models does not guarantee that learning will occur. Depends on:

Developmental status

Model prestige and competence

Vicarious consequences

Outcome expectations

Goal setting

Values

Self-efficacy

Motivational Processes

• Goals

- specificity

- proximity

- difficulty

• Outcome expectation

• Values

Self- efficacy (efficacy expectations)Personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or to perform actions.

A belief about what one is capable of doing (perceptions of one’s capability), it is not about knowing what to do.

Not the same as outcome expectations

Instructional self-efficacy

Teachers’ beliefs about there capabilities to help students learn.Influence activities, effort and persistence

Collective teacher efficacy

Discussion in pairs

• Talk about your reflections on the text. • How do you work on this as a teacher educator?

Chapter 6: ConstructivismYou don’t acquire knowledge – you construct it!

Interaction of persons and situations

Constructivism rather new, but has influenced educational thinking about curriculum and instruction:- To study a topic from multiple perspectives (watch, read, write, draw, create…- Found in professional standards (APA)- That teachers should not deliver instructions in a traditional way but rather structure situations such that learners become actively involved(observing phenomena, collecting data, generating and testing hypothesis, and working together…- Students are taught to be self-regulated and take an active role in their learning

Implication’s of Piaget’s theory for education• Understand cognitive development• Keep students active• Create incongruity (disequilibrium)• Provide social interaction

Implication’s of Vygotsky’s theory for education• Social interactions are critical• Self-regulation is developed through internalization (developing an

internal representation) of actions and mental operations that occur in social interactions

• Human development occurs through the cultural transmissions of tools (symbols, and most important language)

• The zone of proximal development (ZPD) Interaction with adults.

TARGET - factors affecting motivation and learning

Task - Design of learning activities and assignment

Authority - Belief that students can develop independence

and control over learning activities

Recognition - Formal and informal use of rewards, encouragement,

praise

Grouping - Individual, small group, large group

Evaluation - Methods for monitoring and assessing learning

Time - Appropriateness of workload, pace of instruction,

time for completing work

Instructional Applications

• Discovery learning

• Inquiry learning

• Peer-assisted learning/cooperative learning

• Discussions and debates

• Reflective teaching

- use context consideration

- use personal knowledge

- use professional knowledge

- make fluid plans

- commit to formal and informal professional growth opportunities

Discussion in pairs

• Talk about your reflections on the text. • Make a plan together for a thematic work where students have to

use problem solving?

Don´t forget the three dimensions:– Cognitive– Emotional– Social