Training Theory Book[1]

Dragan Milanović

and Colleagues

TRAINING THEORY

reviewed teaching materials

University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology

Zagreb, 2013

Publisher: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology For the Publisher: Prof. Damir Knjaz, PhD, Dean Author: Prof. Dragan Milanović, PhD Colleagues: Prof. Sanja Šalaj, PhD Prof. Igor Jukić, PhD Cvita Gregov, Mag.Cin. Peer-reviewers: Prof. Milan Čoh, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana Prof. Bojan Jošt, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana Prof. Cvetan Željaskov, PhD, National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Translations: Marko Hrvatin, Mag.A. Željka Jaklinović, Mag.A. Lecture: Elizabeth Harrison Paj Edition: 1st Internet edition URL: http://kif.hr/predmet/trathe Date of publication on the internet: December 2, 2013

ISBN: 978-953-317-020-6 Available in the digital catalog of the National and University Library in Zagreb

Copyright © 2013. University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology. All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the

reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopyng, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher. The Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Commission for Science and Academic Literature and Publishing,on its session held on February 15, 2012, reached the decision on approving the publication of this book. Photographs from the archives of the journal Sportske novosti by kindness and permission of Director General Mr. Janko Goleš, or from the authors’ private collections.

FOREWORD

In contemporary sport sports training has become an extremely complex process,

involving numerous input and output variables. High-quality expert and scientific

knowledge is therefore indispensable in understanding, modelling and managing

sports training today. The Theory of Training – as a scientific and academic field of

study taught within the master university programme for the education of

kinesiologists and coaches – has to address numerous questions posed daily by

sports experts as well as athletes.

Future professionals in the fields of professional and school sport, sport for all, and

sport for people with disabilities have many questions, such as:

- Is there a clear delineation between professional and amateur sport?

- Which abilities, characteristics and motor skills are required to achieve top sport

results in a specific sport or sports discipline?

- Can athletes' abilities, characteristics and motor skills be objectively and reliably

measured?

- Is it possible to choose a sport that best matches the child's sports potentials

based on objective indicators? Is the selection of future athletes based on

intuition or scientific facts?

- To what extent is sports talent a genetic feature and to what extent can

preparedness components be developed during the sports career?

- Is the concern regarding premature involvement of children in intensive sports

training justified? Is sports training too demanding for them?

- Which exercises, loads and methods are optimal for the development of abilities,

characteristics and skills that determine sports results?

- When is it recommendable to introduce external loads or weight training without

the risk of causing locomotor system injuries?

- What is the simplest and the quickest way to master correct technical-tactical

elements in a specific sport?

- Is there an optimum technology for the planning and programming of sports

preparation process?

- The number of competitions is increasing. What happens when competitions start

to dominate sports preparation?

- The total load in certain sports has reached over 1000 training hours per year, or

over 20 hours per week. Is that not excessive?

- Are sport and sport preparation based on professional and scientific facts or do

intuition, improvisation and experience of coaches and other experts still prevail?

Of course, these are only some of the questions of professionals who want to make

their contribution towards the efficiency of the sports preparation process on all

levels. These are also some of the key questions that we have attempted to provide

the best possible answers to in this handbook intended for the foreign students

studying to become Physical Education teachers or coaches.

The English handbook The Theory and Methodology of Training is divided into three

main parts: 1. The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training, 2. The

Methodological Foundations of Sports Training, and 3. Sports Training Planning,

Programming and Controlling.

The intention behind the creation of this teaching material was to raise the quality of

teaching and to facilitate participation of students in class, as well as to help them

prepare for the exam in the Theory of Training and pass it successfully. The complex

body of knowledge and information in the area of sport and sports training is

delivered in a very simple and succinct manner to students, who need to understand,

interpret and learn this information.

In order to encourage active participation of students in class, each slide is followed

by empty lines where the students can write down additional information obtained in

class and, more importantly, their own comments that will help them better

understand the presented material. In this way, the student ceases to be a passive

observer of the lecture and becomes an active participant.

Furthermore, each chapter of the handbook is followed by a list of key questions,

which guide the student in preparing the exam and passing it. A list of references is

provided at the very end of each chapter, which can be very helpful in expanding the

presented information.

There are many people I would like to express my gratitude to for their significant

contribution in conceptualising and developing this handbook. I would primarily like

to thank my closest collaborators, junior researcher Sanja Šalaj, Ph.D., professor Igor

Jukić, Ph.D. and junior researcher Cvita Gregov, who have been involved in the

development of this teaching material for several years. I also extend my thanks to

the peer reviewers, professor Milan Čoh, Ph.D., professor Bojan Jošt, Ph.D. and

professor Cvetan Željaskov, Ph.D. for their meticulous work and their valuable

suggestions.

My special thanks goes to Marko Hrvatin for the valuable translation work and Željka

Jaklinović-Fressl for the valuable translation, editing and proofreading work.

Even though we are aware of the fact that we could have been more detailed and

elaborate in conceptualising and presenting the subject matter of the theory of

training, we hope that this handbook will provide impetus for the development of the

theory of training as a field of study and facilitate class participation and mastering of

this body of knowledge.

This handbook might provide an incentive for the students enrolled in the English

language programme to approach this area of applied kinesiology with an increased

interest and motivation and to become better prepared for tackling the ever

increasing demands of sports and sports training, both as an academic field and

profession.

Dragan Milanović

CONTENTS

1st chapter:

The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training

1. TRAINING THEORY

1.1. Basic fields of training theory

1.2. Training theory contents

1.3. Training theory definition

1.4. Training theory subjects

1.5. Training theory tasks

2. SPORT (CURRENT ISSUES OF SPORT IN CROATIA AND ABROAD)

2.1. Definition of sport

2.2. Sports Features

2.3. Why a special social status belongs tosport?

2.4. Sport participation and health

3. SPORT IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union

3.1.1. NGOs in European sport

3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe

3.2. Top level sport in European countries

3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia

3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria

3.2.3. Top level sport in France

3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom

3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland

4. PERSONNEL, MATERIAL, FINANCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF

SPORT AND TRAINING

4.1. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport

4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport

4.3. Organization of sport

4.4. Sports facilities and equipment

4.5. Sport funding

4.5.1. Taxes

4.5.2. Sponsorships

5. SCIENCE, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING

5.1. Scientific research area

5.2. Theoretical work area

5.3. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level

6. SPORTS TRAINING (SPORTS PREPARATION)

6.1. Sports training – sports preparation

6.2. Sports training definitions

6.3. The essence of sports training

6.4. Sports training tasks

6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training

7. SPORTS TRAINING – A SHORTHISTORY

7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world

7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia

8. ANALYSIS OF SPORT ACTIVITIES

8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity

8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities

8.3. Anatomical analysis

8.4. Functional (energy) analysis

8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities

8.5.1. The structural complexity

8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters

8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological classification

8.5.4. The dominance of motor - physical abilities

9. ANALYSIS OF ATHLETES’ DIMENSIONS (COMPONENTS OF PREPAREDNESS)

9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes

9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes

9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency

9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of sports activities)

10. DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT - MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF

ABILITIES, FEATURES AND KNOWLEDGE OF ATHLETES

10.1. Diagnostics in sports

10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes

10.3. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure)

11. SELECTION IN SPORT(ORIENTATION TO SPORTS AND CHOICE OF SPORTS BRANCH)

11.1. System of orientation to sports – first selection

11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches – second selection

11.3. System of selection of a sports branch – third selection

11.4. Procedure of selection

12. SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING OF CHILDREN AND THE YOUNG

12.1. Sports schools

12.1.1. Universal sports school

12.1.2. Elementary sports school

12.1.3. Specialized sports schools

12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young

12.3. Performance factors of a sports career

12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood…)

12.3.2. Family

12.3.3. School

12.3.4. Sports club – sports federation

12.3.5. A training program

13. TRAINING FORFITNESSAND SPORT PREPAREDNESS

13.1. Fitness of athletes

13.2. Sport shape / preparedness

13.3. Sport shape development phases

13.4. Sport shape management

13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape

14. SPORTS TRAINING AS A TRANSFORMATION PROCESS

14.1. Definitions

14.2. General model of transformation process in sport

14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions

14.4. Types of transformation processes

15. SPORTS COMPETITIONS

15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions

15.2. Classification of competitions

15.3. Planning and conducting a competition

16. RECOVERY OF ATHLETES: SUPPLEMENTAL FACTORS OF SPORTS PREPARATION

16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes

16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means

16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping

17. BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING

17.1. Introductory observations

17.2. Adaptation in sports

17.3. Continuity of the process of training

17.4. Load progression of training and competition

17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads

18. DIDACTICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING

18.1. Target orientation of training

18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes

18.3. Cyclic nature of training

2nd chapter:

The Methodological Foundations of Sports Training

19. METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING

19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training

20. THE MEANS (CONTENTS) OF SPORTS PREPARATION

20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means

20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation

20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application

21. TRAINING LOAD MANAGEMENT

21.1. Training and competition load

21.2. Total load and its components

21.2.1. Energy component of a training load

21.2.2. Information component of a training load

21.3. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body

21.3.1. Effects of a training load on the muscle fibre

21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system

21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads

21.5. Training load management–dosage

22. SPORTSTRAININGMETHODS

22.1. Classification and description of training methods

22.2. Exercise methods

22.2.1. Exercise method with respect to load type

22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect to the training mode

22.3. Teaching and learning methods in sport

22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to the mode of motor information transfer and motor task

assignment

22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect to motor task perfomance mode

23. ORGANISATIONAL FORMS AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING

23.1. Organisational training forms

23.1.1. Individual training

23.1.2. Group training

23.1.3. Frontal training

23.2. Methodological forms of training

23.2.1. Station methodological form (station training)

23.2.2. Circuit methodological form (circuit training)

23.2.3. Course training form (course form)

23.3. Methodological aspects of the location, training equipment and training gear use

23.3.1. Training facilities

23.3.2. Training equipment and gear

24. BASICS OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONING METHODOLOGY

24.1. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning

24.2. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body

24.3. Physical preparation types

24.3.1. General or versatile physical preparation

24.3.2. Fundamental or basic physical preparation

24.3.3. Specific physical preparation

24.3.4. Situational physical preparation

25. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES

25.1. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities

25.2. Aerobic training methodology

25.3. Anaerobic training methodology

26. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUANTITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY

26.1. Strength training methodology

26.2. Speed training methodology

26.3. Endurance training methodology

26.3.1. Endurance training methods

26.4. Flexibility training methodology

27. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUALITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY

27.1. Coordination training methodology

27.2. Agility training methodology

27.3. Methodology of accuracy training

27.4. Balance training methodology

28. TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL PREPAREDNESS OF ATHLETES

28.1. Sports technique

28.2. Sports tactics

28.3. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command

29. TECHNICAL-TACTICAL PREPARATION METHODOLOGY

29.1. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills

29.2. Motor learning phases

29.3. Teaching methods

29.4. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning

30. PROGRAMMING OF TEACHING TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL SKILLS

30.1. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills

30.2. Principles of programmed teaching – learning

30.3. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning in sport

30.4. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles

3rd chapter:

Sports Training Planning, Programming and Controlling

31. PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING TRAINING COURSES

31.1. Planning of training

31.2. Periodisation

31.3. Programming of training

31.4. Types of planning and programming of training

31.5. Methods of planning and programming of training

31.6. A plan and programme modelling of training is conducted on five levels

32. LONG-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING: MULTI-ANNUAL CYCLE OF TRAINING

32.1. Long-term sports preparation periodisation

32.2. Long-term sports preparation modeling

32.3. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming



32.3.3. Specialised sports school

32.3.4. Final sports specialisation

33. MID-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (OLYMPIC CYCLE)

33.1. The significance of the Olympic Games

33.2. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning

34. SHORT-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (ANNUAL AND SEMI-ANNUAL CYCLES)

34.1. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle

35. CURRENT PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

35.1. Periods and phases characteristics

35.2. Preparatory period

35.3. Competitive period

35.3.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases

35.4. Transition period

35.4.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases

36. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (MICROCYCLE)

36.1. Planning and programming training in a microcycle

36.2. Microcycle classification

37. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (TRAINING DAY AND TRAINING UNIT)

37.1. Operative planning and programming of a day of training

37.2. Planning and programming a training unit

38. MODELLING OF PHYSICAL PREPARATION

38.1. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports

38.2. Factorial structure of readiness

38.3. Model characteristics of top athletes

38.4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics

38.5. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics

38.6. Methodology of physical preparation

38.7. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle

38.8. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle

38.9. Conclusion

39. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN SPORT

39.1. Research in the field of sport and the sports training

39.2. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training

39.2.1. Research into sports and sports results

39.2.2. Research into characteristics of sports activities

39.2.3. Research into the athletes' dimensions

39.2.4. Research into the competition efficiency factors

39.2.5. Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods

39.2.6. Research into the effects of the programmed sports preparation process

39.3. Applicability of scientific research results in sport

1 - 1

TRAINING THEORY

1.1. Basic fields of training theory:

Contemporary sport

Theoretical fundamentals of sports training

Training methods

Planning, programming and control of thetraining process

1 - 2

1.2. Training theory contents:

1st level

Social significance

Values

Definition

SPORT

Strategic development

Organization

Sport in Croatia

Sport in the EU countries

2nd level

Transformational processes and effects

Scientific background

Pedagogical and psychological principles

Sports resultsInterdisciplinaryapproach

Physical foundation

Peak performanceSubject

FitnessDefinition

PRINCIPLES

TRAINING PURPOSETRAINING

Biological and medical principles

SPORTS TRAINING

1 - 3

ANALYSIS OF SPORTS ACTIVITY

Movement structures – sports techniques

Situation structures – sports tactics Structural analysis

Biomechanical analysis

Anatomical analysis

Functional / energetical analysis

Sports classification

3rd level

HEALTH

H

MORPHOLOGICCHARACTERISTICS- CONSTITUTIONA

C P

Physical

preparedness

Technical and tactical (informational)

preparedness

Conativecharacteristics - personality

Cognitive abilities –”cleverness”

FITNESS COMPONENTS

FSS= f(a1H + a2PHY + a3TE + a4P + a5C + a6A + a7E

4th level

PHY

TE

1 - 4

5th levelDIAGNOSTICS AND ANALYSIS OF

AN ATHLETE’S FITNESS

selection of athletes (sample of subjects)

selection of characteristics (sample of dimensions)

selection of tests (sample of variables)

testing procedures (protocol)

editing of test results

processing of obtained data

results analysis

presentation of results to coaches and athletes

applying results in sports practice

control of training effects

Scientific research

Material and financial conditions

Sport organization

Coaches and other personnel

Recovery methods

Competition system

Training system

Selection – directing to and choosing a sport

SPORTS PREPARATION SYSTEM

Model values of sport activities and athlete’s fitness

Analysis and prognosis of sport activities and sport results

6th level

1 - 5

7th level

LEVELS OF TRAINING PROCESS (AGE

CATEGORIES)

◊ preliminary (multilateral)

◊ basic

◊ specific

◊ integrated (junior to senior category)

◊ final preparation for maximum sport achievements

◊ maintaining preparation

◊ children’s training

◊ training of young athletes

◊ training of adult top level athletes (peak performance)

◊ training of athletes through a prolonged sports career

LEVELS OF SPORT PREPARATION(TYPES OF PREPARATION)

GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETES

TRAINING PRINCIPLES

Adaptation

Training specificity

Training continuity

Interaction of training programmes

Load progressiveness

Undulating training

Cyclic training

8th level

1 - 6

TRAINING METHODOLOGY

Modelling and evaluation of training operators

Means

(exercises)

Loads Methods

Organizational forms

Methodicalforms

Training locations

Training aids anddevices

Basic methodology of physical conditioning

Basic methodology of tecnical and tactical

training

Methodology of integrative preparation of athletes

9th level

TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

10th level

Selection, distribution, organization and application of

training operators

Goals, tasks, periodization and resources

Olympic cycle

Sports career Annual cycle

One training unit

Microcycle

Mezocycle

Sport preparation cycles

TRAINING PLANNING TRAINING PROGRAMMING

EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTS

1 - 7

1.3. Training theory definition

Scientific-educational discipline in which the

organization and function of a sport

system is studied, as well as

kinesiological, anthropological,

methodological and methodical

principles of planning, programming

and control of the process of training,

competition and recovery in different cycles

of sport preparation.

Analysis of results in the long jump

1

2

3

4

1868 80 92 16 28 40 52 64 76 88 2000

6.00

6.50

7.00

7.50

8.00

8.50

9.00

X

X

XX

XX

XX

X

XX X

X

XX

1896 1948 1968 1996

1 - 8

Diagnostics of individual characteristics of handball players (Milanović et al., 2004)

Variables Player X (back) Player Y (wing)

1. Height cm 192,8 184,5

2. Weight kg 89,0 83,6

3. Shoulder wideness cm 43,0 44,5

4. Arm wideness cm 200,0 183,5

5. Hand wideness cm 25,4 24

6. Ball throw 800 gr. m 38,07 32,53

7. Horizontal jump cm 259,67 269,33

8. Vertical jump – both legs cm 62,33 68,33

9. Vertical jump – unilateral cm 62,33 73

10. Lateral stepping s 7,22 6,35

11. Triangle movement s 6,17 5,82

12. Abdominal crunches n 26,33 36,33

13. Bench-press kg 85 85

14. Shuttle run s 30,45 29,05

15. 30m sprint s 4,85 4,51

Motor abilities AS SD MIN MAX

1. MAGKUS 6,92 0,45 6,25 8.25

2. MBKPOP 12,66 1,49 9,79 14.40

3. MFPTAP 33,07 3,38 28,00 38.00

4. MFLPRR 65,64 13,94 38.00 84.00

5. MFABP 77,71 10,60 60.00 95.00

6. MRCTRB 32,07 4,38 21.00 38.00

7. MBF30V 4,19 1,77 3.95 4.50

8. SBFV30 4,35 1,70 4.12 4.73

9. MFEBMR 28,64 1,95 26.00 33.00

10. MFESVM 67,78 5,53 57.00 77.00

Basic statistical parameters of motor characteristics of handball players (Milanović et al., 1997)

1 - 9

Example of maximum strength training

1. Training purpose: Development of maximum strength

2. Athletes: Adult athletes in preparatory and competition period

3. Training methods: Repetition method – maximum interval training

4. Loads:

4.1. Intensity: 80-90-100% (1RM), 60% warm-up

4.2. Volume: Number of repetitions (R): 5-3-1

Number of sets (S): 2-4 sets at each load

Number of sets (S): 6-12 per exercises

4.3. Rest: 2-4 minutes (sets), 3-5 (load)

4.4. Tempo Load appropriate

4.5. Activity during rest Stretching and relaxation

5. Exercises Basic and specific exercises with weights

Structure of microcycle in second part of preparatory period (Grosser et al., 1986)

I

II

III

IV

M

1T

SpF

SpB

T

2T

TeTa

SBF

SPI

W

1T

AeI

akO

Th

1T

sBKK

Te

SpB

F

2T

SpF

SpB

SPI

Sa

2T

sBKK

BI

aBF

Su

1T

akO

SpF – specific strength, SpB – specific speed, BF – speed power, SPI – specific

endurance, AeI – aerobic endurance, akO – active rest, BKK – speed coordination,

B - speed, Te – technical training, BI – speed endurance

Lo

ad

le

ve

l

Total load

Intensity

Volume

40%

60%

80%

100%

1 - 10

1.4. Training theory subjects

The first subject of training theory is studying the sport system with respect to historical, cultural, economical and political aspects of structure and activities at state, regional and local level.

The second subject of training theory is studyingthe transformational processes that enable the functioning of an integral system: the athlete, the sport activity and the sport environment in thesport preparation process.

Thanks to sport science research, we understand the psycho-physical reactions of an athlete and thetraining adaptation better than 10 or 20 years ago.

It is our constant obligation and challenge to analyze the current principles of training theory and adjust them to the needs of contemporary sport and new technologies.

1 - 11

Today, it is possible to develop certain models of training (for different sports and athletes of different ages and quality) that are based on the newest scientific information concerningmeans, loads and methods of sport preparation.

Training theory ascertains the principles by which it is possible to identify and analyze:

a) Different sport systems in Croatia and abroad

b) Resources on which the position and development of sport at local, regional and global level depend

c) External characteristics of sport activities(structural, biomechanical, functional and motor characteristics)

d) Internal characteristics of athletes (basic, specific and situational abilities and knowledge that affect its success - the success equation in sports)

1.5. Training theory tasks:

1 - 12

e) Diagnostic procedures and test results in the function of the selection of athletes and their successful training

f) Selection procedure for directing to different sports and choosing sports branches (disciplines)

g) Sports training as a transformation process aimed at a full development of fitness components and top level results

h) Peak performance as a state of an athlete’s fitness that allows him/her to achieve top results in major competitions

i) Methodology procedures directed to the full development of fitness components and athletic performance (strength and conditioning and technical-tactical training)

j) Models of plans and training programmesaccording to the goals, fitness level, competition calendar and conditions for the implementation of sports training.

2 - 1

SPORT (current issues of sport in Croatia and abroad)

Lesson 2:

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:

Define sport as an occupation

Discuss contemporary sports characteristics

Define the characteristics of a professional or selective sport and mass sport or sport for all

Explain the special status of sport in society

Discuss the health benefits of sport

2 - 2

2.1. Definition of sport

The law on sport in Croatia defines a sport as an activity that enableschildren, youth and adults to meet the needs for movement and play, develop qualities, skills and motor knowledge, sports and creative expression, preservation and promotion of health and sports achievements at all levels of competition.

In sport clubs

Olympic

Professional

Quality

Sport of persons with disabilities

In schools/high schools

Non-olympic

Amateur

Questionable quality

Selective Non-selective

Elite Mass

Top level Sport for all

Sport of healthy persons

Sport by definition can be:

Sport by definition can be:

2 - 3

Quality level

Types of sport

TOP LEVEL –SELECTIVE

MASS –

NON-SELECTIVE SPORT

Professional ++

Amateur + ++

In sport clubs ++ +

In schools +* ++

Recreational –

SPORT FOR ALL

++

SPORT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

+ ++

MILITARY SPORT (CISM) + ++

* Most succesfull in USA

1. Sport with a suitable system of training and competition gives children opportunities to meet a large number of biological motives and psychogenic needs, especially gifted children have the opportunity to confirm their creative potential through sport.

2. Sport and sport training must be realized as the union of effective educational influences in the shaping of a 'healthy' personality.

2.2. Sports Features

2 - 4

3. Sport is full of events that enables (top) athletes to experience success, self-actualization through their own activity and effort. In that way, an athlete experiences joy and enjoys training and competition.

4. Sport is an area of interest of the broad layers of society.

5. Sport is very encouraging for different forms of communication

6. Sport and sports training should be a child's wish, not pressure from parents or coaches.

7. Sports activities should not harm the school or professional education.

8. It is useful to orient young athletes to sports models

9. Athletes are true idols of young people on all continents.

10. Sporting achievements can not be achieved without scientific research carried out by the best experts, interdisciplinary.

2 - 5

2.3. Why does a special social status belongs to sport?

1. Sporting activity allows each individual to meet primary human needs: the basic biological need for movement and play, the need for safety, order, belonging and love, esteem and self-actualization.

2. Sport and sport activities significantly affect the desirable psychosomatic development of children and young people, they improve and maintain health.

3. Sport activities raise the quality of life - it is the foundation of mental and physical health and well-being.

4. Engaging in sports is an important factor in preventing various types of addictions. Members of sports teams can be an important support to young athletes. Besides the family, an athlete still has a protective layer that defends him/her against negative environmental influences.

2 - 6

5. Sport and exercise enhance one’s abilities for coping with stress and trauma.

6. In addition to affirming an individual, sport can promote the state, nation, region or local environment.

7. Sport is extremely encouraging for interaction and communication, regardless of educational, generational, gender or other status - and thus highly affects the current social processes and forms of social awareness.

Medal and other results at the Olympic Games in Athens, 2004.

Total Results Sum of results

state G S B 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 1-3 4-10 1-10

1 USA 35 39 29 24 21 17 16 15 20 13 103 126 229

2 CHN 32 17 14 16 8 18 17 10 17 10 63 96 159

3 RUS 27 27 38 19 18 11 10 13 27 10 92 108 200

4 AUS 17 16 16 20 8 16 11 12 16 8 49 91 140

5 JPN 16 9 12 6 10 8 7 9 8 9 37 57 94

6 GER 14 16 18 12 22 23 23 13 13 8 48 114 162

7 FRA 11 9 13 9 19 12 1 5 9 11 14 33 89 122

8 ITA 10 11 11 4 12 4 11 15 9 16 32 71 103

9 KOR 9 12 9 3 8 5 16 8 6 5 30 51 81

10 GBR 9 9 12 10 13 10 16 8 11 7 30 75 105

11 CUB 9 7 11 4 4 1 3 7 5 3 27 27 54

12 UKR 9 5 9 7 16 9 12 10 13 14 23 81 104

13 HUN 8 6 3 8 8 6 5 4 1 6 17 38 55

14 ROM 8 5 6 5 7 4 8 5 4 2 19 35 54

15 GRE 6 6 4 4 11 7 8 14 11 5 16 60 76

16 NOR 5 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 6 10 16

17 NED 4 9 9 4 9 6 2 3 6 3 22 33 55

18 BRA 4 3 3 5 6 1 4 4 7 4 10 31 41

19 SWE 4 1 2 8 2 2 3 5 6 4 7 30 37

20 ESP 3 11 5 7 14 8 13 10 7 9 19 68 87

2 - 7

HANDBALL 10

BASKETBALL 4

WATERPOLO 7

FOOTBALL 1

VOLLEYBALL (F) 3

Medals won by Croatian national selections in sports games at the European and World championships and

Olympic games

25

2.4. Sport participation and health

• Longitudinal study (Lee and Paffenbarger, 1994) on sporting activities, social habits and health of 36,500 men who joined Harvard University between the years 1916 and 1950, which resulted in the knowledge of the causes of illness and death.

2 - 8

• Students who spent more than 2000 kcal per week in sporting activities, were compared to the less active students and had a quarter lower likelihood that they would suffer from cardiovascular disease that could cause death.

• "The defensive influence" of early sport participation does not count if one does not continue to lead a physically active life.

• Students who sit a lot, but choose an active lifestyle, have a much lower probability of morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease than former student-athletes who have abandoned or reduced physical activity in middle age.

• Most at risk were students - athletes who had suddenly stopped any physical activity.

It is important that athletes never forget

that!

2 - 9

Society focused on the future development is aware of the sport potential and provides the conditions for engaging in sports activities for its members.

Special conditions for the highest sports achievements society provides for talented and positively selected young athletes.

3 - 1

Lesson 3:

Sport in European countries


Distinguish between the non-governmental and the governmental vertical of sport organisation

Define and describe non-governmental organisations in European sport

Discuss physical education in European countries

Describe examples of the professional sport structure and operation in some European countries

3 - 2

Sport is a major social movement in Europe.

Sport is very important as an element that brings people and nations together.

Interest and willingness to establish cooperation between countries is often stronger in sports than in many other spheres of life.

This means that the sport can be often ahead of politics in the European integration process.

As a result, a complex system of European sports organizations was created.

3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union

They represent “european sport” in institutional frames.

Many countries have adopted or rebuilt legislation in sport by accepting the European Sports Charter.

There is a general increase in attention to different groups in society: people with disabilities, the elite and professional athletes, foreign citizens, the elderly, the armed forces, women and workers (Sport in the workplace or supported by the company).

Attention is directed towards sustainable development in sport (Finland, Great Britain, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Portugal).

3 - 3

4 out of 10 Europeans exercise at least once a week

the numbers are rising from year to year

in the Scandinavian countries, most citizens exercise

Men go to training programmes more than women 41%: 35%

There are different interests in sport by age: 15-24 =60%; 25-39 = 41%; 40-54 = 34%;55 and more = 28%.

More educated citizens are more likely to do sports (completion of schooling to age 15 - 20% with 16-19 years-32% 20 years and more = 50%)

Typically, the modern lifestyle (lack of time) is a reason not to exercise, rather than the cost of equipment, facility or exercise programme.

3.1.1. NGOs in European sport

National sports federation National sports

federations provide a basis for the European sports system, representing about 700,000 sports clubs and approximately 70 million members.

National Sports Confederation In almost all European

countries in sport, there is one umbrella sports organization: a community of sports federations or a National Olympic Committee

3 - 4

European sports federations

Federations of certain types of sports are organized into European federations at the level of the community of the European states. Some of these federations (eg UEFA - Union of European Football Associations) play a major role in the politics of European sport.

NOC's (NOC - National Olympic Committees)

National Olympic Committees are 1)representatives of the Olympic Movement in their country (eg. NOK, Germany) or 2) act as a national umbrella sports organization (eg. CONI, Italy)

EOC (European Olympic Committees)

The European Olympic Committee is an umbrella organization of the national Olympic committees in Europe. Formerly called AENOC (Association of European National Olympic Committees) and was founded in Versailles, France in the year 1997.

At this point, the EOC has 48 member organizations.

http://en.beijing2008.cn/

http://en.beijing2008.cn/

3 - 5

ENSSEE (European Network of SportSciences, Education and Employment)

The European Network of Sport Sciences was founded under the name ENSSHE (European Network of Sport Sciences in Higher Education) that was changed to ENSSEE in 2001.

It was the first step in 1989 towardsthe europeanization of sports science.

3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe

The primary aims of the network which currently numbers 200 institutes from 30 countries are:

To nourish a comprehensive European cooperation

to promote mobility and increase the number of exchange programmes between educational institutions, persons in employment and students

3 - 6

ECSS (European College of Sport Science)

ECSS, which was founded in 1995, is another organization that strives to promote sports science in Europe.

Unlike ENSSEE it is not an association of institutes and organizations of sports science, but associations of sports scientists in Europe.

To integrate sport science in Europe, ECSS brings together and publishes new scientific information from various fields of sports science.

3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia

Under the law of sport in Slovenia, top level sport is specifically classified as a subject of public interest, which the state is responsible to maintain.

Top athletes have established a special system of health insurance.

The State has provided conditions of employment for the top 200 athletes in the state administration.

3.2. Top level sport in European countries

3 - 7

Direct government support for sport, which is determined by the national sports programme divides roughly 8% of public funds for the toplevel sport.

The fund of the State lottery gives 16-20% for top level sport activities.

Particular attention in Slovenia is placed on supporting talented children and young athletes.

3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria

With little more than 8 million people, Austria is one of the smallest EU member states.

114 medals won at World Championships and 101 medal at the European championships by the athletes of various sports federations and the federation of sport for people with disabilities.

In 2000 a total of 1.2 million euros was allocated to professional sports, and the allocation of resources was based on the principle of promoting competitive sport.

3 - 8

The organization of top sport in France is governed by different sport laws.

The government's responsibility is to facilitate the necessary funds on the one hand, and ensuring social security for the athletes on the other.

To meet the requirements for continuing support athletes train in different groups (elite, seniors, juniors, perspective). Deployment in one of these categories is based on specific national performance criteria.

3.2.3. Top level sport in France

During their sporting careers, top athletes (sportifs de haut niveau) receive compensation, aid:

On the one hand, there are special sports boarding schools offered for schooling and/or university education or vocational education.

On the other hand, athletes are provided withassistance to facilitate their reintegration into the sport field of work after their athletic career.

With INSEP there are top sports institutions at the regional level.

Since France has a unique school system, talent identification starts in elementary school.

Well-organized school sports association conducts the selection of potential athletes

3 - 9

3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom

Support for top sport in the UK comes in the form of a “World Class” programme and theSport Institute of the UK.

The programme ''World Class'' has activities at three levels: World Class Performance, World Class Potential, World Class Start.

The first level is strictly related to athletes with the potential to win a medal at the Olympic or Paralympic Games.

The Sports Institute of Great Britain consists of a network of centers located throughout the UK and a central office based in London.

The aim of the institute is to provide the best male and female athletes the best conditions they need for competition and winning at top level.

The central office in London provides professional knowledge in sport science, sport training, sports medicine, planning of competitions and informational technology. It is concerned with theeducation of coaches and other professional personnel in different sports.

3 - 10

3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland

1906: first participated in the Olympics

1600 top level athletes, 35 internationally famous athletes (cross-country running, javelin, marathon, ski jumping, ice hockey, motor racing, orienteering, swimming, aerobics)

Now enters as one of the top 10 countries in the winter and summer Olympics

21% of the population are members of sports clubs in more than 60 sports (football, skiing, ice hockey, swimming, athletics, skating, cycling, football, gymnastics, hiking)

50% of children exercise in sports clubs

50% male and 25% of women attend sports events

90% of the population follows sporting events via television, 58% through the press

Top level sport is considered a good example to young people

3 - 11

Support networks to athletes and coaches: National coaching centers, research institutions of Sports Medicine, Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Faculty of Sport and Medical Sciences, Finland sports federations and the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the SOK

10% (550,000) participates at competitions

Sports Schools: 12 sport high schools (1400 young athletes in 35 sports), professional schools for athletes (14 professional institutions in the form of sports classes), the Finnish Defence Forces School (160 persons per year do military service in the sports school)

Sport buildings and fields (Venues): 28,000 (one for every 180 people)

Finnish sports organizations – constitutes 114 organizations from all areas of sports (advocating competitive and recreational sport, the promotion of cooperation between member states)

3 - 12

Volunteering in sport

800,000 volunteers work in sports organizations, whose work is estimated at more than $ 800 million annually

A country with a high GDP (more than 30,000 $ PC) allows citizens a better fulfillment of their free time and often they do voluntary work

In 1909 was founded the first Finnish Institute of Sport

Today: there are 11 national and 3 regional centers for physical education.

Sports Centers

Centers for preparation of elite athletes:

Kurtane Sport Institute (track and field, wrestling, shooting, rhythmic gymnastics),

Finnish Institute of Sport (hockey, basketball, athletics, tennis, golf, squash),

Vuokati Institute of Sport (skiing, ski jumping, Nordic combined, biathlon),

Sports Center Pujalahti (badminton, wrestling, athletics)

3 - 13

Scientific research in sport

More than 60 years have been spent on research

The headquarters are at the Faculty of Sport and Health at the University of Jyväskylä:

Department of Physical Education (teaching physical culture, training, motor skills, motivation)

Department of Social Sciences in Sport (sports and social phenomenon of social behavior)

Department of Biology and physical activity (structure, operation, control and adjusting the body to move in terms of training),

Department of Medicine (functional ability, health and habits of the elderly)

4-1

Organizational, material and financial resources in sport and sport training

Lesson 4:

Understand factors affecting the status and development of sport

Discuss about coaches and other experts in sport

Describe basic strategic tasks for upgrading the quality of expertise in sport

Discuss on organization of sport, sports facilities and equipment and sport funding


4-2

Recent sports issues that every country is dealing with, and therefore so is Croatia, are directly connected to people, organizational material and financial resources.

Therefore, it is necessary to determine the standards and criteria for the optimal status ofsport, and to prioritize its aspects which are to be developed in order to achieve the main goals.

Developmental strategy and sports programmebasics must define its actual status, and interventions for the enrichment of conditions in which the sports activity is carried out

Factors affecting the status and development of sport

1) Government authorities and society in general, take the stand that sport is a profession and include people working in sport, especially physical education/kinesiology teachers, sports coaches and other sports professionals/experts as well as athletes.

2) Organizational and programmeframework in the field of top level sport and quality sport.

4-3

3) Basic material, financial i spatial conditions for sports programmes functioning.

4) Entrepreneurial programmes and marketing that significantly affect thefinancial status of sport.

6) Quality of the educational system in qualifying and specialization for sports needs

5) The number and professional expertise ofpersonnel functioning in sport (PE/kinesiology teachers, sports coaches and other personnel from related fields)

7) Level of sports resultscompared withinternational competition

8) Scientific basis of sport, that is, the application ofscientific research resultsin the selection andpreparation of athletes (ofdifferent ages and qualitylevels).

4-4

4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport

Coaching education for higher qualifications in Croatia, is achieved via two professional degrees (undergraduate), two university degrees (graduate) and viathe specialized postgraduate degree for the highest qualifications in sport.

Coaches in Croatia are educated via coursesfor coaches, teachers and instructors.

Educational system of sports experts in the Republic of Croatia (professional degree)

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

3 years

(6 sem.)

2 year

(4 sem.)

Coach in different sports

SPECIJALISTIČKI DIPLOMSKI STRUČNI STUDIJ

(Viši trener specijalista)

SPECIALIST GRADUATE PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

(Professional bachelor of sport – a specialist coach)

UNDERGRADUATE PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

(Professional bachelor of sport – a coach)

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

Track and

field

Swimming

Archery

Wrestling

Judo

Handball

Basketball

Soccer

Volleyball

Tennis

etc.

Coach in recreation Coach in

physical conditioning

Coach in fitness

Coach / instructor in police, army

4-5

Basic strategic tasks for upgrading the quality of expertise in sport are:

A continuous selection of potential sports coaches candidates,

eduaction of coaches and other experts based on recent discoveries and knowledge which is supposed to improve their coaching efficiency/successes,

providing professional qualifications for coaches through seminars, conventions and other national and international conferences.

other than coaches, experts of different profiles must be involved in the training process

Their expertise and responsibilities should be strategically defined and distributed

A team of experts, led by asports coach, in contemporary Croatian sport should be a warranty for achieving the highest sports results.

4-6

4.3. Organization of sport

In order for a sport system to operate efficiently, the tasks and interrelations between key institutions in the organizational scheme which is made up of theCroatian Olympic Committee, Ministry of Science, education and sport and theCroatian Faculties of Kinesiology must be defined.

National and regional sport research and development centres should be added to that scheme, especially the future Croatian Sport Institute.

Relations between governmental and non-governmental organization of Croatian sport

with scientific, educational and research institutions

District offices for

education, science,

culture and sport

Municipal offices for

education, science,

culture and sport

Croatian Olympic

Committee

National sports

federations

Unions of the district

sports federations…

Municipal sports

federations (Zagreb

Sports Federation, e.g.

Zagreb Athletic Federation,

Athletic clubs)

Other Governmental Ministries of the Republic of Croatia

Public, media, sponsors, social institutions…

Scientific and

educational and

research

institutions

(Faculty of

Kinesiology,

Research

Centres)

Ministry of Science,

Education and Sport of

the RC

S

C

H

O

O

L

S

P

O

R

T

T

O

P

-

L

E

V

E

L

S

P

O

R

T

4-7

Sports facilities must comply with standard sizes, qualities and other demands. The lack of sports halls, swimming pools and playing fields in Croatia is evident. It is necessary to review the current facilities’ infrastructure and draw attention to the need for building new ones.

It is very important to implement the required equipment for carrying out the training process. Contemporary apparatus, devices and equipment facilitate the quality of training.

4.4. Sports facilities and equipment

It is also necessary to ensure considerable financial means for the supply of modern diagnostic and training equipment for top level athletes.

Sports centers must be equipped with diagnostic apparatus that enable an objective assessment of athletes’ preparation/fitness and a continuous control of performance.

4-8

4.5. Sport funding

By sport development activities are determined

Sport funding/financing is the most important resource in all sport systems

It is necessary to additionally motivate investors through tax relief or significant benefits of the invested money. It is also necessary to design different enterpreneurial programmes and sports marketing.

The Republic of Croatia, local and territorial (regional) governments and the City of Zagreb shall determine the public purpose of sport and, for their implementation,provide funds from their budgets in accordance with the law on sport.

In determining the public needs it is startedfrom the needs and opportunities of society and in the modern world of sports achievements.

The minister responsible for sport, by law sets the minimum standards for the funding of sport in Croatia.

4-9

4.5.1. Taxes

Countries in the transitional stage of development have not provided tax relief in the same way for sports organizations as other European countries have.

Croatia has not yet provided an affordable way to solve the question of tax relief for investment in high-performance athletes. In this sense, a top sport in Croatia has a large reserve.

4.5.2. Sponsorships

Sponsorships are usually included in the top-level and popular sport.

It is often difficult to achieve an implementation of the financial structure recommended by the European Charter, which does not encourage public and private financial support for sport.

5 - 1

Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training

Lesson 5:

• Explain the importance of scientific research in sport

• Talk about the theoretical work area in sport• Explain the correlation between the coach

and an athlete• Present and explain fitness profiles of top-

level athletes• Explain the correlation between training

programme and fitness level


5 - 2

5.1. Scientific research areaScientific research

System kinesiology

Biomechanics

PedagogyDidactics

ITMathematics

Sport kinesiology

(Research in sport)

Sports physiology

Sports medicine

Sports psychology

Sports sociology

What enables a top level performance in sport?

What are the factors enabling a successful selection of future top level athletes?

What are the reasons for the great results of Croatian athletes?

How can one create and evaluate training, competition and therecovery process?

A scientific work/paper is an original contribution to the knowledge of something general or specific and is oriented towards discovering new universal laws or methods.

In contemporary sport the training process has become so complex and therefore impossible to manage without the implementation of scientific information.

Scientists and their research may contribute greatly to sport and sports preparation enhancement.

5 - 3

Constant cooperation between researchers and coaches, as well as keeping up with the new information in professional papers and periodicals, and attending conferences and professional seminars definitely influences the improvement of the coaches’ professional work level.

“Nowadays, the highest sports results are achieved by extremely talented athletes due to a programmed training process based on scientific knowledge”, Gambetta (1989)

The relationship between sport and science, that was founded a long time ago, has reached itsfull potential nowadays.

Training theory – scientific and teaching discipline Training theory (integration of scientific research

results)

5.2. Theoretical work area

Sp

ort

s t

rain

ing

Sp

ort

s p

rep

ara

tio

n

Theoretical basics

Methodics

Programming and control

Sport

Sports performance

5 - 4

Theory, in general, denotes a system of knowledge which is aimed at the explanation of successful functioning of a certain expertise.

Accordingly, the Training theory systematically explains the functioning of sport and sports training along with all its components.

The training theory contains the broadest generalizations by which the facts and laws of training based on sports practice or scientific research are explained.

5.3. Practical work area

5.3.1. Correlation between the coach and an athlete

Athlete –sports team

Disrupting variables

Coach – expert team

Model

Athlete X

Fitness level(effects)

Training plan and programme

(operators)

5 - 5

A very important part of the previous figure represents the correlation between the model and an athlete X

The coach who designed the training programme must be informed about the fitness of a top level athlete (the model),the fitness characteristics and the fitness characteristics of an athlete that is being trained (an athlete X)

Those characteristics are, in fact, the test results obtained by evaluating any athlete’sabilities and skills.

ANTROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL VALUES

1. Body height (cm) 178.0

2. Body weight (kg) 74.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s) 3.30

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s) 40.0

5. Standing high jump (cm) 65.0

6. Running high jump (cm) 75.0

7. Pull ups (repetitions) 10.0

8. Deep squat (kg) 111.0 kg (150% BW)

9. Slalom run (s) 8.60

10. Slalom run with a ball (s) 10.10

11. Oxygen uptake – VO2 (ml/kg/min)

68.00

12. Cognitive test 1 6.00

13. Cognitive test 2 70% (+)

Model characteristics/values of physical fitness in top level football/soccer players

(Vazny, 1978)

5 - 6

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

FOOTBALL PLAYER X’s TEST RESULT

1. Body height (cm) 176.3

2. Body weight (kg) 72.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s) 3.48

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s) 43.2

5. Standing high jump (cm) 56.7

6. Running high jump (cm) 62.6

7. Pull ups (repetitions) 7.0

8. Deep squat (kg) 96.4 kg (134% body weight)

9. Slalom run (s) 8.80

10. Slalom run with a ball (s) 10.71

11. Oxygen uptake – VO2 (ml/kg/min)

62.78



Test results of an X player in the variables to assess their fitness (Vazny, 1978)


MODEL VALUES

FOOTBALL PLAYER X’s

TEST RESULT

1. Body height (cm) 178.0 176.3

2. Body weight (kg) 74.0 72.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s) 3.30 3.48

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s) 40.0 43.2

5. Standing high jump (cm)

65.0 56.7

6. From a moving high jump (cm)

75.0 62.6

7. Pull ups (repetitions) 10.0 7.0

8. Deep squat (kg) 111.0 kg(150% BW)

96.4 kg(134% BW)

9. Slalom run (s) 8.60 8.80

10. Slalom run with a ball (s)

10.10 10.71

11. Oxygen uptake –VO2 (ml/kg/min)

68.00 62.78

12. Cognitive test 1 6.00 4.40

13. Cognitive test 2 70% (+) 45% (+)

Football player’s (X) test results and model values comparison

(Milanović, 2005, according to Vazny, 1978)

1 4 6 8 10 12

20

30

40

50

60

70

2 13119753

Points

Characteristics and abilities

5 - 7

Top level Croatian basketball players’ results in tests for assessment of basic and specific motor

abilities (according to Milanović et al., 1989)

Measuring instruments - tests Demanded result

Player 1 Player 2

1. Standing high jump (jumping explosive power) 82 cm 82 cm 64 cm

2. Standing triple jump (jumping explosive power) 8,50 m 8.60 m 7.80 m

3. Shuttle run (speed endurance) 25,5 s 25,3 s 27,04 s

4. Chest ball-throw (throwing explosiv power) 18 m 18,5 m 16,30 m

5. Standing 20-m sprint (strating explosive power) 2,85 s 2,86 s 3,03 s

6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity) 65 ml/kg/min

70 ml/kg/min

74 ml/kg/min

7. Sit ups (abdominal musculature strength) 40 42 36

Guards

Top level basketball player’s fitness profile (T.K.)

0 = group of top level basketball players’ average results (0 to 1 = model values)

Z-values

Tests SAR1TROJ OSMB 4*5B 20VS TRB

AEC

-3

-2

-1

3

SAR2 VUKSMBSPR4*5SOSMSBLGTROS

0

1

2

5 - 8

Z-values

Tests SAR1TROJ OSMB 4*5B 20VS TRB

AEC

-3

-2

-1

3


0

1

2

Top level basketball player’s fitness profile (A.K.)

0 = group of top level basketball players’ average results (0 to 1 = model values)

5.4. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level

Athlete –sports team

Disrupting variables

Coach – expert team

Model

Athlete X

Fitness level(effects)

Training plan and programme

(operators)

5 - 9

In sports training practice there is acontinuous correlation between the training plan and the programme - and the training work and the athletes’ fitness

The training plan and programme changethe athletes’ fitness level into the desired direction according to the set goals of a certain sports preparation cycle.

Information regarding the athletes’ fitness level, during any part of the training process, represents a basic resource of informationfor defining the contents, loads and training methods.

Training operators, implemented in the training programmes, represent the stimulithat produce quantitative and qualitative fitness level changes in athletes.

The application of certain training operators results in fitness level changes, i.e. training effects. Those effects confirm thecorrectness and weaknesses of any prevously applied training programme, competition system and recovery methods during acertain sports preparation cycle.

5 - 10

Mesocycle -period

Peak performance

Mesocycle -phase

Cummulative effects

Microcycle Prolonged

effects

Training session

Acute

effects

MacrocycleFitness

(trainability)

Training stimulus

Functional reaction

ATHLETE

COACH

TRAINING PROGRAMME

TRAINING EFFECTS

Correlation between training programmes and training effects

6 - 1

Lesson 6:

Sports training(sports preparation)


Define the relation between sports training and sports preparation

Define sports training

Analyse the essence of sports training

Define and describe sports training objectives

Explain the cybernetic approach in sports training

Define the control and the regulation of the sports training process

6 - 2

Sports training represents a pedagogical and biological process oriented at the acquisition of physical abilities, knowledge, skills and habits (routines).

Training – trahere (lat.) pull, work; denotes each form of exercise, learning and preparation

Sports training is a system comprised of all procedures aimed at sports perfomance enhancement.

6.1. Sports training – sports preparation

“WITH THE CESSATION OF HEAVY PHYSICAL AND MENTAL WORK, STARTS THE SPORTS TRAINING.”

Sports training, in general, represents a longterm

process of athletic preparation for the greatest and

highest sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical, technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and other forms

of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice

and activity of the highest possible physicial load on organs and organic systems.

Therefore, in athletic circles we can often hear the following slogan:

6.2. Sports training definitions:

6 - 3

D. Harre (1982) has defined sports training as an organized and longterm process of sports performance enhancement that is based on pedagogical, biological, psychological, sociological, medical, biomechanical and methodical principles.

With a planned approach and systematic work it affects the development of such abilities, skills and characteristics which enable the highest sports achievements at the most important competitions.

C. Vittori (1990) defined sport training as a complex, pedagogical process which is manifested in organized and scientifically based exercise - work that is repeated with a specific load in order to ensure the activation of the physioogical processes of supercompensation and adaptation in the human organism.

Consequently, a development of athletes’ physical, technical and tactical capacities is achieved. These capacities are manifested in an improvement and stabilization of sports performance results.

6 - 4

MA SMAME MI

Different loads cause different reactions of the athletes’ organism

MA

SMA

ME

MI

maximal

submaximal

medium

minimum

Load:

1)Causes adaptational changes

Adaptation is a characteristic of every living

organism. An athlete’s condition is, thereby influenced by training stimuli.

It actually represents the changes specific to the different demands of each sport.

6.3. The essence of sports trainingEnsues from all definitions and theoretical approaches:

6 - 5

2) It represents a form of work: physical and mental

There is always a relation between physical and mental engagement in sports training. More complexed motor tasks increase an athlete’s mental abilities’ activation.

3) It is systematic and regular

Training should be continuous without disruptions. Athletes should train on a daily basis, changing only the volume and methods of training. Any longer disruptions in training might put the sports development in jeopardy.

4) It is planned and programmedA plan and a programme minimize all coincidences. We must always be aware of “the place we’re at” and what we want to accomplish in order to determine the procedures which lead to the achievement of the goals.

5) It is longterm and goal orientedTo plan perspectively a sports career. To secure the full development of fitness (preparedness) in each phase of a longterm sports preparation. Premature forcing of sports talents never yields the expected performance and

6 - 6

6) Repetitive

Training stimuli, training sessions and training cycles are repetative. A stable and automated performance is possible to achieve only with a large number of repetitions.

7) It is conducted by over-the-threshold loads – maximal efforts

Training loads must be over-the-threshold. It is necessary to provoke very large, but controlled physiological reactions.

8) It is specific regarding the level of sport fitness (preparedness)

Age, sex, health status specificity and an athlete’s level must be taken into account. Every sport is determined by a specific structure of dimensions that influence the sports performance and results.

6 - 7

9) It is oriented at maximizing motor abilities, skills and performance achievements necessary to accomplish sports results.

Sport results at competitions represent an indicator of an athlete’s training status, training programme and recovery methods’quality.

6.4. Sports training tasks:

1) Formation and enhancement of athletes’ specific skills and abilities for performing movement structures which make the SPORTS TECHNIQUE

TECHNIQUE stands for

a biomechanically correct

and rational movement

structure performance.

6 - 8

2) Formation and enhancement of athletes’ skills and abilities for the realization ofsituational structures which makes SPORTS TACTICS.

TACTICS – represents optimal

movements modes

of one or more athletes in

situational training or competitive

conditions.

It is actually an efficient

situational problem solving

3) Improvement and stabilization of primary and specific functional/energetic capacities and motor abilities which comprise the athletes’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING.

STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

stands for an optimal state of the

athletes’functional/energetic capacities

and motor abilities.

6 - 9

4) Development and maintenance of athletes’ MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES. Each sport “demands” specific anthropometric measures and somatotypes.

6) Improving the level of mental, COGNITIVE processes functioning which are specific for different ways and levels of technical and tactical behavior in sport.

5) To influence an ATHLETE’S PERSONALITY development. It includes self-evaluation and auto regulation, and also self-confidence and self-respect.

8) Positive athletes' ATTITUDES, INTERESTS, SYSTEM OF VALUES and MOTIVATIONAL orientation.

7) Improving the ability of MICROSOCIAL ADAPTATION. It is actually an adjustment to the rules of conduct in a sports team and a quality emotional and functional positioning of an individual in a group.

6 - 10

9) Preserving and enhancing athletes’ HEALTH. A sport in which professional knowledge is implemented, and which is led by qualified coaches, preserves and enhances athletes’ health. An athlete cannot participate in training and competition if a medical team has determined ahealth disability or danger of deterioration in the health status.

10) Formation of INTEGRAL ACTION EFFICIENCY, always with regard to an interaction between each of the sports success determinants.

For an athlete to be motivated and successful in training and competition, he/she must be healthy and have optimally developed physical abilities, morphological features and motor skills of a certain sport.

While participating in sports activities, an athlete must find himself/herself in situations in which he/she will achieve success, and cognitively asses his/her abilities and features so high that participation in a certain sport represents a challenge even during the most difficult training periods and competitions.

6 - 11

Cybernetics is a science of managementand regulation of interdependent processes occurring in complex systems (Wiener, 1948).

6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training

Sports training is a manageable process. All processes that can be managed may be simply described by the cybernetic approach.

BRANCHES of cybernetics:

– System theory

– Information theory

– Management and regulation theory

– Communication theory

– Games theory

– Algorithms theory

6 - 12

Management

– Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be achieved. (Achievement – reaching peak performance during preparatory period)

MicrocyclesMicrocyclesMicrocycles

Mesocycles (phases)Mesocycles (competiotion seasons)

Mesocycles (phases)

Transitional periodCompetition periodPreparatory period

Other competitions

(tournaments, meetings)Official competitions

Preparatory/control competitions

3. Phase of temporary loss of peak performance

2. Phase of maintaining peak performance

1. Phase of entering peak performance

60

80

100

Regulation

– Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be achieved within demanded or given boundaries. (Peak performance maintenance during a competition period)

MikrociklusiMikrociklusiMikrociklusi

Mezociklusi(etape)Mezociklusi (sezone

natjecanja)Mezociklusi(etape)

Prijelazni periodNatjecateljski periodPripremni period

Ostala natjecanja (turniri, mitinzi)

Službena natjecanjaPripremno-kontrolna

natjecanja

3. Faza privremenog gubitka sportske forme

2. Faza održavanja sportske forme

1. Faza ulaska u sportsku formu

60

80

100


Mesocycles (phases)Mesocycles (competiotion seasons)

Mesocycles (phases)

Transitional periodCompetition periodPreparatory period

Other competitions

(tournaments, meetings)Official competitions

Preparatory/control competitions

3. Phase of temporary loss of peak performance

2. Phase of maintaining peak performance

1. Phase of entering peak performance

60

80

100

6 - 13

Cybernetics enables a simplified approach in analyzing complex systems and processes, and represents a special operational method.

Cybernetics in training theory bringsmathematics and statistics as operational methods. Sports training science becomes an exact, scientific and teaching discipline.

System approach

System: A group of elements with clearly determined characteristics and interrelations

A system is a specification of relations between input, condition and output

System condition is determined by output variables

Change of input variables causes a change in output variables

Input variables represent causes, and output variables represent the consequences of the system processes.

6 - 14

INPUT

I

disruptions

ATHLETE

Achieved condition

Analysis of training

effects

Expected condition

OUTPUTO

TRAINING

PLAN AND

PROGRAM

A simple cybernetic model of sports training (modified according to Mraković, 1994)

Coach –

expert team(management and

regulation)

Training model

understood by an

athlete - team

Coach

Training model

given by a coach

Athlete –

Sports team

Athlete’s/team’s

real condition

model = training

effects

Athlete’s/team’s

condition model –

seen and understood

by a coach

Disruptions

F

I

L

T

E

R

Disruptions

Cybernetic model of information exchange between coach and athlete

F

I

L

T

E

R

Almost no entropy.

Almost no entropy.

7 - 1

Sports Training

– A Short History

Lesson 7:


Describe the beginning of sport development

Explain the developmental stages of sport and define the development indicators

Discuss the new technologies in sports preparation

Define the implicit and the explicit phase of sport development

Talk about the beginning of academic research and the application of research findings in sport

7 - 2

Data on horse training were found on a clay plate from the 14th century B.C. and data on athletes’ training on a clay plate from the 7th century B.C.

Ancient Greece: Advanced physical activity in the education of youth. Special attention was given to the preparation for the Olympic Games.

7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world

Sport in the Middle Ages

The cult of the spirit prevails over the cult of the body – the influence of medieval Christianity

Physical activity and sport played one of the key roles only in a knight’s education - military training

Knights’ tournaments– a central social event

7 - 3

Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) – “The Art of Gymnastics” – the book that summarises all knowledge on sport in ancient Greece - in the next three centuries it would have a significant impact on the development of sport in Europe

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Physical activity is an integral part of education

Swimming, jumping, running, throwing, and games

Renaissance

Age of Enlightenment

Gymnastics systems

BEGINNING OF SYSTEMATIC PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN EUROPE - 19th century (German, Swedish, French, Czech)

Gymnastics systems can be perceived as the precursors of sport, which started to develop rapidly in those countries

7 - 4

Since its beginning (19th century)training was under the influenceof gymnastics and physical activity systems from Germany, Sweden, the Czech Republic and England.

In England, contours of modern sport start to appear - the concept of training is adapted - to exercise, to train or to repeat mechanically anexercise with the goal of performance improvement - J. Walsh, 1856.

First research into the correlation between physical exercises and morphological characteristics (Sargent, 1879)

Strength training prevails in the conditioning of motor abilities -basic training principles and methods are defined (Blaikie, 1879; Anderson, 1883; E. Sandow 1894)

1888 - Legrange gives the definition of training:

Training refers to the activities whose purpose is to prepare a man or an animal for a certain type of work.

7 - 5

Modern sport

Developed in England in the second half of the 19th century

The Olympic Games

Pierre de Coubertin(1863 – 1937)

1. The Olympics in Athens in 1896 played a key role in the development and popularisation of sport in Europe and the world

Gradually,the first serious analyses of sports training are published, which enrich the training methodology (E. Sandow 1897,

Murphy, 1913, B. Kotov 1916/1917)

After the second and the third Olympics it became clear that results can be obtained only by the employment of multilateral and balanced exercise

7 - 6

The American scientist M. Murphy publishes "athletic preparation" and recommends that preparatory training should last 8 to 10 weeks, and that it should be based on specific and "aiding/helping" exercises.

The Russian scientist B. Kotov (1916/1917) clearly formulates the ideas on continuity and different stages (periodisation) of the training process – he also distinguishes between three periods: general training, basic training, and specific training.

In Finland the interval training method is used for the first time (L. Pikhala, 1930), which gives excellent results in long-distance and middle-distance running

The first serious articles on training are published - V. Gorinevski «Scientific foundations of training», 1922; G. Birsin «Training essence» from 1925.

The rapid development of sport in the period between the two World Wars is accompanied by the development of sports training technology.

7 - 7

From 1932 to 1936 the participation of other academic and study disciplines can be observed: sports medicine, physiology, psychology, pedagogy. Eventually, the profile of sports specialists is developed.

Interval sports preparation starts to be employed (coach - W. Gerschler, runner – R. Harbig 800m)

By World War II the level of 400 to 500 training hours in the annual cycle of sports preparation is reached and there is a tendency for the employment of two training sessions per day.

The idea of peak performance and its taperingfor important competitions is considered.

After World War II (1948 to 1952), especially at the Olympics in Helsinki, first top sports results are achieved by the athletes from the “Eastern block"

The experts “are aware of/come to realize" the structure of the success factors in different sports disciplines and study the methodological problems connected to each of the sports preparation segments

There is a shift from the level of a generalapproach to the level of an individual approach

7 - 8

The first big athletic stars are P. Nurmi, J. Owens and E. Zatopek - track and field, J. Weismuller - swimming

The importance of physical conditioning in the training structure constantly increases

E. Müller and T. Hettinger introduce new strength training methods (isometrics) in 1953

In 1959, R. Morgan i G. Adamson propose the circuit training method, which is improved by M. Schölich in the 1960s.

The annual number of training hours is around 800.

Sports preparation systems for important competitions (the Olympics, World Championships and European Championships) are designed

Special attention is given to the functional preparedness and training methods for the development of motor abilities. Interest for strength training in basketball, swimming, and track and field is increasing

7 - 9

In the training of Australian (coach P. Cerutty –runner H. Elliot 1500m) and New Zealand (coach A. Lydiard – runner P. Snell 800m and 1500m) (1960 – 1968) track and field athletes, new training methodology is applied (e.g. "complex training") leading to the highest sports results in the world.

Increasing body of published academic research in all areas of sports training leads to a qualitative leap.

Important research in the field of sports training periodisation is conducted (S. Letunov, 1959, L. Matveev 1962)

After the Olympic Games in Mexico in 1968 the interest for "altitude training" increases among the coaches and sports scientists, and the first specialised centres for altitude sports preparation are built

7 - 10

Conditions for sports preparation are significantly improved and an improved means of recovery are developed

The desire to speed up the recovery process results in the use of prohibited pharmacological substances by the end of the 1970s.

Science becomes the leading generator of positive change in sport

Commercialisation of sport during the 1990s gives sport its cosmopolitan character and creates conditions for athletes to become professionals

At the beginning of the 21st century sports training becomes an academic system led by specialised teams of experts. This ensures the further development of sports preparation on the basis of the most recent academic findings and technologies

7 - 11

The intuitive and empirical approach prevails until the end of the 1960s, when the high-quality sports preparation systems are defined, drawing on the experience of the leading world coaches (implicit stage)

The year 1966 marked the beginning ofthe dominance of the academic approach.Academic research results are applied in the selection, methodology, programming, and control of the sports preparation process (the explicit stage)

7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia

Shooting - the first sport

Popularisation of sports and the establishment of sports clubs - second half of the 19th century

Cycling - most popular in the 19th/20th century

Franjo Bučar 1866-1946

Football in Croatia since 1903

7 - 12

Between two World Wars:

Basketball

Handball

Volleyball

Water polo

Track and field

Boxing

Golf

Ice hockey

Kayaking/canoeing

Table tennis

Tennis

Croatian Falcon

was a well-organised physical activity system The members cherished

proper education(discipline, friendship, devotion) and physical preparedness for serving the nation

At that time, physical education teachers were advocates of the positive role of sport and physical exercise in the education of youth

7 - 13

Croatian sport after World War II

A successful period for sport development in Croatia

The 1948 Olympic Games in London, the first international success of Croatian athletes –the Yugoslavian national football team won the silver medal

While performing for the former Yugoslavia, Croatian athletes accomplished significant results in team sports, tennis, rowing, boxing, swimming, wrestling etc.

Medals won by Croatian athletes at the Olympic Games since 1992

G S B T

Athletics - 1 0 1

Handball 2 - - 2

Basketball - 1 - 1

Water polo - 1 - 1

Tennis - - 3 3

Rowing - 1 1 2

Weightlifting 1 1 2

Taekwondo - - 2 2

Swimming - 1 - 1

Alpine Skiing 4 5 - 9

Biathlon - - 1 1

Shooting - - 1 1

Gymnastics - 1 - 1

Total 7 11 9 27

7 - 14

Significant features of the contemporary Croatian sport are:

Croatian athletes achieve significant results at important competitions. This is the result of great talent and motivation

A strategy and a national programme for the development of sport do not exist

Croatia hosts important competitions in various sports disciplines

There is a lot of room for improvement regarding the education of coaches, the structure, international cooperation, material and technical conditions and academic research

8 - 1

Analysis of sport activities

Lesson 8:


Distinguish between the movement structures and the situation structures, i.e. technique and tactics elements

Define a structural analysis and explain thestructural properties of a sports activity

Define the biomechanical analysis and explain thebiomechanical properties of a sports activity

Explain muscle contraction types

Define an anatomical analysis and explain theanatomical properties of a motor activity

Define a functional analysis and explain the energy processes in sports activities

Describe the criteria for a sports activity classification

8 - 2

8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity

Situation structures Sport tactics

Two components define a sport activity:

Movement structures Sport technique

Sports are differentiated by the number and complexity of movement structures and situations: that is, the technical and tactical elements.

a)Phases

There is a definite number of structural elements in each sport.

Success in sport is dependant on a correct performance.

A motor learning process enables constant learning and improvement of technical and tactical knowledge.

b) Subphasesc) Structural elements

8 - 3

Typical sport activities in which technical and tactical actions appear

A - approaching, B - jump, C – flying and kicking the ball in a dual action

1) Identification of typical structures of movement and structures of situations

2) Registration of structures of movement and structures of situations during a competition

3) Determining the frequencies (successful, unsuccessful) of structures of movement and structures of situations during a competition

4) Determining the value of structures of movement and structures of situations for sport results

A structural analysis of a sport activity implies four steps:

8 - 4

Distances covered by soccer players from different positions

(Verheijen, 1997)

StudyLevel /Country

Positions

N Distance in meters

Walk Jogging Sidemovement

Sprint Backwardmovement

Bangsbo etal.

1stleague/Denmark

14 3600 5200 2100 300

Knowles &Booke

1stleague/England

40 1703 2610 250

Mohr et al. 1stleague/Italy

DWLA

911139

2460169022302280

650640440440

Reilly T. 1stleague/England

DWLA

871114

2292177720292309

2902291040402771

1583189821591755

78383010591066

668651510495

Legend: D- defence; W-wing; L-line; A-attack

Biomehanical analysis enables an evaluation of the movement structure qualities.

Gives us numerical values of movements

In motor teaching coaches must use understandable biomechanical terms

Based on the biomechanical parameters during the performance of athletes and a model, motor errors can be determined

8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities

8 - 5

Kinematic parameters:

spatial (path, trajectory, angle relations)

time (duration) and

space - time (speed, acceleration)

Dynamic parameters:

muscle forces,

the forces of resistance,

reactive power

Electromyographicparameters

Speed curves of sprinters of different quality compared to the model

(according to Letzelter and Letzelter, 2002)

Ru

nn

ing

ve

locit

y

Distance

ModelTop level sprinterMedium quality sprinterLower quality sprinter

8 - 6

Speed curves of body parts of a young football player while kicking the ball

(Kollath, 1990 according to Milanović, 1997)

Ball contact

Top of foot Ankle Knee Hip

Velocity m/s

Top level basketball players results in a modified Sargent test from a tensiometric platform

(Milanović et al., 1999)

KinematicsKinetics

Measured Calculated

Subjects

Maximu

m reach

in jump

(cm)

Maximum

reach (cm)

Take-off

force

(N)

Duration

of take-

off (ms)

Force/body

weight

V.S. 352 75 3580 220 3,1

K.T. 341 75 2685 240 3,1

D.V. 334 70 3246 250 2,9

P.Ž. 321 56 2320 200 2,3

Z.J. 318 70 2762 200 3,2

Č.Z. 314 60 2570 220 2,7

C.D. 310 59 2682 190 2,9

R.Z. 306 69 2856 210 3,3

R.Z. 305 66 2608 170 3,2

8 - 7

Electromyographic activity during a jump shot in handball (Muller et al., 1992)

m. ext. carpi

m. flex. carpi

m. biceps brachii

m. triceps brachii

m. deltoideus

m. trapezius

m. pectoralis major

Types of muscle contractions

1. ISOMETRIC – placing feet on the ground

2. ECCENTRIC – amortization

3. CONCENTRIC – take-off

1. 2. 3. 3.1.

8 - 8

8.3. Anatomical analysis

The performance of motor actions involvesdifferent:

topological regions of the body (arms and shoulder girdle)muscle group (flexor muscles / flexor forearm)muscles (flexor / flexor forearm m. biceps brachii)

Analysis of muscle strain in abdominal crunch (Delavier, 2001)

8 - 9

Analysis of muscle strain in the forearm flexion (Delavier, 2001)

muscles andmuscle groups- extensors

muscles andmuscle groups- flexors

Dominant muscle groups in various sports disciplines

8 - 10

6. m. tensor fasciae latae

7. m. tibialis anterior

The order of activation of leg muscles during cycling

1. m. quadriceps femoris

2. m. triceps surae

3. m. flexor digitorum

4. m. gluteus maximus

5. m. biceps femoris

8.4. Functional (energy) analysis

In different sports activities various energy processes are activated :Aerobic (O2)mixed (aerobic - anaerobic)Anaerobic - glycolitic (LA)Anaerobic - phosphate (ATP / CP)

These energy processes can be measured by a number of physiological - biochemical parameters in a laboratory and in the fieldheart ratebody temperaturelactate concentrations

8 - 11

SPORT ATP/CP LA O2

Kayak: K1 1000m 20 50 30

Rowing 2 15 83

Rugby 30-40 10-20 30-50

Archery 0 0 100

Skiing: alpine

slalom 45’’-50’’ 40 50 10

giant slalom 70’’-90’’ 30 50 20

super G 80’’-120’’ 15 45 40

downhill 90’’-150’’ 10 45 45

Skiing: nordic 0 5 95

Soccer 60-80 20 0-10

Swimming 100m 23.95 51.10 24.95

1500m 10 20 70

Tennis 70 20 10

Volleyball 40 10 50

Waterpolo 30 40 30

Wrestling 90 10 0

The involvement of energy processes in different sports in % (by Bompa, 1994)

Heart rate during a football match (a) the relationship between HR and VO2 in the treadmill

run test (b)(Bangsbo, 1994)

At the mean HR of 171 and 164 r / min in the first and second half the achieved VO2 is: 51.1 ml / mol / kg (78% VO2 max) and in the second

46.2 ml / mol / kg (72% VO2 max)

VO2 max = 65,3 ml/min/kg

8 - 12

8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities

8.5.1. The structural complexity

Monostructural sport activitiesActivities in which there are one or more movement structures of a cyclic or acyclic character, which are successively repeated. Defined as standard forms of motion with the lowest variability of biomechanical parameters.

In their basis are simple structures of movement: closed or semi-open type. It is a repetition of the same movement, or cycles, such as a step in walking, running,a stroke in swimming or rowing, a cycle in cycling…

Monostructural cyclic sports activities

8 - 13

Monostructural acyclic sports activities

More complex structures of movement, and semi-open and open type, consisting of several phases. Activities are performed in the standard forms with respect to biomechanical principles for overcoming one's own body space, missile, or with the help of an external force (athletic jumps and throws, alpine skiing, weightlifting, sailing ...)

Polystructural sport activities

Semi-open and open movement structures that are performed in variable conditions. They are dominated by the complex structure of an acyclic movement character in which there is a direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo), or indirect - kicking, countering the opponent (boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing)

8 - 14

Complex sports activitiesCharacterized by simple and complex movements in terms of cooperation, cooperation between members of sports teams during the game.

The aim of this cooperation is to achieve supremacy over opponents - individuals or teams. It may vary from one-subject (tennis, table tennis) to multi-subjects (team sports games).In these activities maximum demands on the type of tactical decision-making and action are set.

Conventional - aesthetic sports activities

Contain aesthetically designed and choreographed sets of movementstructures which are performed under standard conditions. There are obligatory and free competition programmes, with a subjectivelyassessed value of technical and artistic interest (diving, figure skating, gymnastics ...). Ski jumping is evaluated in jump distance and quality of performance.

8 - 15

8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters

Control of kinematic and dynamic parameters (sports, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming)

Control of dynamic parameters (track and field, rowing and swimming)

Sports with a high variability of biomechanical parameters (martial arts and sports games)

8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological

classification

Aerobic sports (long-distance running, cross country skiing)

Mixed sports (athletic decathlon, triathlon)

Lactate - glycolytic anaerobic sports (martial arts, running the middle distance, sports gymnastics)

Phosphate anaerobic sports (sports games, sprint running, diving)

8 - 16

8.5.4. The dominance of motor -physical abilities

Sports dominated by power

Sports dominated by speed and agility

Sports dominated by endurance

Sports dominated by balance

Sports dominated by coordination

Sports dominated by precision

9 - 1

Analysis ofathletes’

dimensions

(components ofpreparedness)

Lesson 9:


Explain the hierarchical structure of the factors of athletes’ fitness;

Define and describe basic anthropological characteristics of athletes;

Define and describe athletes’ specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills;

Define and describe situation-related efficiency (performance) indicators of athletes;

Define and explain competition results (achievements) in sports

9 - 2

9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes

I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

Health status

Morphological characteristics

Work capacities (Functional

abilities)

Motor (physical) abilities

Cognitive abilities

Personality traits

(innate)

II. Specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills

Specific physical conditioning

fitness

Specific abilities, skills and

knowledge –technical

preparedness

Specific abilities, skills and

knowledge –tactical

preparedness

Specific theoreticalknowledge

III. Performance efficiency of athletes

Indicators of performance in

the phase of defense

Indicators of performance in

the phase of offense/attack

Other performance

indicators

IV. Competition result

Health status

– Sports and sport training should never jeopardize health of athletes.

– To fight against substance abuse in sport is an obligation of each and every participant.

9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

Health status

Morphological characteristics

Work capacities (functional abilities)

Motor (physical) abilities

Cognitive abilities

Personality traits

(innate)

9 - 3

Morphological characteristics of athletes

- These are body composition indicators, somatotype characteristics of athletes –important sport performance factors.

- Variuos sports require various somatotypes (ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph)

- For high achievements in certain sports morphological characteristics are crucial, decisive.

Skinfold measurements

(Beachle & Earle, 2009)

Anthropometric characteristics of athletes: body height, body mass, somatotype of

basketball players (Milanović et al., 1989)

(M - Mean, SD - standard deviation)

Player / Test

Height (cm) Mass (kg) Somatotype

01 198.3 91.3 4.5/2.6/4.5

02 204.9 97.0 2.5/2.9/4.0

03 212.9 110.3 3.0/4.0/4.0

04 187.0 81.8 3.5/4.5/3.0

05* 207.6 85.7 2.0/1.0/6.0

06 205.5 101.0 3.0/3.4/3.0

07 206.5 97.6 3.0/2.9/4.5

08 190.7 81.0 1.5/4.0/3.5

09 187.6 85.7 2.5/4.1/2.5

10* 208.5 110.8 4.5/4.4/3.0

11 217.7 117.4 2.0/3.9/4.0

12 194.4 86.0 2.5/3.8/3.5

M 201.7 95.5 2.9/3.5/3.8

SD 10.03 12.31 0.93/0.98/0.94

9 - 4

Work capacities / functional (energy supply) abilities of athletes

– Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic metabolic processes).

– Athletes may significantly differ among themselves by the aerobic abilities as well as by anaerobic capacities.

– In certain sports the anaerobic glycolitic energy production process prevails, whereas in others theaerobic metabolic process is predominant.

Characteristic metabolic processes in various performance time intervals of high intensity sport

activity (Bompa, 1994)

100%

50%

anabolic (A)

phosphogenic (P)

gliycolitic (G)

aerobic

30 60 90 120 150

seconds

AP

G

Energy intensity

of the activity

9 - 5

• Each sport event can be described in terms of particular energy supply mechanisms: anabolic (A), - phosphogenic (P), glycolitic (G) and aerobic (oxydative; O).

Energy supply system

Anaerobic

Alactic Lactic

Aerobic

Basic energy sources

Phosphate system (ATP and CP from muscles)

Lactic system (glycogen lactic

acid)

Glycogen (completely burns outin presence of O2)

Fats Proteins

Duration 0 s 10s 40s 70s 2 min 6min 25min 1h 2h 3h

Sports events

100m track

sprinting

200-400m 800 m Medium distance (running, speed

skating, swimming)

Long distance (running, swimming, speed

skating, kayak-canoe)

Throwing events

500m speed

skating

100 m swimming

1000m kayak-canoeing

Cross-country skiing

Jumping events

Artistic gymnastics

500m canoeing

Boxing Triathlon

Weight lifting

50m swimming

1000m speed

skating

Wrestling / Combat sports

Cycling, road race

Ski jumping

Floor routine (artistic

gymnastics)

Figure skating

Diving Alpine skiing Rowing

Vault (art. gymn.)

Sports games, individual (net&wall) games, sailing

Activity Acyclic Acyclic and cyclic Cyclic

Aerobic and anaerobic energetic processes in sports events of various duration (Bompa, 1994)

9 - 6

• The differences between test results in rest and parameters obtained under competition loads are frequently analysed to determine specific work (functional) responds/capacities of athletes.

FUNCTIONAL (WORK

CAPACITY) PARAMETER

VALUES IN

REST

VALUES IN

COMPETITION

HR (heart rate) 40 200.0

Respiratory volume (l/min) 8.0 200.0

Oxygen consumption (O2l/min) 0.5 6.5

Lactate (mmol/l) 1.0 20.0

Functional indicators of elite rowers in rest and in competition

(Körner & Schwanitz, 1985, according to Milanović, 1997)

Average values of maximal oxygen uptake in athletes of various sports

(Bangsbo, 1994)

mlO2/min/kg

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

women men

soccer

team handball

medium distance running

untrained individuals

9 - 7

Values of absolute and relative oxygen uptake (VO2) of Australian athletes

(Pyke, 2001)

Sport

Average

absolute

VO2max L/min)

Range

Average

relative VO2max

(ml/kg/min)

Range

RunningM 4.9 3.9-5.7 75 65-80

W 3.5 2.9-4.2 65 55-70

RowingM 4.8 4.3-5.1 65 55-70

W 3.4 3.1-3.8 52 45-60

CyclingM 5.8 4.8-6.4 80 65-85

W 3.7 3.0-4.0 63 55-70

CanoeingM 4.8 4.4-5.2 60 55-65

W 3.1 2.8-3.5 50 45-55

SoccerM 4.6 4.0-5.2 60 55-65

W 3.1 2.8-3.5 50 45-55

– Represent efficiency of the neuro-muscular system responsible for intensity, duration and regulation of movements.

– They enable either powerful, quick, long-lasting, accurate, coordinated, or combined performance of various motor tasks.

Motor abilities of athletes

9 - 8

Motor abilities are the aspects of intensity and extensity (volume) of any motor activity that can be described with the same parameter system and measured with the identical group of measuring instruments; onset of analoguous physiological, biochemical, morphological and biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them.

McCloy (1886-1959) defines

motor, i.e. physical

potential of athletes as the

maximum limit of

physical work ability

which an individual reaches,

or realizes his/her potential

with sports training.

• According to Meinel (1977, in Milanović, 1997), it is a complex structure of quantitative(STRENGTH/POWER, SPEED, ENDURANCE and FLEXIBILITY) and

qualitative (COORDINATION, AGILITY, BALANCE and ACCURACY) motor abilities.

9 - 9

The quantitative motor abilities enable

a high level of work intensity and extensity,

whereas the qualitative motor abilities

enable an athlete to perform work of high

structural and biomechanical complexity of

any sports activity.

Bompa (2006) defines the structure of motor abilities as consisting of BASIC BIOMOTOR CAPACITIES, like strength/power, speed, endurance, coordination and flexibility.

The derived motor abilities are also important to sport performance. They are a result of the correlation of the basic motor abilities.

Therefore, there are POWER/EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH (interaction of strength and speed), SPEED ENDURANCE (interaction of speed and endurance), and SPEED COORDINATION(interaction of speed and coordination).

9 - 10

Interdependence among biomotor abilities (modified according to Bompa, 2006)

Strength/Power Endurance Speed Coordination Flexibility

Repetitive strength

Speed endurance

Agility Dexterity

Power

Maximal strength

Anaerobicendurance

Aerobicendurance

Speed strength

Speed coordination

Dynamic mobility

Results of soccer players of different standards in tests of motor abilities

Tests Standard levels of soccer players

A B C D E

30m dash from the

standing start (s)

3.85 3.85-3.98 3.99-4.12 4.13-4.26 4.26 >

30 m dash from the

flying start (s)

3.15 3.15-3.27 3.28-3.40 3.42-3.53 3.53 >

SAR vertical jump

(cm)

43.0 40.0-43.0 36.0-39.0 32.0-35.0 35 <

COOPER test (km) 3.35 3.26-3.35 3.16-3.25 3.06-3.15 3.06 <

10m dash from the

standing start (s)

1.66-1.70 1.69-1.73 1.71-1.77 1.75-1.78 1.78 >

9 - 11

Cognitive abilities of athletes– Enable reception, processing, retention and

utilization of motor information resulting in quick and correct decision making during training and competition activities.

– Their influence is higher in the more complex sports activities.

Conative characteristics/ personality traits – Crucial for the efficient adaptation to strenuous

work conditions of sports and sport training.

– Personality traits are responsible for athletes’ behaviour and their engagement level/ commitmentand drive during training and competition.

II. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge

Specific and situational

physical condition/fitness

Specific abilities, skills and knowledge

– technical preparedness

Specific abilities, skills and knowledge

– tactical preparedness

Specific theoretical knowledge

9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes

9 - 12

Specific and situational physical condition/fitness

– It is manifested within specific movement patterns and game situation patterns of a particular sport.

– Integration of physical condition/fitness and technical (specific) preparedness as well as of physical condition/fitness and tactical preparedness (situational).

– Considerable influence of physical fitness abilities on performance of technical elements and correlation of physical fitness and technical skills with the quality of tactical performance

Indicators of basic and specific physical fitness of elite basketball cadets (C) and juniors (J)

(Milanović et al., 1997)

Mean - C S.D. - C Mean - J S.D. - J

SAR cm 70.02 7.57 74.08 6.55

TRO cm 754.60 40.80 764.42 53.44

BLG cm* 1513.30 135.10 1560.70 119.52

CAT rps. 27.87 2.53 32.06 2.27

VS20 s* 3.23 1.83 3.06 0.18

DO30 rps.* 22.73 0.15 24.42 2.53

S4×5 s* 5.26 0.50 5.34 0.51

OSMS s* 9.09 0.44 8.93 0.63

KUS s 7.69 0.35 6.82 0.32

SMB s* 29.46 1.52 27.56 1.54

TRB rps. 29.60 2.44 31.23 3.91

Mean – arithmetic mean, S.D. – standard deviation* - tests of specific physical condition/fitness

9 - 13

A high level and integrated utilization of technical-tactical skills and knowledge by athletes provide successfull situational problem solving during sports training and competition.

It is a consequence of a correct, adequate long-lasting TE-TA training with a myriad of repetitions

Technical, tactical and theoreticalpreparedness

Sports technique andtactics consist of a repertoire of motor programs embracing clustersof edited and hierarchicallyarranged motor information.

Performance efficiencydepends the number andquality level of the storedmotor information and on the athlete’s ability to harvest and apply themtimely.

Efficiency levels of TE-TA activityprograms

9 - 14

Motor programs can be at variousefficiency levels:

Level one:

Inicitial information are adopted,

Fragmetary knowledge,

Rough performance,

Poor movement control,

Constant interventions of a trainer are needed,

The program often needs to be reconstructed,

Consciuos control over all movement phases,

A high activity level of cortical part of the central nervous system,

A good basis for further learning.

Level two:

The motor program has not been completed yet,

Additional information are constantly needed,

The trainer must control performance strictly,

The program needs to be upgraded constantly,

“Fine” movement coordination is required,

Athletes’ active mental participation is needed

9 - 15

Level three:

Stabile performance is resistance to hindering environmental influences,

Movement parameters selfcontrol, Kinestetic sense, High achievement, Individual style specific performance is

tolerated (conditioned by individual features of athletes),

Subcortical movement regulation

Level four:

athletes’ reflex reactions in movement performance and in game situations solving,

movement automatization,

any kind of a signal is enough (from outside, or from any part of the CNS) to activate the motor program,

almost nothing can impede quality performance,

unconscious movement performance control (athletes do not think about the action, they “feel” it)

9 - 16

III. Performance of athletes

Indicators of performance in the phase of defense

Indicators of performance in the

phase of offense/attack

Other performance

indicators

9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency

Registration and analysis of situation-related efficiency indicators in sports

In contemporary sports the structure of competition activity parameters is the basis to a comparative analyses of performance of athletes and teams. It is especially important for the efficient programming of sports preparation.

One of the research directions in the kinesiology of

sport is oriented towards the analysis of standard

indicators of competition situation-related efficiency. During observation (monitoring) in the real time of sports

“combat” their frequency and effects can be noted (notation

analysis) or registered

The influence of these indicators on the final sport result in

competitions can be investigated

9 - 17

– Each competition/game offers information about types, amount and quality of activities performed by individual players and teams (e. g. In basketball: the number of assists, rebounds, 3-point throws made …)

– They are the basis for the performance comparison analyses of individual athletes and teams, quality selection of tactical behaviour in relation to the opponent strength, and for the sports preparation efficacious programming

Parameters of situationefficiency of athletes in certain

sports branches (standard and derived)

Every bout in combat sports is an opportunity for the registration of many efficiency indicators. The following can be noted and evaluated: diverse types of holds, throws, punches, kicks, evasions, defensive blocks, counterattacks, etc., which “award” certain points to a fighter and so determine the final outcome of the bout.

9 - 18

In sports games every match offers a lot of data on types, amount and quality of competition activities of individual players and teams (e.g. involleyball: the number of serves made, servereceptions, blocks and spikes, evaluated on ascale of +2 to -2)

Performance indicators/parameters in the phase of defense and the phase of offense/attack can be separately analysed, as well other parameters pertaining to the fields of tactical responsibility, drive, commitment and behaviour.

Registration and analyses of situation parameters can result in the model values of team efficiency / performance and in model patterns of individual performance of individual players in the phases of defense and offense/attack

9 - 19

Basic indicators of situation efficiency of the Croatian water polo team at the 1996 OG

Opponent FSTBRK BP CP UU/PG % POWER PLAY % RESULT/ SCORE

Team A 0 3 2 20/8 40 4/3 75 8:5

Team B 0 2 2 21/11 52 12/7 58 11:6

Team C 0 0 0 23/8 35 16/8 50 8:10

Team D 2 4 2 37/16 43 9/8 89 16:8

Team E 0 4 1 21/10 48 10/3 30 8:10

Team F 1 2 0 21/8 38 9/5 56 8:6

Team G 0 0 0 19/7 37 10/5+2 4m 50 7:6

Team H 1 2 0 24/5 21 9/2 22 5:7

Total 4 17 7 202/71 35 79/41+2 4m 52

The Croatian water polo national team at the 96 OG won the silver medal

The team was most efficient in scoring from theback/perimeter positions – 17, whereas fromthe hole set (central position) only 7 goals werescored

Too few goals were scored from fastbreaks –4

The realization of the attacks with man-upwas satisfying (41 goals scored + 2 penalties) – over 50% of the total number of the goalsscored

9 - 20

Distances covered (expressed in metres) by various kinds of ambulatory movements during a basketball match

RESEARCHSAMPLE OF SUBJECTS

TOTAL (m)

WALKING JOGGINGRUNNING (MEDIUM SPEED)

SPRINT

Gradowska (1972)

National team(Poland) 3809

Cohen (1980)

First league(France) 3890

Colli & Faina (1985)

First league (Italy) 3475 942 1542 991

Moreno (1988)

First league (Špain) 5763 828 3091 1577 267

Janeira &Maia (1998)

First league(Portugal) 4955 1838 1905 734 478

Basic indicators of competition activity inbasketball

Distances players covered by running in a handball game (Bon et al., 2002)

4790

2230

2560

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

entire match

second half

first half

Basic indicators of competition activity in

team handball

9 - 21

Distances covered by players (Verheijen, 1997)

Walking Jogging Running Sprint Total

Defenders

1st league 3.2km 2.0km 1.4km 1.4km 8.4km

3rd league 4.2km 1.7km 0.7km 0.5km 7.6km

Midfielders



Attackers



Basic indicators of competition activity insoccer / assoc. football

Table of various activities of playersby playing positions

(Verheijen, 1997)

Slide tackles

Jumps Shots on target

Duels Total

Defenders

1st league 9x 15x 24x 34x 82

3rd league 19x 23x 19x 37x 98

Midfielders



Attackers



9 - 22

Lactic acid concentration in blood oftop-level soccer players during game

Research study

Country N Lactates in the first half-time (mmol/L)

Lactates in the second half-time(mmol/L)

During Post During Post

Agnevik Sweden 10 10.0

Bangsbo Denmark 14 4.9 3.7 4.4

Brower & Davis

Sweden 6 5.1 4.6

Ekblom Sweden 9.5 7.2

Gerish et al. Germany 59 5.6 4.7

Smaros Finland 7 5.1 3.9

Smith et al. England 6 4.9 4.1

Basic statistic indicators of shots taken by the winning (WIN) and the defeated (DEF) teams at the

2000 European Handball Championship for Men(Vuleta et al., 2003)

VARIABLESMEAN

WIN

S.D.

WIN

MEAN

DEF

S.D.

DEF

SHO7MMADE 3.26 1.62 3.40 1.88

SHO7MMISSED 1.00 0.91 1.77 1.50

SHOT6MMADE 4.91 2.20 4.00 2.44

SHOT6MMISSED 1.63 1.77 1.71 1.47

SHOTWINGMADE 4.11 1.95 3.20 2.11

SHOTWINGMISSED 3.40 1.50 3.49 2.01

SHOT9MMADE 8.26 3.64 6.94 2.63

SHOT9MMISSED 10.86 3.45 14.4 4.83

SHOTFASTBRMADE 3.66 2.38 3.31 2.23

SHOTFASTBRMISSED 1.29 1.56 1.26 1.38

SHOTPRMADE 2.09 1.72 2.09 1.34

SHOTPRMISSED 0.69 0.87 0.63 0.94

9 - 23

Game statistics of the elite NBA basketball player (D.P.)

Z-

sco

res a

bso

lute

Z-

sco

res r

ela

tive

- 3

- 2

- 1

0

1

2

3

4

5

- 3

- 2

- 1

0

1

2

3

4

5

ZFG ZFT ZFG3 ZREB ZAST ZSTL ZVTD ZPTS ZBLK RANG

0 = NBA average in particular variables

(absolute – total; relative – total through minutes in play)

(absolute and relative)

2p 1p 3p rebound assists

steals

turnovers points screens

Comparison of average values of male and female 100m runners

(according to Letzelter & Letzelter, 2002)

Female sprinters

Male sprinters

Sp

ee

d o

f ru

nn

ing

(m

/s)

Distance (m)

9 - 24

Experts in sports practice ask frequently why is somuch attention paid to these indicators ofcompetition activity and efficiency?

There are several answers among which are thefollowing:

The determination of the criteria of successfulcompetition performance,

The determination of the standards of sports training,

The possibility to obtain / create the model ofcompetition activity of the opponent,

An objective, unbiased evaluation of actual

performance (quality) of individuals and teams.

9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of

sports activities)

Situated at the top of the pyramid ofathletes’ abilities, characteristics, skills andknowledge is competition result / achievement

It depends on both the level andstructure of all the factors situated at thelower pyramid levels

9 - 25

In competition result the entire system of sports preparatin is reflected and work effects of trainers and members of the professional coaching team

Within a sports career there is a peak, a period when an athlete achieves his/her best results.

Within an annual cycle sport shape/form should be taperred and peaked for the best achievements at the biggest competitions

Since the beginning of modern sports, Olympic games in particular, a constant progress in achievements is obviouse as well as in performance quality in most sports disciplines and events.

Development trend of abilities and results of world class elite track-and-field athletes has such a progressive character which is considerably higher than the same trend in general population.

9 - 26

Development trend of abilities of the top-level track-and-field athletes

Development trend of abilities of population

Level of physicalabilities

Time

x

x

d1d2 d3

xx

Development trend of abilities in population vs. elite athletes

Model: dis1=b0+b1*v1+b2*v1**2

y=(-6134.747)+(6.0039726)*x+(-0.0014508)*x**2

GOD

DIS

1

ATH1896

PAR1900

LOU1904LON1908

STO1912ANT1920PAR1924

AMS1928

ANG1932BER1936

LON1948

HEL1952MEL1956

ROM1960TOK1964

MEX1968MUN1972

MON1976MOS1980ANG1984

SEO1988

BAR1992

ATL1996SYD2000

25

35

45

55

65

75

1896 1904 1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000 2008

ATH1896 33,48

PAR1900 35,46

LOU1904 37,41

LON1908 39,3

STO1912 41,15

ANT1920 44,7

PAR1924 46,41

AMS1928 48,08

ANG1932 49,69

BER1936 51,26

LON1948 55,69

HEL1952 57,07

MEL1956 58,41

ROM1960 59,7

TOK1964 60,95

MEX1968 62,14

MUN1972 63,3

MON1976 64,4

MOS1980 65,46

ANG1984 66,47

SEO1988 67,44

BAR1992 68,36

ATL1996 69,23

SYD2000 70,06

ATH2004 70,77

PREDICTED

VALUES

Trend of results in discus throwing (Harasin, 2002)

10 - 1

DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORTMeasurement, assessment and

evaluation of abilities, features and knowledge of athletes

Lesson 10:


Define the position and relevance of diagnostic/assessment procedures in the process of sports preparation;

Define Müller’s model of sports preparation processoptimization;

Specify the stages of a diagnostic procedure and explain them;

Understand the potential of the abilities and characteristics of the athletes to be tested;

Talk about the possibilities of test results application to the planning and programming of training;

Graphically present the test results of an athlete x and compare them to a top-level athlete model.

10 - 2

10.1. Diagnostics in sports

The primary goal of any sports training is the improvement of competition efficiency, performance and achievements.

Therefore, it is important to have an insight into the state of fitness / readiness of athletes: what is the developmental level of performance relevant abilities, characteristics and skills in any stage of long-term sports preparation?

Based on the diagnosed values, i.e. the determined fitness, as in the strong and weak sides of one athlete or a sport group, it is feasible to set goals and assignments of a training procedure and design training programmes for particular cycles through which sports preparation is realized.

10 - 3

Training effects are unbiasedly detectable only by testing, i.e. by the measurement of the dimensions and their changes, that have been the targets of the influence of training.

The efficacy of an executed training procedure is determined with the application of the objective diagnostic procedures (testing, measurement) and with subjective assessments.

Planning

(goals and

periodization)

Programming

of training

(procedures)

Training

implementation

Training

efffects

Sportsdiagnostics

Interpretation

(application)

of the results

of sports

diagnostics

Model of the sports preparation process optimization

(modified according to Müller, 1999)

10 - 4

Training optimization requires the knowledge of fitness relevant characteristics’ actual, current state

Assessment of fitness/preparedness is realized through the measurements in laboratories and in the field.

Specified dimensions are tested or measured according to the determined methodological rules (kinesiometry)

Diagnostic procedures in sport are a part of everyday practice and routine

Levels of motor abilities of an elite ATP tennis player (Müller, 1999)

3

0

1

2

-1

-2

Sprint

Pow

er

(jum

p)

Pow

er

(thro

win

g)

Agili

ty

(s

hutt

le r

unnin

g)

Agili

ty

(sid

e s

teps)

Str

ength

(f

ist

grip)

Str

ength

(r

ight

leg)

Str

ength

(left

leg)

Endura

nce

(shutt

le r

unnin

g)

Endura

nce

(12 m

in r

unnin

g)

335074.5087.6091.3053.0035.2013.6023.8036.103.01

342073.9683.7090.4049.0034.9012.0324.8042.802.98

1904.508.508.505.902.000.832.302.500.12

310572.2581.7581.7547.9532.8013.0223.8542.752.98norm x sd

19961995

10 - 5

10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes

The application of measurement procedures makes it feasible to establish the features due to which elite athletes, who accomplish the highest results, stand out anddistinguish themselves

A model of a top-level athlete is, in fact, a reproduction of the selected main relevantcharacteristics of a contemporary extra classquality athlete in a particular sports discipline.

Model characteristics are test results, scoresachieved by elite athletes in the primary andsecondary anthropological variables and indicatorsof situational efficacy/performance.

10 - 6

Results of a top-quality basketball player in the tests aimed at assessing motor and functional/ cardio-respiratory and metabolic abilities (Milanović, 1997)

TEST SCORE

(actual value)

MODEL

(required values)

1. SAR 79 cm 82 cm

2. DSM 260 cm 280 cm

3. 20M 2.99 s 2.85 s

4. 20Y 4.57 s 4.30 s

5. 3L 14 throws scored 15 throws scored

6. 300Y 59.04 s 52.00 s

7. BP 75 kg 100 kg

8. NAB 82.5 kg 120 kg

9. TRB 38 rep 60 rep

10. SKL 15 rep 40 rep

11. 2400 10.02 min 8.30 min

Model results in the test 20m sprint, registered at the Australian Sport Institute

(Pyke, 2001)

Sport Group 5m sprint (s) 10m sprint (s) 20m sprint (s)

BasketballAdult (w) 1.04 1.95 3.38

Adult (m) 1.05 1.81 3.12

CricketAdult (w) 2.07 3.52

Adult (m) 1.76 2.99

SoftballM - U-19 1.04 1.79 3.09

W - U-19 1.16 1.98 3.43

SoccerM - U-18 1.08 1.79 3.02

W - U-18 1.16 1.96 3.32

10 - 7

In the everyday life of sports, coaches and expert teams continuously measure and evaluate the condition of the components of fitness/preparedness and performance and sport achievements of athletes participating in the process of training.

The focus of preparation should be directed primarily on the components most responsible for competition efficiency/performance and on the characteristics of the athlete most distant from the model values.

10.3. Diagnostics in sports(10 stages of diagnostic procedure)

1. Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification (based on either anexpert assessment or/and research findings). The hierarchical structure of the performance factors in a particular sport should be respected.

Coordination

15%

Flexibility

10%

Speed

25%Endurance

30%

Strength

/power

20%

Soccer

10 - 8

2. Selection (choice) of athletes – a sportsgroup

3. Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to be diagnosed

4. Selection of measuring instruments/ tests aimed at assessing the abilities, features and skills/knowledge of athletes

10 - 9

5. Procedure of measurement/ testing(in either a laboratory or infield conditions)

6. Procedure of processingthe collected data

7. Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation

8. Presentation of the results to the coach and members of the expert team

1 4 6 8 10 12

20

30

40

50

60

70

2 13119753

Points

Abilities

10 - 10


MODEL VALUES

BACKCOURTPLAYER X, RESULTS

LINE PLAYER Y, RESULTS

1. Body height 192.0 192.8 184.5

2. Body mass 90.0 89.0 83.6

3. Shoulder width 44.30 43.0 44.5

4. Arm span 195.0 200.0 183.5

5. Palm span 25.2 25.4 24

6. Throwing the ball

(800gr)

32.59 38.07 32.53

7. MSD 262.42 259.67 269.33

8. Two-legged vertical jump

59.42 62.33 68.33

9. One-legged vertical jump

65.71 62.33 73

9. Side steps 7.57 7.22 6.35

11. Two-triangle defensive stance movement

6.6 6.17 5.82

10. Sit-ups 29.17 26.33 36.33

11. Bench-press 88.13 85 85

12. “Suicide-running” (shuttle running)

30.78 30.45 29.05

13. 30 m running from a standing start

4.82 4.85 4.51

Model anthropological characteristics and test results of two handball players (X & Y)

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

PLAYER X PLAYER Y

9. Results application to the planning and programming of training

10. Control of the sports preparation processeffects (diagnostics of fitness or final readiness state)

10 - 11

10 stages of diagnostic procedure

1) Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification

2) Selection (choice) of athletes – a sports group

3) Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to be diagnosed

4) Selection of measuring instruments/ tests

5) Procedure of measurement/ testing (in either a laboratory or infield conditions)

6) Procedure of processing the collected data

7) Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation

8) Presentation of the results to the coach and members of theexpert team

9) Results application to the planning and programming of training

10)Control of the sports preparation process effects (diagnostics offitness or final readiness state)

11 - 1

Selection in sport

(orientation to sports and choice of sports branch)

Lesson 11:


Talk about the importance of the selection of future athletes

Define and describe the system of orientation to sports

Define and describe the system of orientation to a group ofsport branches

Define and describe the system of selection of a sport branch

Differentiate among the criteria (model characteristics) for the selection of a particular sport branch

List the orientation age terms for the beginning of asystematic training of selected young athletes

Determine the importance of both the chronological and biological age in the process of selection

Talk about all phases in the process of selecting future elite athletes

D:/../../../14selekcija.ppt

11 - 2

A quality system of sports training for children and the young consists, in most countries, of a well defined procedure of potential top-level athletes’ selection.

Sports schools should be places of a high concentration of those talented for sports.

In countries where sports are well developed their advantage is in their well organized sports schools, centres or camps, where high quality training programmes are executed with selected groups of athletes.

It is a procedure of selecting children generally talented for sports.

The orientation system should be applied as soon as it is possible to establish the existence of the most important abilities and characteristics of potential athletes as well as their interest to be involved in sport.

This is a time when neither the group of sportsnor sports branch is known, in which a child might have the greatest opportunities to be successful.

11.1. System of orientation to sports - first selection

11 - 3

Within the programmesof a universal sports school a child participates in diverse motor/ sporting activities, i.e. he/she gains elementary experiences in various motor activities and sports.

11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches – second selection

As a selection interphase it is useful to execute orientation to a group of sports branches(combat sports school, or team games sports school, or water sports school…)

This phase is a substantial one because in young athletes-to-be it is sometimes hard to establish with certainty their potential for a particular sports event/discipline. It is much easier to determine this for a group of sports branches/events/disciplines.

11 - 4

Orientation terms for the beginning of asystematic training programme in particular

sports disciplines (modified by Martin, 1982)

Age Sports disciplines

6-7 artistic gymnastics (w), figure skating

7-8 rhythmic gymnastics, swimming, tennis

8-9 artistic gymnastics (m), alpine skiing, diving, table tennis

9-10 football/soccer, basketball, volleyball, karate

10-11 athletics (running - sprint, jumps), kayaking – canoeing,

handball, rowing, judo, wrestling, taekwondo, equestrian

events, rugby, luge tobogganing, speed skating, badminton

11-12 athletics (throwing), ice hockey, field hockey, water polo,

cycling, fencing, shooting, nordic skiing

12-13 weight lifting, athletic heptathlon & decathlon, athletics (mid-

distances running), boxing, boccie, golf, baseball

13-14 athletics (long-distance running, walking), bowling cross-

country skiing

It is the procedure to select talented individuals forthe highest sports achievements in a particular sports branch or discipline.

The selection of children is based on the similarity of the child’s anthropological profile with dimensions from the structure of the specification equation of the sports discipline in question.

An expected trend must be predicted of the sports results the individual would most probably be able to achieve in the future.

11.3. System of selection of a sports branch - third selection

11 - 5

Normative scores in basic and specific exercises of boys and girls in handball (Milanović, 2006)

Exercise / motor test

Age

Boys Girls

10 12 13 9 10 11

30m running (s) 5.4 5.0 4.9 5.8 5.6 5.4

5×30m – average time (s) 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.4 5.3 5.2

2× running in a triangle (s) 18.5 18.3 18.0 21.0 19.0 18.5

60m running (s) 10.1 9.4 9.0 10.9 10.5 9.5

30m slalom with the ball (s) 11.0 9.4 8.7 12.3 11.4 10.7

Long jump (m) 3.30 3.80 4.05 2.90 3.10 3.40

Vertical jumping ability – SAR (cm) 27 40 47 25 30

Small ball throwing (m) 24 37 43 21 23 26

Handball throwing (m) 21 27 13 16 19.5

12 min running (m) 2100 2300 2400 2000

Results in running 12 minutes (Cooper’s test) of children and young people of various ages

(according to Hahn, 1982)

Age 7/8 9/10 11/12 13/14 15/16 17/18/19/20

Low limit

score

1500m 1700m 1900m 2100m 2300m 2500m

Good

score

1800m 2000m 2200m 2400m 2600m 2800m

Girls – young women

Boys – young men

Age 7/8 9/10 11/12 13/14 15/16 17/18/19/20

Low limit

score

1700m 1900m 2100m 2300m 2600m 2800m

Good

score

2000m 2200m 2400m 2600m 2900m 3100m

11 - 6

To provide a high certainty of selection it is crucial to determine the tempo of the biological development of potential elite athletes.

A certain lagging of motor preparedness/ fitness of individual athletes at any time point does not necessarily mean a resulting lower level of fitness in the later stages of sports progression.

11.4. Procedure of selection

Developmental dynamics of motor abilities according to different tempos of biological

development of potential elite athletes (Hofmann & Schneider, 1985)

Motor ability (m)

Chronological age (d)A

Normal biological development

Early biological development

Late biological development

A – time point of

selection

11 - 7

Both age indicators – of the chronological and of the biological age should be always taken into account in the execution of selection.

Namely, late developers are sometimes, with no substantial reason, negatively selected, although their chances of being successful are bigger than the chances of their peer counterparts exhibiting a higher level of abilities in theearlier stages of the training process.

ba

Fitness development tempo in two athletes:although in the beginning (t1) the b athlete may be weaker than the a athlete, the latter catches up with the athlete b (t2) and later becomes even better (t3)

Developmentalphases

Fitness indicators

t1 t2 t3

11 - 8

System of sports selection – repeated activity with aconstant monitoring of the development of children-

future athletes

Selection

Positive

prognosisTendencies to the

positive prognosisNegative

prognosis

Monitoring of

athletes’

development

Mass sport, recreation sport,

leisure-time sportElite sportsAs a rule, lost

for sports

As regards

elite sports

Sports selectionNatural selection

In order to understand better the selection system and to implement it successfully the following is necesssary:

To identify the abilities and characteristics of athletes that are under a high influence of genetic factors, thus being training-influence-resistant.

To identify the abilities and characteristics that are under a smaller influence of genetic factors, thus being training-influence-sensitive.

To recognise the level of interest and willingness to become involved in the systematic and demanding programme of long-lasting sports preparation

11 - 9

Is there an adequate

level of

transformation-resistant

abilities ?

yes

no

Is there an adequate

level of

transformation-sensitive

abilities?

yes Is there adequate

motivation to be

subjected to elite

sports training?

Any possibilities to correct

or compensate for

sport-related drawbacks?Any compensation

possibility?

To be oriented to any other

sporting activity/branch

Positive selection

Prognosis of max. potential

Prospective training plan

Target of long-term preparation stages

yes

yes

no

no

no

no

no

yes

yes

Algorithm of the process of selecting potential top-level athletes (the defined criteria should be

satisfied prior to a positive selection)

Any possibility to

correct drawbacks?

12 - 1

Sport and sports

training of children and the young

Lesson 12:


Define and analyse a pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation

Talk about the aims and characteristics of a universal sports school

Talk about the aims and characteristics of an elementary sports school

Talk about the aims and characteristics of a specialised sports school

Analyse the association of biological factors of sports development and training effects

List and describe the fundamental rules of sports training for children and the young

List and describe the performance factors a of sports career (social environment, family, school, sports club, trainer)

12 - 2

Area of mass sports

Pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation(according to Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985)

Versatile-basic

sports priprema

Universal sports schools

Preliminary sports preparation7-8

9-10

CH

ILD

RE

N’S

TR

AIN

ING

Area of elite selective sports

Population of non-trained girls and boys

Final sports

perfection

Specialisation

sports schools

Specialised training 7-8 god

11-12 god

15-16

17-18

High performance

training(maximum

realisation, effects)19-20

AD

ULT

S’ T

RA

ININ

G

Commence of sports specialisationElementary

sports schoolsDirected sports preparation 3-4 god

11-12

13-14

AD

OL

ES

CE

NT

S’

TR

AIN

ING

A) ORIENTATION

TO SPORTS

CRITERIA

B) SPORTS BRANCH

SELECTION

CRITERIA

C) CRITERIA FOR

SPORTS EVENT

AND TEAM

POSITION

SELECTION

D) SELECTION CRITERIA

FOR APPEARANCE AT

THE MAIN WORLD

COMPETITIONS

SCHOOL

SPORTS

CLUBS

(SECTIONS)

SPORTS CLUBS

OF LOWER

QUALITY

RANKING

SPORTS-

RECREATION

GROUPS

Children of superior motor abilities,positively evaluated in the process of orientation, join a universal children sports school that most commonly embraces age categories from 6-7 to 10 yrs.

The duration of this school is shorter for future gymnasts and rhythmic gymnasts since the selection for these sports commences earlier.

12.1. Sports schools


12 - 3

Suitable age of children and the young when starting with training in certain stages of sports

improvement (modified according to Martin, 1982)

Sports disciplineStart of the systematic

training in the chosen

sport (years)

Figure skating 6-7

Artistic gymnastics (w) 7-8

Swimming 7-9

Rhythmic gymnastics 8

Diving 8-9

Tennis 8-9

Skiing 9

Artistic gymanstics (m) 9-10

Football / Soccer 10-11

Basketball 10-11

Athletics (jumps and throws) 10-12

Volleyball 11-12

Ice hockey 11-13

Endurance sports disciplines 12-14

Start of the elite adult

athletic training principles

application (years)

15

14

15-16

14-15

16

16-17

17

15-16

17-18

18

20-21

18-19

19-20

20-21

From the fifth primary school grade at the latest, i.e. for the children of 10 or 11 yrs of age, which have satisfied the selection criteria for the inclusion in the systematic sports training process of most sports disciplines, elementary sports school starts.


12 - 4

For stage one (age group 10-12 yrs) the beginning is characteristic of the directed sports preparation, whereas for stage two (age group 13-14 yrs) the beginning of sports specialisation is characteristic.

After primary school (age 14 yrs), young quality athletes start their involvement in the systematic club training, first as cadets (14-16 yrs), and afterwards as juniors (17-18 yrs).

12.1.3. Specialized sports schools

12 - 5

Detection and development of children talented for sports is performed by their constant selection in the universal andelementary sports schools.

For each child the “right” sport should be found, i.e. the one in which his/her chances for success are greatest.

12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young

The process of sports preparation of children and the young is executed, in accordance with the chronological and biological characteristics of their age, through several developmental stages (stages of long-term sports training).

It is indispensable to provoke children and young athletes into action and to insist on their need – habit to learn and exercise regularly, persistently and ‘hard’

12 - 6

There is no doubt that nowadays premature specialisation in many sports and forced participation in competition starts at an early age.

However, lively discussion is going on about which age is suitable, beneficial to start with apronounced/ enhanced sports specialisation.

The forcing of sports talents too early does not have the wanted effects. Parents, trainers and sports scientists are unanimous in this opinion.

Every exercise must be repeated many times. Yet, any repetition with an error must not be allowed. An already acquired erroneous performance is very hard to correct later.

The development of abilities and theteaching/learning of motor skills/knowledge is executed by means of adequate contents, loads and variable training methods.

In the first years of the training process thesports development of children is predominantly influenced by biological determinants, whereas the later progressive influence of training effects becomes obvious.

12 - 7

Fitness development of children and the young is influenced by both biological determinants andthe training process (Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985)

FIT

NE

SS

LE

VE

L (

SIZ

E O

F C

AP

AB

ILIT

IES

) DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS OF

BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

INTEGRAL TRAINING

EFFECTS

AGE – TRAINING EXPERIENCE OF ATHLETES

Prior to the systematic training a young athlete should be subjected to a detailed and comprehensive orthopaedic and medicalcheck-up.

With as high certainty as possible the following should be excluded: any possible negative findings and degenerative changes in the active and passive parts of the locomotor system and cardio-pulmonary system, which can present a danger for a young athlete.

12 - 8

When working with children and young athletes a trainer must invest his/her maximum effort and engage his/her entire body of knowledge and allhis/her abilities.

One must be extremely careful not to jeopardize the health and entire development of young athletes due to his/her insufficient or ‘obsolete/out-of-date’ knowledge.

A coach should contact, refer to professionals and scientists to find help from those who have renown expertise in the interdisciplinary area of sports preparation.

12.3. Performance factors of asports career

CHILD ATHLETE• sports talent

• health status

• basic and specific abilities

• knowledge, skills, habits

• personal strategies of problem solving

• personality traits

• emotional states (moods)

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

(community, peers,

neighbourhood…)

FAMILY

TRAINING

SP

OR

TS

CL

UB

/

SP

OR

TS

FE

DE

RA

TIO

N

SC

HO

OL

12 - 9

12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood…)

It respects and acknowledges a child’s involvement in sports and evaluates positively his/her abilities and characteristics;

A milieu in which a child can satisfy his/her need for belonging and respect despite his/her differences;

Where a child can satisfy his/her interests and needs he/she cannot satisfy in asports club.

12.3.2. Family

family members, by their attitude towards a child-athlete, encourage his/her talentand support his/her participation in the process of sports training and competition by providing:

- adequate living conditions (accommodation, nutrition, rest, etc.)

- adequate psychological (emotional) support

- material and other conditions necessary for training and competition.

12 - 10

12.3.3. School

should provide children’s successful involvement in sports by the following:

- adequate system of schooling;

- adequate academic work loads;

- support when the missed parts of the school programme due to training and competition have be caught up with

- to provide in general a positive class and schoolatmosphere supporting the expression of specialqualities

12.3.4. Sports club – sports federation

is organised and financed in a way so as to be

able to offer to every athlete the following:

- material and humane support in training and competition;

- stability as regards the engagement of a coach and other working conditions in training and competitions

- correct reviewing and evaluation of an athlete’s sports achievements

12 - 11

12.3.5. A training program

should be designed and executed so as to ensure:

- the correctness of work – work adequate to the trainees’ individual and age features/characteristics;

- adequate training loads (stimuli duration and intensity);

- adequacy of sports achievements

(correspondence of aims and results).

In the training process for children special care should be devoted to the following:

working conditions of sports preparation (arriving at and leavingthe training premises, time between two training sessions);

expert competency of trainers and other members of the expert coaching team guarantees the security of young athletes in thetraining process, during competition and recovery;

trainer’s relationship with his/her trainee in which they both strive to achieve the same aims.

13 - 1

Lesson 13:

Training for fitness and sport preparedness


Define and analyse training fitness levels

Understand and describe the condition of sport shape

Define the characteristics of conditions of sport shape

Talk about the developmental phases of sport shape

Define the regularities of sport shape management and be able to analyse its characteristics in relation to sport-specific characteristics, to the athlete and to its dynamic of development and maintainance

Determine the specificities of the prolonged (delayed) training effects in a preparation period

13 - 2

Sports training fitness is a very complex category. It denotesthe optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the process of training and competition.

It implies:

a superb health status

the highest level of physiological functions (energy supply capacities) and motor abilities (physical condition)

technical and tactical effectiveness

adequate mental stability of an athlete

high motivation/drive

the best structure of morphological characteristics.

13.1. Fitness of athletes

The optimal state of an athlete means his/her ever possible functioning in relation to his/her individual characteristics and the working conditions of the process of training and competition.

Fitness determines the level of the specific work potential of an athlete, his/her potential, capability and actual quality to accomplish high sports achievements/results.

Sports fitness is a product of diverse (all) sports preparation programmes and traits of any (living) organism to change/ transform and improve (adaptation) under the influence of certain environmental stimuli, incitements.

13 - 3

13.2. Sport shape / preparedness

Sport shape is the heighest level of sport-specific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at the most important, main competitions.

Sport shape is a period of athletes’ heighest sports achievements in their sport within the perennial (lifetime sport shape) and the annual(targeted sport shape) training cycle.

the sense of being healthy is pronounced,

expresses an urge, a need to work out,

the drive to perform his/her best at acompetition is clearly manifested,

General attributes of an athlete in a high-achievement sport shape:

quick adaptation to

all training and competition

demands.

13 - 4

Biomotor indicators of a good sport shape:

Biochemical state of the organism (blood lactate and urea concentration, status of glykogen and catecholamine…)

Physiological state of the organism (heart frequency, spiroergometric indicators, body temperature, blood pressure…)

Motor condition of the athlete (motor abilities tests)

Economical functioning of all the organ systems

is manifested as a lower energy consumption in a work unit; it facilitates and accelerates the process of restoration and recovery.

Psychological indicators of a good sport shape:

High level of mental stability under stressful competition conditions

Pronounced maximal mobility of mental processes

Enhanced range of motivation responseswhich provides excessive physical loads tolerance

Optimism

Achievement drive

13 - 5

13.3. Sport shape development phases

In the dynamic process of developing high achievements sport shape within one macrocycle three typical phases can be recognised:

Phase 1: entry into the high achievement sport shape (preparedness for high results)

Phase 2: stabilization and maintenance of peaks (peaking of sport shape for the main competitions)

Phase 3: temporary underperformance / loss of sport shape (temporary loss of sport shape at the end of one macrocycle, detraining).


Mesocycles (stages)Mesocycles

(competition season(s))Mesocycles (stages)

Transition periodCompetition / In-

season periodPreparation period

Other competitions (meetings)

Main official competitions

Preparation-control competitions

Phase 3: sport shape loss; detraining

Phase 2: sport shape maintenance

Phase 1: level of sport shape gained

70

80

100

Development phases of sport shape

90

%

13 - 6

For sports practice it is of the outmost importance that the so defined phase-like form of high achievement sport shape can be manifested in a curve-like form with one, two or more peaks, depending on the following:

(prolonged) duration of competition period or

specific distribution of competitions in the competition period,

multicycle training periodization of the annual cycle.

Development curve of high achievements sport shape (prolonged competition period duration in

an annual cycle) (according to Platonov, 1997)

60

70

80

90

100

A B C

Preparation period

Competition period

Transition period

%

60

70

80

90

100

A B C

Preparation period

Competition period

Transition

period

%

13 - 7

Development curve of high achievements sport shape (multicycle annual training periodization)

(according to Platonov, 1997)

60

70

80

90

100

A B C

PP

C A B

CP TP PP CP TP

%

VI VII VIII IX XXI XII I II III IV V

60

70

80

90

100

A B C

PP

C A B

CP TP PP CP TP

CA B

PP CP TP

%

13.4. Sport shape management

Sport shape should be managed because anathlete does not always need to perform his/her best (and he/she cannot), but when it is most important

The determination of orientation curves of training loads is a crucial part of sport shape management

Extensity (volume) (stimulus duration, number of repetitions, work duration)

Intensity (stimulus potency, force magnitude, strength/power, tempo, speed)

13 - 8

In the first part of the preparation period thevolume of training work prevails, to which intensity is added in the second part.

Intensity of workouts is the component of physical training loads that, together with the application of situation-like exercises and competition-like models of loads, provides a quick and safe gain of high achievements in sport shape.

Transi-tionperiod

2nd competition period

Transi-tion period

1st competition periodPreparation period

Periods

Shape loss

2nd wave of high

sport shape

Shape loss

1st wave of high sport shape

Sp. shape building

High results sport shape

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

VI VII VIII IX X XI XII I II III IV V

60

70

80

90

100

Months

Mesocycles

Sp. shape

Volume

Intensity

First

round

Last round

Orientation curve of training loads and sport shape dynamics within the annual training periodization of

soccer players (according to Bauer, in Grosser et al, 1986)

13 - 9

In the moments of “flow, high tide” the athlete is able to accomplish the greatest sports results.

In small cycles sport shape (peaking) follows the competition participation rhythm (7-day or three-day rhythm)

According to the competition participation rhythm work ability of the CNS varies like “the ebb and flow of the tide”.

13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape

The FIRST attribute of sport shape is: every sports branch has its specific model of high sport shape gain and maintenance.

Diverse competition calendars – various training periodizations

Specific structures of competition activities of various sports branches and the respective anthropological characteristics of preparedness of athletes

13 - 10

XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Preparation period Competition period

Transition period

70%

XI XII I II III IV VVI VII VIII IX X

PP CP TP

70%

CPPP

Development curve of sport shape within an annual training cycle (a – one cycle, b – two cycle)

a

b

100%

100%

The SECOND attribute of sport shape is: itsindividual character as regards the abilities and traits of individual athletes.

Individual characteristics determine thedevelopment dynamics of sport shape

Some athletes gain their high achevements sport shape earlier, others later –heterochronicity.

Some athletes are able to maintain a high level of their sport shape longer than others.

General condition of training fitness is in the function of sport shape development dynamics.

13 - 11

The THIRD attribute of sport shape is its dynamic character.

Sport shape may vary within acceptable boundaries.

60

70

80

90

100

A B C

%

5%

However, if performance crosses the boundaries of the oscillation-allowed space and becomes lower than the wanted one (underperformance), the coach/trainer must apply managing actions in order to restore performance to the wanted level as soon as possible.

60

70

80

90

100

A B C

%

?!?Alarming condition

13 - 12

The FOURTH attribute of sport shape is the occurrence of the delayed - prolonged transformation (training) effects.

Training effects can be manifested either simultaneously with an increase of training loads (A), or later (B and C).

The phenomenon of the delayed - prolongedtraining effects is not a negative, unwanted one in the training process; it is associated with peaking.

If after the application of input (training stimulus) theresulting changes (trainee’s responses) are analysedin certain parts of the system or in the entire system, then the following becomes obvious:

1. Responses are simultaneous with the training itself, or theyoccur immediately after the training application

%

1 2 3 4 5

80

100

120

140

months

%

1 2 3 4 5

10

20

30

months

13 - 13

According to Siff and Verkhoshansky (1999), in sports practice training effects can occur later, i.e. some time after the period in whichthe training with high and overlaping loads has been applied during a preparation period (PTE).

%

1 2 3 4 5

10

20

30

months

%

1 2 3 4 5

80

100

120

140

months

Competition period starts

Occurrence of the prolonged transformation effects (Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1999)

13 - 14

%

1 490

100

110

130

6

120

Specific take-off abilities

Absolute

strength

52 3

HIGH JUMP

%

90

100

110

130

120 VOLLEYBALL

1 4 653 10 118 972

%

90

100

110

130

120

X I IIIIIXI XII

TENNIS

80

140

Onset of the prolonged transformation effects in certain sports branches

Absolute

strength

Absolute

strength

Power /

explosive

strength

Power/

explosive

strength

months

weeks

months

14 - 1

Sports training as a transformation process

Lesson 14:

After attending the class and mastering this

lesson students will be able to:

Define and describe a general model of thetransformation process in sports;

Talk about and compare the diverse types of trajectories of fitness/preparedness condition during a training process;

Describe the vectors of fitness condition of athletes

Talk about the deterministic and the stochastic process

Define and discuss the importance of the process of sports training management and regulation

14 - 2

14.1. Definitions

Sports training is a programmed transformation process by means of which the initial condition, described with a set of fitness/preparedness indicators, transforms into the new desired condition in line with training periodization, the competition calendar and acceptable recovery measures

The transformation process is a change of input, condition and/or output of any system over a period of time. The change is a result of material, energy and information communication with the environment or among system parts.

14 - 3

So Tf = Sf

So – the condition of an athlete at the beginning of

the training process (starting, opening, or initial)

Tf – the training operator which produces

transformation (which changes) the known condition of the athlete described with the So vector

Sf – the condition of the athlete at the end of the

training process (finishing, closing, or final)

14.2. General model of transformation process in sport

SoT1= St1

St1T2= St2

St2Tf-1= Sf-1

Sf-1Tf= Sf

f

T = Tt

t=1

T = T1,T2,T3,Tf-1,Tf

S = Si,St1,St2,St3,Sf-1,Sff

S = Ss

s=1(i)

Training operators

States of preparedness

(initial state x 1st training operator = 1st transition statue)

(1st transition state x 2nd training operator = 2nd transition state)

(last but one transition state x final training operator = final state of fitness /preparedness)

(2nd transition state x last but one training operator = last but one transition state)

14 - 4

Conditions of athletes are interdependent (correlated):

S1 S2 S3

S3 S2 S1

The condition of athletes at any point of the transformation process depends on his/her condition at previous points, and the final condition of athletes depends on all the previous ones (the Markov chain, i.e. process)

Response of an athlete’s organism to the training operators

Response is a timely function (response time) (t). It is obtained as the output value of the system (training effects) if its input (training programme) has been any standard function U(t)

Input

U(t) S I(t) = f((u(t))

Condition Output

14 - 5

It practically means that, if the chracteristics of an

athlete are known at the beginning of the training process (So) and if a set of management actions is also known (from To to T1), the characteristics of the future condition (St1) can be determined with a high level of certainty

P Si – p Sf = MAX

The aim of training is to maximize the distance between the measured initial condition and the achieved final condition of an athlete within the specified time interval

P Sf – o Sf = MIN

The aim of training is also to minimize the difference between the achieved final condition and the desired final condition of an athlete

14 - 6

Zi1 Zf1 Zf1 – Zi1

Zi2 Zf2 Zf2 – Zi2

Zi3 Zf3 Zf3 – Zi3

Zi4 Zf4 Zf4 – Zi4

Zi5 Zf5 Zf5 – Zi5

Zi6 Zf6 Zf6 – Zi6

Zi7 Zf7 Zf7 – Zi7

Zin-1 Zfn-1 Zfn-1 – Zin-1

Zin Zfn Zfn - Zin

Si = Sf = Sf – Si =

Vectors of athletic conditions (to assess particular conditions the same sets of

measuring instruments should be used)

Cycles of sports preparation

Fitness indicatorsReinforcing environmental influences

T2 Tf-1 Tf Tf+1

Si

T1

St1

St2

Sf

Sf-1

Progressive type of preparedness condition trajectory

(Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010)

14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions

14 - 7

Reinforcing environmental influences

T2 Tf-1 Tf Tf+1

Si

T1

St1 St2

Sf

Sf-1

Prolonged type (prolonged transformation) of preparedness condition trajectory (Si to Sf)

(Milanović, 2010)


Fitness indicators

Reinforcing environmental influences

T2 Tf-1 Tf Tf+1

Si

T1

St1 St2

Sf

Sf-1?!

Unfavourable type (alarming condition) of preparedness development trajectory (Si to Sf)

(Milanović, 2010)


Fitness indicators

14 - 8

Deterministic process

The process is a deterministc one if the programmed management actions transform the known athletic condition into the only one possible condition.

Stochastic process

The process is a stochastic one if the programmed management action transform the known athletic condition into one out of many from a set of potential conditions.

14.4. Types of transformation processes

When any input or management action (training) has an influence on a system (status of an athlete), then changes in its function, i.e. his/her sports performance are caused.

15 - 1

Lesson 15:

Sports competitions


Define sports competition as a component of sports preparation;

Talk about the fundamental characteristics of sports competitions;

Describe and compare particular types of competition;

Talk about the process of planning and carrying out a competition

Discuss the set standards, i.e.qualification criteria for participation in big competitions

15 - 2

Thiess (1978), Željaskov (2004) and Bompa (2006) define a competition as the process of comparing sports condition between individuals and teams according to the defined rules and norms. They define it as a social phenomenon.

Sports competitions are sports performances or events. They are crucial components of the sports condition and sports form management.

In competitions there are always two individuals or two teams in a state of opposition to each other. One of the opponents tries, by their actions, to destroythe actions of the opponents, that is, to overpower the rivals.

15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions

A competiton presumes civilized behaviour of all the participants: athletes, referees, trainers and spectators.

The foundation of every competition is the equality principle of all the participants, meaning also that opportunities should be the same for every sportscontestant in order to enable an unbiased comparison of an individual and/or team sports condition.

15 - 3

However, equal opportunities objectively do not exist due to diverse training programmes, work and material conditions, but, unfortunately, also due to manipulations (doping, etc.).

Even the impact of referees and a different interpretation of the rules contribute to a bias incompetition conditions.

The competition system must be in the function of the development of the sports branch in question.

Competition experience induces ideas to introduce changes of competition ruleswhich then in turn incite changes in the sports training of individuals and teams (e.g. a quick throw-off in team handball, a point counting change in volleyball, etc.)

15 - 4

Much more intensive stimuli occur in acompetition than in a training session, which is caused by environmental, extrinsic factors(limited time, sports adversary, spectators, referees, behaviour limiting factors, etc.)

15.2. Classification of competitions

Sports competitions can be classified according to various criteria.

There are, for example, cup competitions, then control preparation competitions, or doubles competitions.

In every sports branch there are competition systems developed in line with the sports characteristics, age categories and historical factors.

15 - 5

C

L

A

S

S

I

F

I

C

A

T

I

O

N

C

O

M

P

E

T

I

T

I

O

N

BY

COMPETITION

CALENDAR

BY

COMPETITION

SYSTEM

BY

COMPETITION

TYPES

INTRODUCTORY/

PRELIMINARY

PREPARATION

CONTROL

OFFICIAL

MAIN

ROUND-ROBIN SYSTEM

CUP SYSTEM

TOURNAMENT SYSTEM

MEETINGS

OCCASIONAL

REVIVAL COMPETITIONS

COMBINED SYSTEM

SELECTIONS

TEAM

PAIRS, DOUBLES

INDIVIDUAL, SINGLES

15.3. Planning and conducting a competition

An athlete should perform, participate in acompetition only if he/she can satisfy the set standards with his/her physical, TE-TA abilities and personality features.

Only athletes who have met the participation standards can appear atbig competitions.

15 - 6

There are norms, i.e. participation criteria, determined in advance, for every big competition (ECs, WCs & OG).

A definite number of participating countries (national teams) is usually defined for any big competition (in the basketball Olympic Games’ tournament 12 teams participate from every continent).

In the world competitions in track-and-field and swimming only athletes who have met theresult norms (e.g. for men, 20m in shot put or 5.50m pole vault) can participate.

The plan and programme of sports preparation should be defined with the optimal ratio of training and competition activities.

It is one of the crucial preconditions for sports preparation effects to be accomplished and for the full expression of an athlete’s potential (abilities and skills) at qualification and main competitions.

15 - 7

Competition days and appearances of top-level athletes in an annual cycle

(Platonov, 1997)

SPORTS

NUMBER OF

COMPETITION DAYS

NUMBER OF STARTS

(appearances)

Adult

athletes

Young

athletes

Adult

athletes

Young

athletes

ARTISTIC

GYMNASTICS25-35 20-25 210-250 180-210

DIVING 25-35 20-25 275-360 250-275

FENCING 30-40 25-30 415-480 350-400

SOCCER 70-85 60-70 70-85 60-70

TABLE TENNIS 75-80 60-75 380-420 300-360

WATERPOLO 60-65 50-60 60-65 50-60

Event programs should ensure the atmosphere of strong competition to participants, thus enabling the complete mobilization of athletes’ biological and mental reserves as well as TE-TA skills and knowledge.

That will further enable athletes to perform attheir best, and therefore to accomplish their best records.

Each competition is a demonstration to both the trainer and athlete of the extent of improvement in performance (results) and how efficient the sports preparation done for the target competition has been.

16 - 1

Recovery of athletes:

supplemental factors of

sports preparation

Lesson 16:


Define the recovery of athletes as a component of sports preparation.

Describe and represent graphically the importance of recovery in sports.

Compare the time line of a training programme with and withot recovery measures.

List all the recovery methods and means.

Talk about some of the forbidden pharmacological substances as the greatest danger for sports and athletes.

16 - 2

An enhanced volume of work, especially a high intensity of workloads in training and competitions require adequate recovery during rest time.

Recovery implies the application of diverse procedures that can enable the quick regenerationof athletes and the re-establishment of homeostatis which the previous exertion hasdisturbed.

Simultaneously with the development of training methods recovery methods have also been developed. By the application of these methods one can prevent the onset of overload and overtraining.

16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes

T T Ta

T T Tb

T

o o o o

Application of efficacious recovery methods contributes considerably to the enlargement of

the number of training sessions within a time unit(Platonov, 1997)

16 - 3

Main functions of recovery are:

Normalization of biological functions in an athlete’s organism

Normalization of the homeostatic balance

Restoration of energy supply reserves with the establishment of temporary supercompensation

Reconstructional effects in relation to cell structuresand enzymic systems

The first and the second function are realized within several minutes, rarely several hours (quick recovery), whereas the third and fourth are realized over a longer period of time, up to 72 hours after the work-out.

The next work-out

is the most efficient if it comes at the moment of the re-established, or, even better, enhanced work capability. Recovery methods considerably contribute to that.

fatigue recovery

time

time

a

b

fatigue recovery

timec

d time

16 - 4

Correct training programming with adequate means, methods and workloads should provide a proper recovery of an athlete’s organism, which is manifested in the readiness of the athlete to perform well in training and competition on a day to day basis:

“I don’t care at all whether Ančić performs poorly in the next tournament, whether he will lose or win. I am only interested in his capability to train normally the next day. If he were not be able to do so, if he needed much more for his recovery, then we would have done nothing.” (Freddy Rossengren, SN, 2007)

AN A B

oo

12 3

3

2

1

In practice special recovery measures are applied prior to a work-out aimed at the development of

a particular ability (e.g. anticatabolic agents) (Platonov, 1997)

16 - 5

Gambetta (1989) asserts that 20% of training contents and 30-35% of workload must be automatically reduced when training is conducted without a pharmacological means aid.

These substances atheletes can use under the strict supervision of a physician.

Primary methods

Life s

tyle

/regim

e

Soci

al st

atu

s

Nutr

itio

n

Bio-medicalmethods

Physi

cal m

eans

Tech

nic

al m

eans

Pharm

aco

logic

al

means

Psycho-pedagogical methods

Auto

genic

tra

inin

g

Suggest

ive t

ech

niq

ues

Motiva

tional m

eth

ods

Pedagogic

al m

eans

Recovery level control-tests-

16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means

16 - 6

Types of means aimed at the recovery of athletes

1. Pharmacological means

Energetic substances

Anabolic substances

Catalysers and regulators of metabolism: metabolites, enzymes, minerals

Pharmacological doping: hormonal

preparations !?!

2. Physiotherapeuticalmeans

Massage

Sauna

Hydrotherapy: baths

Application of warmth

Cryotherapy, application of cold

Other procedures

3. Psychological means

Psycho-regulative training

Autogenic training

Suggestive techniques, hypnosis

Attractiveness of programme

4. Special means

Altitude * mountain training

Hypoxia * hyperoxia

Hyperthermia * hypothermia

Electro-stimulation * stretching

16 - 7

16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping

(the greatest threat to athletes and sports)

Doping is the use of the forbidden chemical and other substances during sports preparation with the sole intention of artificially increasingsports or work performance and improving sports results.

It is forbidden to give illicit substances(doping) to athletes and persons connected to them. They must not take any illicit substance or they may contravene the rules of the Croatian Olympic Committee and International Olympic Committee.

The National Antidoping Agency in sports is the specialized institution responsible for monitoring and the implementation of the Croatian antidoping legislation and international antidoping conventions in the Republic of Croatia.

World Antidoping Agency; WADA

16 - 8

1. Stimulants

Medications, prescription drugs:amphetamines, ephedrines – increase natural human fatigue tolerance in athletes, i.e. prolong the onset of the sense of exhaustion

2. Opiates (narcotics, opioids)

Derivates of opium: codeine – causes the “stop reflex” to be switched off in the central nervous system

3. Anabolic substances

Hormonal preparations – testosterone

Anabolic steroids – enhance protein synthesis and voluminosity of muscles in power sports.

4. Corticosteroids Hormones of the adrenal cortex – improve

performance in continuous intermittent workloads

5. Blood autotransfusion 800-1200ml of blood + erythrocytes

(haemoglobin)

6. Beta-blockers (beta- adrenergic blocking agents)

Improve concentration and alertness

7. Sedatives/tranquilizers Substances induce sedation and relaxation

8. Local anaesthetics Increase pain tolerance

17 - 1

Biological principles of sports training

Lesson 17:

Talk about the recruitment levels of the energy supply reserves of athletes.

Talk about the principles of adaptation.

Discuss the principle of training continuity.

Analyse and graphically present the supercompensation (overcompensation) occurrence.

Talk about the principle of load progression in training and competition.

Talk about the wavy shape (undulation) of training and competition load programming and define the law of progressive intermittent load and the law of contrast loads.


17 - 2

In any activity that is to be successful, one has to define and strictly respect its regularities andprinciples.

Such behaviour enables a quality construction and implementation of sports preparation programmes and a safe accomplishment of the wanted effects.

Principles and rules are the results, findings of scientific research studies and of thecorroborated experience of coaches and “their” athletes.

17.1. Introductory observations

Recruiting levels of athlete’s functional reserves (diverse loads induce different levels of fatigue and exhaustion)

Area of life-threateningexhaustion

Area of considerable fatigue

Area of greatphysical, mental & emotional fatigue

Area of borderlineexhaustion

Area of moderatefatigue

TRAINING

doping

Life threat

fear

Vital protective reserves of the organism

Training influence-action efficiency of athletes

Mobilization threshold

Simple recruiting levels of functional reserves

Physiological fitness /readiness for sport effect

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

17 - 3

Str

en

gth

pro

gre

ssio

n

Strength development training (A) and strength level maintainance with training sessions of variable frequency

50

0

100

%Daily training regime

No training (B1)

Individual training session

50

0

100

Insufficient frequency of trainng sessions (B2)

50

0

100

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Tjedni

Optimal frequency of training sessions (B3)

(according to Hettinger, in Melerović & Meler, 1975)

17.2. Adaptation in sports

Adaptation is a process of transformation, the changing of an athlete’s characteristics and abilities, relevant to his/her best, or at least, acceptable functioning in either standard or variable conditions of athletic work.

The nature of sports adaptation is clearly manifested in the mechanism of homeostasis –always at a higher, i.e. more efficient level of activity or functioning in sports.

17 - 4

By means of training athletes achieve the state of fitness (optimal condition), which ensures high efficiency / economy,a rationality of psychomotor performance and the accomplishment of the wanted competition results.

This includes structural, metabolic and functional changes in an athlete’s organism.

We are dealing with the long-term adaptation of particular organs and organic systems to certain programmes of motor actions and to certain types of neuro-muscular activities and energy processes.

In sports practice adaptation finds its expression in the specific transformations of an athlete’s conditions under the influence of training effects, competition system and recovery measures.

17 - 5

In the area of top-level sport the basic issue is an individual course of the process of adaptation to the requirements of the high-level sports activity (sports can be differentiated one from the other by these requirements).

For each stage of the long-term sportsspecialization clearly defined levels or phases of adaptation processes are characteristic.

17.3. Continuity of the process of training

Sports training is a long-term process of improvement which should proceed continuously, with no interruption, through an incessant alternation of the intervals of work and of rest.

17 - 6

The interval of work is a stimulation part of the process, whereas the interval of rest ensures regeneration, recovery for a new training experience.

Work causes exhaustion, whereas rest enables the re-establishment of work ability first and then it elevates the work ability to a higher level. In that way an athlete prepares for a new training session.

The occurrence of supercompensation is a basic acute, immediate functional response of the organism on which effects accumulation and the development of sports shape are based.

A correctly prescribed load causes corresponding fatigue and exhaustion, whereas acorrect recovery produces the corresponding course of restoration and occurrence of elevated work ability, required for the next training session.

17 - 7

TRAINING RECOVERY

Starting

condition level

of an athlete’s

organism

Exhaustion of

the organism

Compensation

Super-

compensation

Returning

to the

starting

level

Supercompensation in the process of training (Milanović, 2005, according to Weineck, 1988, and Željaskov, 2004)

Training application time

interval (prescribed

intensity and volume of

load)

Time interval of recovery – compensation

(during 1- 2 days) through diverse

biochemical processes

Consumption

of energy

substances

(glycogen

here)

I

E

Load

Starting

level

Exhaustion

of the

organism

Time (day,

week…)

Decrease of energy

reserves (after 1- 2 days)

Enlargement of energy reserves –

supercompensation (glycogen is here an

ability enhancement factor)

Supercompensation can be monitored through the changes of biochemical parameters (Grosser et al., 1986)

17 - 8

Physiological and biochemical reactions during load and recovery intervals (Neumann, 1993)

Athete’s condition prior to the game or

training

1 2 3 4 5

min

1

h

3

h

150

100

%

+

100

200

300

400

%

Load -training

Rest- recovery

1 2 3 4 5day

Glycogen

Acute protein

synthesis

Weight

Heart rate

Lactates

Cortisol

Creatine kinase

Urea in blood

Free fat acids

-Insulin

Training or game course

Recovery course

The trainer must recognize the dynamics and intensity of the particular recovery phases separately in each athlete because it is optimal, as a rule, to apply the next training session simultaneously with the peak of the supercompensation wave.

17 - 9

I. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes too late

(Milanović, 2006, according to, Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

II. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes too early

(subcompensation)(Milanović, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck,

1988, Matvejev, 2000)

17 - 10

III. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes at the best moment

(Milanović, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

1 MC

2 MC

3 MC

There is a possibility that the next few work-outs may “fall” in the period of subcompensation. If that is the case, an extended rest should be planned to induce the occurrence of supercompensation.

When constructing several microcycles (MC), the dynamics of supercompensation processes should be

respected (modified according to Željaskov, 1998)

17 - 11

Training sessions of diverse goal orientation produce very specific dynamics of exhaustion and recovery (supercompensation).

After a work-out aimed at, e.g. speed development, three compensation waves are manifested for:

1. the repeated speed training

2. the repeated anaerobic training

3. the repeated aerobic training.

Speed training

Anaerobic training

Aerobic training

Dynamics of supercompensation waves after the training sessions aimed at the development of speed (B), anaerobic (AN) and aerobic

abilities (A) (Platonov, 1997)

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48

B

hours

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48

AN

hours 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48

hours

A

17 - 12

Known data about the total load and time needed for a complete recovery (induced occurrence of supercompensation) after various types of physical conditioning training sessions.

Motor abilities

Coordi-nation

SpeedStrength/

powerEndurance

Strength endurance

Speed endurance

Lo

ad

Re

co

ve

ry (

h)

ME

SMA

MA

24

12

6

48

72

The influence of the next training session is based upon traces of theprevious training session (training effects).

This postulate is valid for the selection of training contents, loads and training methods evenly.

17 - 13

17.4. Load progression of training and competition

During a long-term process of sports preparation loads constantly grow and become ever greater.

In one developmental stage loads are at the highest border of absolute total load (volume+intensity) and at the upper limit of an athlete’s cardio-respiratory, motor and psychological capacities.

Increment dynamics of training load indicators in sports preparation of athletes of diverse age

categoriesStages of perennial sports

preparation in sports gamesIndicators of absolute training

load volume (%)

A6-10 years

Universal sports preparation30 – 45 %

B11-14 years

Oriented sports preparation45 – 60 %

C15-17 years

Sports specialization60 – 75 %

D

18-19 years

Highly specialized sports preparation executed by the rules of the training for adult top-level athletes

75 – 90 %

E

20 and more years

Stage of high performance/high sports achievements (training of adult top-level athletes)

90 – 100 %

17 - 14

Requirements of a training process are continuously increased; every load stagnation causes a stagnation in thefitness/training condition and top performance/sports achievements

In every new stage of sports development an athlete’s organism is subjected to the requirements that are close to his/her upper functional capacity limits.

Load level is a relative category.

The same volume/intensiy load will over some time produce ever smaller functional changes due to the adaptation responses of the organism and the athlete will subjectively experience them as lower loads.

Further increments of certain components of total load are expected in the future.

17 - 15

Stage of

initial

preparation

Stage of

basic

preparation

Stage of

special

preparation

Stage of the

first max.

individual

performance

Stage of the

max. individ.

performance

maintenance

Stages of

sports

perfection

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5

3-6

8-12

14-16

18-22

23-26

100 - 250

350 - 500

600 - 800

900 - 1100

1200-1400

Weekly training

volume (hours)

Annual training

volume (hours)

Standards of weekly and annual work volume within certain stages of long-term sports preparation (modified according to Platonov, 1997)

Progressiveness is realized in a perennial cycle through:

increases of the total annual volume of work from 250-400 hours to 1300-1500 hours and more;

increases in the number of training hours within a weekly microcycle from 3-6 to 14-20 and more;

increases in the number of individual training sessions from one to three within one training day with high load;

increases in the number of high impact training sessions within a microcycle up to 5 or 6 or more

increases in the number of competitions.

17 - 16

In a perennial cycle a constant progression of the relative total load is obvious.

In any following macrocycle the load is bigger than it was in the previous one – the preparation, competition and transition/ closing period.

Each year, we should start with a greater load.

The maximum load level is in any following year higher than it has been ever before.

These postulates are distinctively valid for young athletes’ preparation

programmes

17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads

The process of sports training is characterized by the permanent wavy dynamics of loading and unloading.

There are periods of enhanced and periods of decreased total load.

17 - 17

Periods of high total load volume and their components in mesocycles and microcycles alternate constantly with the cycles of lower training load.

Thus, favourable conditions are created for recovery and the efficacious flow of adaptation changes in the function of producing accumulation effects.

Wavy shape curve of load intensity (A) and volume (B) in an annual cycle

I II III IV VIIVIV XIXVIII XIIXIMONTHS

STAGES

PERIODS PREPARATION COMPETITIONTRANSI-

TIONI

Precomp. 2nd comp.1st comp. OP

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

B

load volume

A

load

intensity

General preparation exercises

Competition-like exercises

Specific exercises

17 - 18

The distribution of loads and relaxation is a very important component of sports training programming.

The distribution of loads follows the curve of a progressive intermittent character

The expression 3:1 means that after 3 training sessions of enhanced load, a reduced load follows in the fourth training session, or after 3 days of a high-impact work, on the fourth day’s work-outthe intensity should be reduced.

30’ 45’ 15’ 45’ 30’

’ minutes

Training unit

1st week 2nd week 3rd week

Mesocycle

Mon Tue Wed Fri SatThu Sun

T T T T T T O

Microcycle

Wavy shape of load (Matvejev, 1999)

1

2

3

4

opt opt

opt

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

17 - 19

After a period in which the load has been enhanced, it must be reduced all of a sudden.

The law of contrast in load distribution.

An athlete is not able to sustain continuously high and the highest loads.

After a few training sessions or microcycles of large load, the controlled reduction of training work volume and intensity follows.

18 - 1

Lesson 18:

Didactical principles of sports training


Talk about the goal orientation principle.

Talk about the sensitive phases’ specific attributes

of certain dimensions constituting the

fitness/preparedness of athletes.

Analyse and present graphically the association

among sports preparation programmes in

perennial and annual cycles.

Describe the principle of the cyclic nature of

training and present graphically the distribution of

sports preparation cycles.

18 - 2

Didactical principles are based upon scientific research findings and inferences and upon corroborated professional experience and knowledge of high quality/expert coaches/trainers.

They facilitate a deeper understanding of expert-coach work in the area of amethodological design of training programmes and

training work

organization.

18.1. Target orientation of training

The focus orientation of the process of sports training is based upon the specific associations between the goals that are to be accomplished, and thetraining programmes that should provide the accomplishment of therequired set goals.

18 - 3

There are certain prerequisites for encouraging the training to the wanted goals, i.e. for setting thegoals. First, one must know:

The equation of sports performance specification: i.e. the hierachical structure of performance factors in a particular sport event or discipline.

Criteria for goal orientation of training:

Goal orientation of training denotes a tendency for thedevelopment and perfection of athletes’ abilities, especially those significant and relevant to sportsperformance and achievements in a particular sport branch (equation of specification)

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

SPORT 1 SPORT 2 SPORT 3

A, B, C = abilities relevant to sport achievements

Diverse abilities (e.g. A – strength/power, B -endurance, C - coordination) have various influences

on performance in different sports

18 - 4

b) Individual features of athletes:

Especially those abilities and skills when an athlete does not meet the model (required) values.

The training programme should address the“weak spots” in the chain of an athlete’s fitness/preparedness.

c) Age-related characteristics of individuals and groups and the possibilities

of developing the components of athletes’ preparedness/fitness in particular age periods.

Table 1. Sensitive phases for the development of diverse physical condition, coordination and other dimensions. “Every dimension has its optimal development time.” (Martin, 1982)

18 - 5

...::..::...Emotional reactions

....::::..Cognitive functions

::..::::..Motor learning

..:::::...Speed

:::::::...Strength/power

::::::::....Endurance

:::.....Ability of space orientation

..::..Motor rhythm

.::.Reactibility to auditive and visual stimulans

.....::....Ability to differentiate movement parameters

:::::::...Motor educability/trainability

.::.Balance

181716151413121110987Age of an athlete

Ability of an athlete (year)C

oo

rdin

ati

on

a

bil

itie

sP

hys

ica

l c

on

d.a

bil

itie

sO

the

r d

ime

ns

ion

s

e) Sex differences

f) Quality level of athletes

g) Competition rank

h) Work conditions and material

foundation for sports preparation

18 - 6

18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes

a) There is a clearly defined correlation of global programmes of sports preparation:

training programme

competition programme

recovery programme

System of

competition

preparation

Interaction of the systems of training, competition and supplemental factors in sports

preparation (according to Matvejev, 1999)

Training

system

Supplemental

factors

of

sports

18 - 7

There is also a clearly defined association among the

b) fundamental programmes of sports preparation: Physical conditioning (functional and

motor preparation)

Information preparation (technical, tactical and theoretical preparation)

Psychological preparation (motivation, microsocial adaptation)

Physical conditioning

Technicalpreparation

Tacticalpreparation

Psychological preparation

Relationship among fundamental sports preparation programmes

18 - 8

Coordination of all elements of physical conditioning, technical, tactical and psychological preparation is the most important component of the long-term sports improvement of athletes.

A synthetic mode of training unifies theindividual factors into comprehensive and unique competition efficiency (performance).

Therefore the method of situational training is the best way of an integral perfection of athletes’ performance.

Integral preparation of athletes:

The principle defines also the association of targeted programmes of sports preparation that are defined as follows:

Versatile or global preparation Basic or fundamental preparation Specific preparation Situational preparation

The relations of the programmes are determined by the characteristics of a perennial and annual training cycle planning and programming.

c)

18 - 9

Distribution of sports preparation programmes across the stages of a perennial training cycle

(modified according to Platonov, 2004)

1. Universal preparation programme

2. Basic preparation programme

3. Specific-situational preparation programme

Stage of preliminary preparation

Stage of basic preparation

E ta p a m a s m a ln ih

s o r t k ih

o s ig n ć

E ta p a o d rž a v a n ja

s p o r ts k ih

d o s tig n u ć a

Stage of specializing preparation

100-250

250-600

600-900

900-14001400-1100

150%40%

2

310%

135%

45%

2

3

20%

120%

40%

2

3

40%

115%

25%

2

3

60%

115%

20%

2

3

65%

Stage of sports achievements maintenance

Stage of maximal sports achievements

Optimal relationship among particular sports preparation programmes in an annual cycle

(C – physical conditioning, T – technical-tactical, B – basic, S – situational,

D – supplemental, N – competition)

Stage 2

Preparation period Competiton period

B

S

N

D

Stage 1

75%

25%

C

T

B

S

N

D

60%

40%T

C

B

S N

D40%

60%T

C

B

S

D

Transition period

80%

20%T

C

18 - 10

18.3. Cyclic nature of training

The cyclic nature of training means that the process of training is executed thtrough defined units as regards time and contents, which follow and complement each other.

Training programming within various cyclesenables an efficacious systematization of training work tasks, assignments, means and methods.

The cyclic principle of training is manifested especially in training planning and programming, where the starting point should be the necessity of a systematic repetition of particular cycles.

18 - 11

The division of sports preparation cycles(modified according to Grosser et al., 1986)

A bigger cycle contains several shorter cycles

A sports career (1) several Olympic cycles

Olympic cycle 4 annual cycles

An annual cycle -

macrocycle

3 mesocycles - periods

(preparation, competition, and

transition)

A mesocycle - period 2- 5 mesocycles - phases

A mesocycle - phase 3-8 microcycles

A microcycle 3-14 training days

A training day 1- 4 individual training sessions

An individual training

session

4 parts (introductory, preparation,

main and closing)

A part of an individual

training session training operators (18)

Cyclic organization and load curves across anannual cycle (Matvejev, 1999)

I II III IV VIIVIV XIXVIII XIIXIMONTHS

STAGES

PERIODS PREPARATION COMPETITION TRANSITION

volume

intensity

QUESTIONS 1. Basic fields of training theory 2. Training theory definition 3. Training theory tasks 4. Definition of sport 5. Sports features 6. Why a special social status belongs tosport? 7. Sport participation and health 8. Characteristics of sport in the European union 9. Top level sport in european countries 10. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport 11. Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training 12. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level 13. Sports training – sports preparation 14. Sports training definitions 15. The essence of sports training 16. Sports training tasks 17. Cybernetic approach to sports training 18. Sport development in the world 19. A short overview of sport development in Croatia 20. Structural analysis of a sport activity 21. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities 22. Anatomical analysis 23. Functional (energy) analysis 24. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 25. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 26. Diagnostics in sports 27. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes 28. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 29. Selectionin sport (orientation to sports and choice of sports branch) 30. Sport and sports training of children and the young 31. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young 32. Performance factors of a sports career 33. Fitness of athletes 34. Sport shape / preparedness 35. Sport shape development phases 36. Dynamic attributes of sport shape 37. Sports training as a transformation process 38. Sports competitions 39. Classification of competitions 40. Plannin gand conducting a competition 41. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes 42. Classification of recovery methods and means 43. Illicit pharmacological means: doping 44. Adaptation in sports 45. Continuity of the process of training 46. Load progression of training and competition 47. Undulation of trainin gand competition loads 48. Target orientation of training 49. Interaction of sports preparation programmes 50. Cyclic nature oftraining

19 - 1

Methodology of Sports Training

Lesson 19:

Define the methodology of sports training

Define and describe the training (transformation) operator

Describe the methodology procedure and answer the questions: “what to train?”, “how much to train?” as well as “how, where, by means of what and when to train?”.

Discuss a training operator to improve a specific physical ability or acquire a certain motor skill


19 - 2

19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training

The methodology of sports training is an academic discipline that studies the patterns of the methodological structuring of training or modelling of training and means of recovery.

It deals with the selection,organization and implementation of training stimuli or training operators and the management of a training load.

A training (transformation) operator is a stimulus that produces adequate quantitative and qualitative changes in an athlete’s status.

A methodological procedure in professional sport refers to the implementation of selected training operators that comply with the desired, operationally defined objectives.

It refers to a controlled process of physical exercise (physical conditioning) and/or a controlled process of learning-teaching (technical-tactical training).

19 - 3

In such a methodological procedure training operators that have the highest transformational power in achieving the desired training outcomes are chosen from the virtual system of potentially useful training operators.

Methodological knowledge is the fundamental source of information for a successful programming of training.

In everyday practice, after defining the objective of training (e.g. development of explosive power for jumping), the coach must answer the questions:

WHAT? HOW MUCH? HOW? WHERE? BY MEANS OF WHAT? WHEN?

to train, in order to achieve, in cooperation with the athlete, the desired outcomes in the safest possible way.

19 - 4

WHATTO TRAIN?

HOW MUCH TO TRAIN?

WHERETO TRAIN?

METHODOLOGYOF SPORTS TRAINING:modelling of

training operators

BY MEANS OF WHAT TO TRAIN?

HOW AND WHEN TO TRAIN?

MEANS OF TRAINING

TRAINING LOADS

TRAINING LOCATIONS

TRAINING EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES

ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS

TRAINING METHODS

METHODOLOGICAL FORMS

OF TRAINING

METHODOLOGYOF SPORTS TRAINING:

modelling of training operators

19 - 5

Means of training: motor

(competition and training activities)

non-motor

(additional means and activities)

Training loads:- Components of the total training load:

ENERGY COMPONENT (intensity and volume)

INFORMATION COMPONENT (reception, retention and use of motor information)

Training parameters for the development of maximum speed (Pyke, 2001)

Intensity 95-105%

Distance 20-40m

Rest Complete(3 min.+)

Type of Start Flying start

Reps / Sets 4 / 2

Session Frequency/weekly 2

19 - 6

Training locations:

facilities (halls, gyms, fitness centres, swimming pools, outdoor playing fields)

Training equipment and devices: Training equipment (weights,

balance boards, ropes, medicine balls)

Apparatuses (gymnastics apparatuses, Swedish boxes and benches)

Exercise machines (classical and isokinetic)

Special training devices (electrical stimulator, vibration platforms)

19 - 7

Organizational forms of training:

individual

group

frontal

Training methods: physical conditioning training

methods (energy)

technical-tactical training methods

(information)

19 - 8

Methodological forms of training: stations

circuits

circulars

courses

running

start

running

runningslalom

running sideways

running backward

running

Intensity:

High:Low:

20 - 1

The means (contents) of sports preparation

Lesson 20:


Define training contents (means)

Classify and describe motor (training and competition) means

Classify and describe non-motor means

Define criteria for the selection of training exercises

List and describe exercises for the development of each of an athlete’s abilities

Discuss the effects of the implementation of a specific training exercise over a period of time

20 - 2

The means (contents) of training or sports preparation are systems of motor (competition and training) exercises and non-motor means implemented in training, competition and recovery in accordance with the desired outcomes of the sports preparation and characteristics of the expected training procedure.

20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means

MOTOR MEANS

GENERAL

PREPARATION

EXERCISES

BASIC

PREPARATION

EXERCISES

SPECIFIC

EXERCISES

SITUATIONAL

EXERCISES

PH

YS

ICA

L C

ON

DIT

ION

ING

EX

ER

CIS

ES

TE

CH

NIC

AL

EX

ER

CIS

ES

TA

CT

ICA

L E

XE

RC

ISE

S

TRAINING MEANSCOMPETITION MEANS

Competitions

are an

indispensable

means of sports

preparation

20 - 3

LIFESTYLE

NUTRITION

PHYSICAL MEANS

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATE MEANS

TECHNICAL MEANS

PHARMACOLOGICAL MEANS

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANS

Implemented in all stages of sports preparation, especially

when the athlete is in the rest-recovery stage

NON-MOTOR MEANS

A training means or contents are activities or exercises implemented in the training and adjusted to match the training objectives.

Different activities and exercises significantly differ in transformational power (value) which they have on the development of a specific athlete’s ability, characteristic, or the acquisition of certain motor skill.

20 - 4

It is of the utmost importance to know which functional and motor structures or body systems are stimulated by the exercise implemented as a part of a certain training operator.

Weight training exercises are used for the development of strength.

Quantitative and qualitative changes occur in the muscular system.

Exercises involving changes of direction and speed of movement are used for the development of agility and speed.

The efficiency of the central nervous system and motor programmes is increased.

Cyclic exercises with extended duration are used for the development of endurance.

Functions of cardiovascular and respiratory systems (oxygen transport system) are improved.

20 - 5

The selection of training means aimed at the development of physical abilities or the stabilisation of technical-tactical skills depends on the equation of value for each exercise, since each exercise or set of training activities triggers precise motor reactions.

Aj = i Fi + i(n+1)Ejij=1

n

Equation of value for training or competition activity Aj in the n-dimensional space

i – coefficients of participation of the psychosomatic dimensions Fi in activity Ai,

Ej – efficiency estimation error in activity Ai if dimension Fi is known

20 - 6

20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation

Coaches very often “throw in” new exercises in each training session

That is ineffective since the effects of the implementation of a selected set of exercises are proportional with the duration of its implementation

A selected set of exercises must be repeatedfrequently in order to generate the expected effects

The effects of implementation for each exercise or set of training exercises can be monitored in four dependent stages

Effects of implementation for each training exercise can be monitored in four dependent stages

(modified according to Vazny, 1978)Effects of training exercise implementation

Training exercises implementation stages

t0 t1 t2 t3

Significant

impact stage

Non-significant impact stage

Peak

impact stage

Decreasing impact stageA

A – Point of significantimpact on the developmentof one of the preparednesscomponents

t4 t5

Negative impact stage

20 - 7

The first thing is to learn how to perform the exercise correctly. Useful effects can only be achieved if the exercise is mastered and performed correctly (1st stage).

The period of time during which the implementation of a mastered exercise (maximum number of repetitions) generates positive effects is limited (2nd stage).

After the period of the implementation of the same exercise or set of exercises only then is it possible to maintain the achieved effects

(3rd stage).

In the next stage a decreased impact of the

selected exercises on the expected effects is

noticeable (4th stage).

At one point of the implementation of an

exercise or a set of exercises a negative

tendency of the effects may be noticed. The

exercise or the set has or have “been worn out”

(5th stage).

20 - 8

20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application

Training methodology first defines the criteria for the

selection and then the order of using each exercise or a set of exercises.

After the training objectives of one set of exercises have been achieved, move on to the next one.

The order of training exercises in the training for jumping abilities may be determined in relation to the expected effects by age groups.

Deciding on the training means, i.e. the selection of training exercises, relies on the fact that only certain exercises are effective in each stage of an athlete’s development and that certain motor and non-motor meanshave a maximum effect in a certain part of the annual cycle.

This is crucial information for programming training sessions.

20 - 9

Sequence of training exercises in technology for the development of jumping abilities

Develop-

ment of

jumping

ability

Phases of long- term development

On the basis of experience and published research, coaches have selected a large number of potential means, i.e. motor exercises that they use daily.

Each coach should compile his/her own “encyclopedia” of training exercises.

Depending on the set objectives, the means that completely matches the characteristics of a trained group or individual should be selected and used.

20 - 10

Exercises for the development of sprint abilities

using various additional loads (vests, tyres, weights)on a flat surface, slope, steps…

Exercises for the development of jumping abilities

using hurdles, boxes of various heightsand/or without props on a flat surface, slope, steps…

20 - 11

Exercises for the development of explosive power for throwing

Free weight exercises for the strengthening of the upper and the lower body

20 - 12

Stretching exercises for leg muscles

Stretching exercises for leg muscles

20 - 13

Passive stretching in pairs

21 - 1

Training Load Management

Lesson 21:

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:

Understand the concept and the importance of the training load management

Define the total training load and its components Classify training loads and describe each type Explain the effects of a training load on an

athlete’s body Determine the training load in modelling training

operators for the development of various abilities and motor skills

Discuss the endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) factors of training and competition load tolerance

21 - 2

21.1. Training and competition load

The management of a training load has a central role in the technology of sports preparation of top athletes.

In professional sports, only the athletes who successfully absorb progressive training and competition loads can achieve top results.

Stagnation in a training load leads to the incomplete preparedness of the athlete.

Due to the adaptation of the body over a period of time the same amount of load (the same stimulus) will generate increasingly weaker functional reactions, since the athlete will respond as if the load has been reduced.

The total load, as well as its components intensity and volume, must be adapted according to:

specificities of each sport,

athlete’s age,

athlete’s individual characteristics,

level of athlete’s preparedness,

stage in the multi-annual sports preparation cycle,

period and stage in the annual sports preparation cycle.

21 - 3

Training load and recovery characteristics of athletes of various levels of preparedness

(Platonov, 1997)

LOAD RECOVERY

REACTION

LOWER-LEVEL ATHLETE

TOP ATHLETE

Reaction of athletes at various levels of preparedness to the same total training load

(Platonov, 1997)

LOAD RECOVERY

REACTION

2nd CATEGORY ATHLETE

1st CATEGORY ATHLETE

TOP ATHLETE

21 - 4

Load leads to fatigue – exhaustion of athletes in the training process

LOAD

LEVEL

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF

TRAINING LOAD

EXTERNAL FATIGUE SIGNSTECHNICAL

PERFORMANCEATTENTIONPRESPIRAT

IONFACE

1Loads absorbed

effortlesslySteady No change Normal No change

2Loads absorbed with effort,

without complainingSteady Medium

Blushe

dNo change

3

Loads absorbed with

difficulties, fatigue in arms

and legs

Weakened Significant Red

Movement rhythm

slightly altered,

minor mistakes

4

Loads absorbed with major

difficulties, complaining of

fatigue and body pain,

especially in the legs

Weak IncreasedVery

red

Diminished

movement quality,

mistakes in details,

poor performance

5

Loads barely absorbed,

tottering, refusing to

continue with the training,

general weakness

Very weak HeavyIntense

ly red

Non-coordinated

movements,

diminished

movement quality,

very poor

performance

21.2. Total load and its components

TL = f (a1En+a2In+a3e)

Total load (TL) is a function of the energy component– a1En (prevails in the physical conditioning training), information component – a2In (prevails in the technical-tactical training) and the estimation of error – a3e.

21 - 5

21.2.1. Energy component of a training load

En = f (a1I+a2E+a3e)

The energy component of a training load comprises two elements:

intensity of training load – a1I(force, velocity, pace, weight of external load) and

volume of training load – a2E (repetitions, duration, sets)

Training load intensity consists of: force, defined by the weight of the

external load (e.g. 90% 1RM),

and velocity, defined by the speed of performance (e.g. 90% of the maximum speed).

External load is crucial for the first element (weight training) and the maximum speed of performance for the second one(e.g. running down a slope).

21 - 6

Training load volume also comprises two elements: number of repetitions (e.g. 3 sets × 10 reps, 50%

RM with a 1’ rest between sets),

and duration (e.g. running 5×60’’ , rest 1’ between reps; or in stations 5 x 30” with 30” rest after each set and 60” rest after each station).

For the development of physical condition the total load and the ratio of its componentsneed to be determined.

In determining the energy load component,all elements contribute proportionally :

F = force, V = velocity, R = number of repetitions, D = duration

En = f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a5e)

Taking into account the interaction of all the components and elements of a training load, the total energy training load

is defined as follows:

En= f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a1Fa2V+a1Fa3R+a1Fa4D+a2Va3R+a2Va4D+a3Ra4D+a1Fa2Va3D…)

21 - 7

ITL = f (a1BI+a2DI+a3TEI+a4e)The information component of a training load comprises three elements :

number of emitted motor information units – NI (amount of data, messages)

amount of decoded motor information units – DI (amount of processed data)

duration of the emission of information– DEI (duration of time during which the motor information was sent and received)

21.2.2. Information component of a training load

21.3. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body

Use of an adequate load for the development of strength and power over an extended period of time leads to an adaptation which affects the muscle fibre by causing its expansion (hypertrophy), proliferation (hyperplasia), or a combination of the two.

21.3.1. Effects of a training load

on the muscle fibre

21 - 8

However, numerous studies have shown that muscle fibre reacts to the training and competition load with hypertrophy only. The occurrence of proliferation (hyperplasia) as a result of adaptation to training has not yet been proven.

Exertion of maximum voluntary force of contraction depends on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the agonist muscles as well as the level of the ability of the nervous system to innervate those muscles. This refers to the number of active motor units.

21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system

21 - 9

A training load affects the functioning of the nervous system by causing specific adaptation changes. The nerve conduction velocity and its synchronization are improved.

The specificity of adaptation changesrelates to the characteristics and the mastery of the movements being trained.

A well-balanced training activity forces the body to a range of functional and regulation adjustments in order to ensure:

Proportional amount of energy and

energy for the elimination of the excess of metabolites and heat.

21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system

21 - 10

In order for the oxygen transport system to meet the increased energy demand during a vigorous sports activity, an immediate adjustmentof a range of its functions -proportional to the energy demand of the given activity - to a higher level of activity must occur.

SPECIALISATION

SPECIFIC

LOAD

NON-SPECIFIC

LOAD

ENERGY

FOCUS

AEROBIC

MIXED

ANAEROBIC

GLYCOLYTIC

ANAEROBICCREATIN PHOSPHATE

ANABOLIC

COORDINATION

COMPLEXITY

LOW

MEDIUM

HIGH

LEVEL

MAXIMUM

90-100

MEDIUM

60-75

MINIMUM

30-60

SUBMAXIMUM

75-90

BODY

INVOLVEMENT

LOCAL

(one joint)

REGIONAL

(two joints)

GLOBAL

(multiple joints)

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads

21 - 11

Relation between intensity and volume in the total load

LOAD VOLUME

(repetitions, duration)

10

<30% <45% <60% <75% <90%

20

30

45

60

75

90

100

LOAD INTENSITY

% (force,

velocity)

<100%

Maximum total load may be achieved by stressing the intensity, volume or both components of a training load

<30% <45% <60% <75%

21.5. Training load management -dosage

The safest way to achieve preparedness is to use a training load which is well-adjusted to the biological and psychological characteristics of the athlete.

Training load levels in sports have reached extremely high values, which are very close to the maximum values of the total load and its components.

21 - 12

Mistakes in load management can lead to many undesired consequences:

injuries that may prevent the athlete from continuing with the training programme,

overtraining,

insufficient preparedness,

discontentment of the athlete.

Maximum testing is the basis for determining the training load (Jäger and Oelschlägel, 1982)

1. Maximum

ability test

(1RM)

2. Calculation

– determining

training loads (percentage of

1RM)

3. Training

load

???

21 - 13

Parameters of training operators for the development of start speed, maximum speed

and speed endurance (Pyke, 2001)

Maximum speed Start speed,

acceleration

Speed endurance

Intensity 95-105% 95-100% 90-95%

Distance 10-20m 5-30m 20-30m / 120-300m

Recovery between repetitions

Full (3min+) Full (3min+) 30-90s / 5-8 min

Start Flying Standing or slow walking

start

Standing or slow walking start

Basic abilities Speed/

Speed strength

Explosive power Speed/ Anaerobic capacity –

phosphagen

Frequency (training sessions per week)

2 2-3 2-3

Training load dosage for the development of muscular endurance

No. TRAINING PARAMETRES SYMBOL TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS

1External load –

weightEL 40-80% 1 RM

2 Repetitions NR 12 - 4 repetitions

3 Number of sets NS2 - 4 sets with each weight

10 - 20 sets total

4 Rest interval RI

1 - 2 minutes between sets

2 - 3 minutes between weights

3 - 4 minutes between exercises

5 Rest activity RAStretching and relaxation

exercises

6 Performance pace PP Medium

7 Means (exercises) ME Weight training exercises

8Exercises per training

periodNE 2 - 6 exercises

9Training frequency (per

week)TF 2 - 3 × week

10 Overcompensation period OP 48 hours

21 - 14

Endogenous factors of training of loadtolerance:

Sex Body type

Nutrition

Speed of adaptation processes

Injuries of the locomotor system

Age

Pharmachological means

“Warm-up” “Cool-down”

Recovery process

Structure and distribution

of training load

Time difference

Exogenous factors of

training of load tolerance:

Training and competition distribution

Sports gear (footwear)

Training location (surface)

Humidity

Movement technique

Orthopedic supports and braces

Exercise machines

Temperature

Altitude

21 - 15

A further increase in the training and competition loads may be expected in the future.

Athletes will be able to tolerate those loads due to:

- modern diagnostics procedures,

- improved recovery methods,

- supplementary stimulation of athletes,

- improved preparation conditions.

A highly coordinated and professional team approach is required to preventovertraining.

A training load should be programmed very carefully.

It should be neither too high nor too low.

Well-balanced loads applied at the right time can lead to the success and satisfaction of both the coach and the athlete.

22 - 1

Sports Training Methods

Lesson 22:


Define and describe the concept of training methods

Classify and describe basic training methods

Define and describe physical conditioning methods with respect to load type, training mode, muscle contraction type and load level

Define and describe the use of pyramid training with external loads

Define and describe methods for teaching motor skills

Describe the criteria for the selection of training methods

22 - 2

22.1. Classification and description of training methods

Training methods are specific forms of work in sport.

Training methods fall into two basic groups: Exercise methods used in developing and

maintaining various anthropological dimensions (primarily physical abilities) and

Teaching methods used in acquiring and improving technical-tactical skills.

The selection of methods depends on:

1. specificities of the given sport or sports discipline,

2. developmental characteristics of each age group,

3. level of preparedness and peak performance,

4. setting sports preparation goals and objectives and

5. conditions for the implementation of the training process.

22 - 3

TRAINING METHODS(modified according to Željaskov, 1998)

EXERCISE

METHODS

Wit

h r

es

pe

ct

to lo

ad

typ

e

VARIATIONS

Wit

h r

es

pe

ct

to t

rain

ing

mo

de

Wit

h r

es

pe

ct

to m

us

cle

co

ntr

ac

tio

n t

yp

e

Wit

h r

es

pe

ct

to lo

ad

le

ve

l

METHODOLOGICAL

FORMS OF TRAINING

STA

TIO

NS

-S

TA

TIO

N T

RA

ININ

G

CIR

CU

ITS

-C

IRC

UIT

TR

AIN

ING

CIR

CU

LA

RS

-C

IRC

ULA

R T

RA

ININ

G

CO

UR

SE

S-

CO

RS

E T

RA

ININ

G

VARIATIONS

TEACHING

METHODS

Wit

h r

esp

ect

to m

oto

r

Info

rmati

on

tra

nsfe

r m

od

e

Wit

h r

esp

ect

to m

oto

r ta

sk

maste

rin

gm

od

e

COMBINED

ORGANIZATIONAL

FORMS

Indiv

idual

VARIATIONS

Gro

up

Fro

nta

l

22.2. Exercise methods

Co

nti

nu

ou

s m

eth

od

Inte

rval

meth

od

Standard loads

Variable loads

Combined method

With respect to

load type

With respect to

training mode

Dyn

am

ic m

eth

od

Sta

tic m

eth

od

Combined method

With respect to muscle

contraction type

Co

ncen

tric

mu

scle

co

ntr

acti

on

meth

od

Iso

metr

ic m

uscle

co

ntr

acti

on

meth

od

Combined method

Eccen

tric

mu

scle

co

ntr

acti

on

meth

od

With respect

to load level

Exte

nsiv

e t

rain

ing

meth

od

Combined method

Inte

nsiv

e t

rain

ing

meth

od

Maxim

um

tra

inin

g m

eth

od

22 - 4

Co

nti

nu

ou

s m

eth

od

Inte

rval

meth

od

Standard

loads

Variable loads

Combined method

With respect to

load type

22.2.1. Exercise method with respect to load type

Continuous method – activity continues without interruption continuous standard method – the training

load level remains unchanged from the beginning to the end of the training activity

continuous variable method – the load intensity changes during the training activity

Interval method – exchange of work and rest intervals

standard interval method – all load variables should be maintained on the same level.

variable interval method – load variables change. Variable load is achieved as soon as one of the variables is changed.

400m=48s; 100m in 12 s

4×100m (P’=3min)=4×11s=44s

100m in 11 s

5000m=15min; 1000m in 3 min

5×1000m (P’=4min)=5000m=5×2:45=13.45;

1000m in 2:45.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Training

intensity %

Duration

Competition results (intensity)

Load intensity in continuous training mode

Load intensity in interval training mode

Interval training logic:

R R R R R

P’ P’ P’ P’ P’

22 - 5

Continuous and interval methods may be implemented with standard and variable loads:

Standard load Variable load

Continuous training mode

Interval training mode

Continuous standard

training mode

Continuous variable

training mode

Interval standard training modeDRITA (distance, reps/sets, rest

interval, time (duration), rest activities) – all parameters remain

the same

Interval variable training mode

DRITA - load parameterschange

Standard load Variable load

Continuous training mode

Interval

training mode

Running 4km at the same pace (80% of the maximum pace)

Running 4km at a variable pace (200m – 60%, 200m 90% of the maximum pace)

Running 2x3x400m, 90% 1RM, 4 min rests between reps and 6

min between sets

Running 400m, 300m, 200m, 100m, 200m, 300m, 400m at a variable pace (70-90%) rests between reps (5-2 min)

Examples of training operators for each method

22 - 6

Interval variable loads lead to variable effort. Distance, duration, number of repetitions, number of sets, rest intervals and rest activities change (D R I T A).

In interval weight training, “D” stands for the mass of the weight .

Training methods for the development of explosive power with high and low training loads

(Pyke, 2001)

High training loads Low training loads

Sets 3-4 3-4

Repetitions 5-2 8-5

Load 5-2RM 60% of 1RM

Rest between sets Full recovery Full recovery

Pace Explosive concentric Explosive concentric

Selection of exercises Explosive exercises Explosive exercises


2-3 2-3

Physiological objective

Improvement of muscle activation via improved

neural control

Improvement of explosive power

22 - 7

With respect to

training mode

Dyn

am

ic m

eth

od

Sta

tic m

eth

od

Combined method

Static method

Dynamic method

22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect to the training mode

With respect to

muscle contraction type

Co

nc

en

tric

co

ntr

ac

tio

n m

eth

od

Iso

metr

ic c

on

tracti

on

meth

od

Combined method

Eccen

tric

co

ntr

acti

on

meth

od

Concentric

contraction method

muscle force >

external force

Eccentric contraction

method

muscle force <

external force

Isometric contraction

method

muscle force =

external force

22.2.3. Exercise methods with respect to the muscle contraction type

22 - 8

With respect to

load level

Exte

nsiv

e t

rain

ing

meth

od

Combined method

Inte

nsiv

e t

rain

ing

meth

od

Maxim

um

tra

inin

g

meth

od

Distance (volume)

Rest interval duration

Extensive

interval method

Intensive interval method

Maximum interval method

Pace

(intensity)

Interval training methods

12×200m

8×200m

4×200m

2min

4min

6min

75%

85%

95%

22.2.4. Exercise methods with respect to load level

22.2.5. Pyramid training

P1

P2

P3

P4

VOLUME INTENSITY

5*X5=100%n11x

4*X4=95%n22x

3*X3=90%n33x

2*X2=85%n44x

1*X1=80%n55x

Involves the inversely proportional relation between volume (number of repetitions) and intensity (external load level)

22 - 9

Three typical pyramids are used in sports practice; They are defined by the number of repetitions (12-1) and the

level of external load (40-100% of 1RM)

EXTENSIVE PYRAMID

12

10

8

40

50

60

MIN

SMED

MED

8

6

4

INTENSIVE PYRAMID

60

70

80

MED

MED/SMA

SMA

4

2-3

1

MAXIMUM PYRAMID

80

90

100

SMA

SMA/MA

MA

1 100% 1 RM

2 95

3 90

4 85

5 80

6 75

8 70

10 65

12 60

14 55

16 50

18 45

20 40

22 35

25 30

The number of repetitions of various external loads is strictly individualized. It can vary dramatically.

22.3. Teaching and learning methods in sport

With respect to motor

information transfer mode

Vis

ua

l

Mo

tor

(de

mo

ns

trati

on

)

Combined method

Pro

ble

m-b

ased

Verb

al


task performance mode

An

aly

tic

Sit

ua

tio

na

l

Combined method

Ide

om

oto

r

Syn

the

tic

22 - 10

There are four fundamental teaching methods:

a) verbal method (orally describing a motor task),

b) visual method (using images: kinematic models, photographs, videos),

c) motor method (showing how a motor task is performed),and

d) problem-based method (requesting the performance of a motor task).

22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to the mode of motor information transfer

and motor task assignment

1) Analytic teaching method

refers to the procedure whereby the global movement structure is divided into several phases, i.e. elements, each of which is taught and mastered separately. After each phase/element has been mastered, they are integrated, i.e. linked together into one whole.

22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect to motor task perfomance mode

22 - 11

Analytic method is recommended in teaching very complex and demanding activities or activities consisting of many elements (structural units), where the performance of the whole activity causes discomfort and contains the risk of injury.

2) Synthetic teaching method

refers to learning and mastering a methodical task as a whole. The athlete performs the task as a whole, placing maximum focus on the most important phase of the global motor activity.

22 - 12

3) Situational method

refers to learning and perfecting techniques and

tactics in the conditions that match those at

competitions. Basic information may be

taught using the synthetic method, but the final

stabilization of the acquired knowledge must

take place on the situational level.

4) Ideomotor method

refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task. Cognitive activities become prominent in the improvementof the performance of a motor task, because they enable us to make connections between the perceived and the performed movements. It means that the athlete repeats in his/her head what he/she has learned at the training session after the training has finished.

22 - 13

5) Combined teaching method

Teaching methods may be combined in several ways:

- synthetic-analytic (the analytic approach is used for correcting mistakes),

- situational- synthetic-analytic and

- ideomotor-analytic (the ideomotor method may be combined with any other method).

23 - 1

Organisational forms and Methodological Forms of

Training

Lesson 23:

After attending the class and mastering thislesson the students will be able to:

Define and explain organisational training forms

Discuss the conditions in which individual, group and frontal forms of training are used

Define and explain methodological forms of training

Describe the specificities of station, circuit, circular and course methodological training forms

Design customized programmes for specific age groups and abilities that need to be improved using each of the methodological forms

Describe the role of locations, training equipment and training gear in training.

23 - 2

23.1. Organisational training forms

Organisational

formsIn

div

idu

al

VARIATIONS

Gro

up

Fro

nta

l

in this organisational form only one athlete trains throughout the training session or one of its parts under the supervision of a coach. This form is closely tied with the principle of individualization.

it is well known that the equal treatment of non-equals in training is the biggest inequality and a big mistake.

An individualised approach in sport is based on the tested abilities and skills of each athlete.

23.1.1. Individual training

23 - 3

Aimed at groups of athletes that have a similar level of abilities and skills. This form is closely tied with the principle of homogenisation.

By forming homogenised groups

training is rationalised.

Homogenised groups are formed on the basis of test results analyzed using the appropriate statistical procedures.

23.1.2. Group training

In this organisational form the whole team is involved in performing the set task at the same time.

It is best used for improving good team reactions in the area of physical conditioning and especially in the area of technical-tactical skills.

23.1.3. Frontal training

23 - 4

Methodological

forms of training

Sta

tio

ns–

sta

tio

ntr

ain

ing

Cir

cu

its

–cir

cu

it t

rain

ing

Cir

cu

lars

–cir

cu

lar

train

ing

Co

urs

es

–co

urs

e t

rain

ing

VARIATIONS

23.2. Methodological forms of training

Modern training technology

clearly defines the concept of methodological forms.

The rule is that the athlete should perform several training exercises with the appropriate load.

Each exercise should target a different body region or a different muscle group.

The duration of work and rest periodsbetween sets, tasks and rounds is defined for each task.

23 - 5

LEG MUSCLES

BACK

MUSCLES

ABDOMINAL

MUSCLES

ARM AND

SHOULDER

MUSCLES

A training exercise system that can beused in methodological training forms

(circuit training according to Schölich, 1979)

The basic rule is that several sets with a defined number of repetitions are performed at each station and that there is only one round.

There are rest periods between the sets and tasks.

This methodological form is best used for the analytical development of each motor ability and for teaching technical-tactical skills.

23.2.1. Station methodological form (station training)

23 - 6

Only one set of each task is performed, but there are several rounds, so the training comprises several circuits.

There are periods of rest planned after each task and longer periods of rest planned after each round of all set tasks or one circuit after which a new circuit starts.

Circuit training comprises several circuits with one set of each task.

23.2.2. Circuit methodological form (circuit training)

Implies continuous work, meaning

no rest periods in one or several rounds.

Circular training can be performed using a continuous load till exhaustion when the athlete reaches complete fatigue, doing as many rounds as possible without rest.

This methodological form is best used for the development of all the factors of endurance or each of the motor abilities combined with endurance.

23.2.3. Circular training form (circular training)

23 - 7

The specific feature of this method is that the athlete is working on all tasks without stopping, utilizing a greater or lower speed while performing various activities like running, lateral movements, crawling, vaulting, creeping, dribbling, carrying, etc.

This methodological form is best used for the development of various motor abilities that are in most cases integrated as a general or specific physical ability depending on the type of exercises used.

23.2.4. Course training form (course form)

Combined methodological training forms are frequently used in practice:

circuit and station training (several sets ofeach task and several circuits),

circular and circuit (after several rounds without rest, a period of rest can be planned after certain rounds),

it is possible to combine all methodological training forms.

23 - 8

Training exercises that can be used in various methodological forms

work 3×30s

rest(s) 30s

rest(t) 60s

Station training

work 30s

Rest(t) 30s

3 circuits

rest(c) 60s

Circuit training

work 30s

rest(t)

Rest(c)

till exhaustion

Circular training

MF 1: MF 2: MF 3:

23 - 9

23.3. Methodological aspects of the location, training equipment

and training gear use

Locations, equipment and training gear ensure a high-quality implementation of the methodologicalprocedures in physical conditioning training and technical-tactical training.

The last decade has seen very dynamic progress in the development of training conditions.

Countries striving to make progress in the area ofsport invest substantial funds to meet the high standards of training technology as well as that ofcompetitions and recovery means.

23.3.1. Training facilities

Training locations are various venues and facilities for the implementation of various training types.

Training objectives and effects may be achieved in various locations.

23 - 10

Aerobic training can be performed on a track and field stadium, in a sports hall, on alevee/river embankment, in the woods, in a swimming pool or by riding a bicycle on the road.

High-quality locations that meets theeconomical training criteria should be used.

23.3.2. Training equipment and gear

Training equipment comprises apparatuses, devices and exercise machines used in training.

Weights, medicine balls, ropes, sticks, dumbbells, Swedish boxes, Swedish benches and different gymnastics apparatuses are frequently used.

Exercise machines with a special

construction are very frequently used.

24 - 1

Basics of Physical Conditioning Methodology

Lesson 24:

After attending the class and masteringthis lesson the students will be able to:

Define physical conditioning Analyze the structure and characteristics of physical

conditioning Explain the effects of physical conditioning

on an athlete’s body Explain the types of physical preparation Define and describe the general or multilateral

physical preparation Define and describe the fundamental or basic

physical preparation Define and describe the specific physical preparation Define and describe the situational physical

preparation

24 - 2

24.1. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical

conditioning

Physical conditioning is a set of programmes and procedures for the development and maintenance of functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics that correspond to the level of preparedness of an athlete, the characteristics of a sport and the conditions in which it is implemented.

The physical preparedness of an athlete includes his or her functional abilities (which can be improved by the activation of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems), motor abilities(which can be improved by the activation of the neural and muscular systems), and morphological characteristics (which can be changed by the activation of the oxygen transport system and the muscular system).

24 - 3

Physical conditioning structure(Fox, 1979)

PHYSICAL CONDITIONING (physical preparation)

Endurancetraining

Muscle endurance

training

Speedendurance

training

NEUROMUSCULAR TRAININGDevelopment of motor(quantitative) abilities

Strengthtraining

Speed training

Flexibilitytraining

Explosive power

training

Speed power training

CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING Development of functional abilities

Aerobictraining

A

Anaerobic training

G+P

Mixed aerobic and anaerobic training

M

24.2. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body

To understand completely the effects of physical conditioning on various abilities, one must:

Be familiar with the effects of conditioning training. Different physical conditioning programmes activate individual organs and organ systems (oxygen transport and vegetative or neuromuscular system) in different ways.

24 - 4

Have the information on the recovery or compensation period after training targeting a specific physical ability,

Have the information on the total load that the implementation of a specific physical conditioning programme generates. The development of certain abilities results in an increased total exhaustion because body reserves that enabled previous training are activated over an extended period of time.

Organ systems load level, recovery period,and total load in physical conditioning

Training focus (motor ability)

Organ system load level Period of recovery -

compensation (hours)

Total loadOxygen tarnsport

and vegetativeNeuromuscular

SPEED Moderate High 12-24Medium60-75%

SPEED POWER EXPLOSIVE POWER

Medium Maximum 24-36High

75-90%

MAXIMUM POWER High Maximum 36-48Maximum90-100%

SPEED ENDURANCE Maximum High 48-72Maximum90-100%

STRENGTH ENDURANCE High Medium 48High

75-90%

GENERAL ENDURANCE Maximum Moderate 48-60High

75-90%

ELASTICITY –FLEXIBILITY

Low Moderate 6Moderate45-60%

DEXTERITY –AGILITY

Moderate High 12Medium60-75%

COORDINATION Moderate Maximum 6-12Medium60-75%

PRECISION Moderate High 9High

75-90%

24 - 5

24.3. Physical preparation types

General or versatile physical preparation,

Fundamental or basic physical preparation,

Specific physical preparation,

Situational physical preparation.

General or versatile physical preparation refers to the process of a harmonious multilateral development of the functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics.

It leads to an improvement of the functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics, which can not be directly applied in a given sport, but which contribute to the development of the basic and specific abilities of an athlete.

24.3.1. General or versatile physical preparation

24 - 6

We should make sure to prevent any excessive increase of e.g. maximum muscle strength which does not contribute to the function of adaptability to specific loads, since it will result in the deterioration of technical skills and the reduction of the effects achieved by other physical preparation programmes.

It is directed towards: improvement of physical

preparedness of all bodyregions,

improvement of the efficiency of all organs and organ systems,and

improvement of all functional and motor abilities, taking into consideration sensible developmental phases

Strengthening the “weak links” of the athlete’s locomotor system.

24 - 7

According to Gabrijelić (1984), general physical preparation utilizes diverse exercises for:

harmonised conditioning of all the segments of the locomotor system,

development of basic strength,

development of elasticity or flexibility,

development of coordination abilities,

development of speed abilities and

development of aerobic endurance.

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – in pairs exercises

24 - 8

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – stretching exercises (a)

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – stretching exercises (b)

24 - 9

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – injury prevention exercises

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – stick exercises

24 - 10

This type of physical preparation must ensure an adequate strength of all body regions in the sense of the formation of a “natural corset”, which prevents injuries to joints, muscles, ligaments and tendons.

In 1981 Jonath (Milanović, 1997) defined the critical zones of the locomotor system of footballplayers, which absorb most of the load and are thus most prone to injury.

Cervical and thoracic spine

knee

ankle

Lumbar spine

groin

Lower leg extensors (quads)

Lower leg flexors (hams)

Upper leg adductors

Achilles tendon

Extensors (quads)

Flexors (hams)

24 - 11

Different sports and sport disciplines are characterized by the different role of specific extensors and flexors muscle groups.

Extensor muscles and

muscle groups

Flexor muscles and

muscle groups

General physical preparation should not be used only in training children. It should also be systematically implemented in the later stagesof an athlete’s career.

Adult athletes should not neglect the importance of general physical preparedness.

24 - 12

It utilizes exercises, loads and methods (operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results in the given sports discipline.

Also, it utilizes operators for the development of those abilities and characteristics that are insufficiently developed, i.e. in which the athlete significantly falls behind the expected values. Exercises from other sports are used if they stimulate the development of the dominant abilities (weight training, hurdle jumps…)

24.3.2. Fundamental or basic physical preparation

Selected exercises for basic physical preparation – weight training for the development of different types of strength

24 - 13

Selected exercises for basic physical preparation – weight training for the development of different types of strength

Coaches must be familiar with a large number of basic physical conditioning exercises, which can be classified according to the expected effects and other criteria.

Fundamental (basic) physical preparation presents a functional basis for the successful development of specific physical abilities.

24 - 14

It ensures the adaptation of energy and neuromuscular systems to the specific requirements of a sport utilizing a set of exercises similar to movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique.

It integrates physical and technical training leading to a specific physical preparedness.

24.3.3. Specific physical preparation

The higher the level of preparedness the more utilized specific physical preparation exercises become.

General and basic preparation prevails in training children, and specific physical preparation programmes become dominant in training young athletes.

24 - 15

Sports disciplines differ in terms of specific movement structures. Accordingly, sets of specific exercises within specific physical preparation are different in different sports.

Each specific physical preparation exercise reflects specific characteristics of movement and load involved in performing elements of a sports discipline technique.

Selected exercises for specific physical preparation of football players

24 - 16

Selected exercises for specific physical preparation of basketball players

It brings together physical and tactical training. It is most similar to physical preparation in polistructural and complex sports.

It is implemented in the constantly changing conditions of a game or a fight, which depend on the cooperation and confrontation of athletes on the field or in the ring, that involve increased dynamics,duration of the activity, or an increased external load.

Situational physical preparation exercises involve a load level that is the same or higher than that at the competition.

24.3.4. Situational physical preparation

24 - 17

Motor and energy stimuli are more demanding than those at competitions (overloading).

It is conducted by the head coach and his/her assistants with the help of a physical conditioning coach who determines the energy parameters.

It is difficult to simulate actual competition situations, which are characterized by specific psychological states.

Specific and situational physical preparation of handball players (Červar et al., 2004)

a

D

CB

AB

B

E

A) Pressuring of two players (backcourt-backcourt or backcourt-pivot)

B) Pressuring of the attacker and covering of the defender with a tackle (1:1, 2:2,

2:1)

C) Passing with special tasks (jump, feint etc.) with constant change of position

D) Triangle passing – after passing the ball the player runs to the position of the

player who received the ball and returns to the starting position.

E) One-on-one game with a constant exchange of roles

24 - 18

H I

Situational physical preparation of handball players (Červar et al. 2004)

H) Shooting sets according to a determined schedule (as fast as possible)

I) Shooting sets with passing (simulation of counter attack and re-counter

attack from backcourt or pivot positions)

25 - 1

Training Methodologyof Functional

Abilities

Lesson 25:

After attending the class and masteringthis lesson students will be able to:

Describe various types of functional ability training

Define and describe anaerobic training

Design operational programmes for the development of phosphagen and glycolytic anaerobic endurance

Define and explain aerobic training

Design operational programmes (continuous and interval) for the development of aerobic endurance

25 - 2

Physical conditioning of functional abilities is focused on the improvement of the functioning of the oxygen transport system (cardio-respiratory) and an increase of the anaerobic capacities.

In 1979 Fox published a list of basic activities, methods, and approximate loads for the development of typical energy systems or functional abilities.

25.1. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional

abilities

Training methods for the development of energy systems that constitute various functional abilities

(phosphagen-P, glycolytic-G, aerobic-O) (Fox, 1979)

TRAINING

METHODSMETHOD DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION

DEVELOPMENT

OF ENERGY

SYSTEMS IN %

P G O

1. Sprints with

acceleration

Gradual acceleration, from jogging to sprinting, at 60-120 m

distance90 5 5

2. Sprint training (A)Repetitive maximum sprints, with full recovery between

repetitions90 6 4

3. Sprint training (B) Two sprints separated by periods of jogging and walking 85 10 5

4. Interval sprints Alternating 50 m sprints and 60 m jogging at 3 km distance 30 40 30

5. Interval training (A)

– intensiveRepetitive exercise periods with relatively short rest periods 20 40 40

6. Interval training (B)

– extensiveInterval training with extended exercise and rest periods 15 35 50

7. Fartlek Alternating fast and slow running on natural terrain 10 30 60

8. Continuous fast

runningLong-distance fast-pace running 5 10 85

9. Continuous running

at a moderate speedLong-distance moderate-pace running 2 5 93

25 - 3

1. specificity of the sport or sport discipline,

2. developmental characteristics of the age group,

3. preparedness level and peak performance,

4. set goals and objectives of sports preparation,

5. Training conditions.

Selection of methods depends on:

25.2. Aerobic training methodology

Improving the functioning of the oxygen transport system

Increasing the utilization of oxygen in extended training or competition

Improving a fast recovery after a high-intensity motor activity

A) Goals:

25 - 4

The blood volume and the heart size and strength are increased, resulting in an improved ability of the heart to pump blood

Oxygen transport is thus improved,leading to an increase in the generation of aerobic energy

Oxygen utilization and fat oxidation in the muscles are enhanced. Consequently, less carbohydrate (glycogene) is used to sustain the given load

B) The most important physiological effects

of aerobic training:

An increased percentage of aerobic energy generation allows a higher intensity and longer duration of training and competition

General and specific endurance is improved, which contributes to a high intensity of performance throughout the competition

C) Aerobic training benefits include:

25 - 5

The recovery period after a high-intensity interval is reduced. Consequently, the periods between the application of maximum load during and between competitions and trainings are shortened

Most importantly, a high level of aerobic preparedness reduces the number of technical or technical-tactical mistakes that occur by the end of a competition as a result of exhaustion

1) Low-intensity aerobic training: goal –ensuring a fast recovery after a strenuous training session or a competition. Load estimated via heart rate is 40 – 60% of max HR (cca. 120-130 b/min).

2) Medium-intensity aerobic training: goal –achieving a general endurance in the early stages of the preparatory period. The fundamental endurance is ensured as measured by the distance run during a match. The load used in training is 60-75% of the maximum pace. The load estimated via heart rate is 60-80% of max HR (cca. 150 b/min).

D) Types of aerobic training:

25 - 6

3) High-intensity aerobic training: it ensures adaptation

to energy requirements in activities of high intensity andextended duration and it increases the ability of fast recovery after a high-intensity activity. The load is 75-90% of the maximum pace. The load measured via heart rate is 80 – 90% of max HR (cca 170 b/min).

4) A continuous aerobic training method: the development of general endurance.

A training activity continues without interruption at the intensity of 60-70%. The heart rate is 150-160 beats per minute, which is determined by the aerobic-anaerobic threshold. This information is obtained using spiroergometric testing.

25 - 7

5) The interval aerobic training method: the repetition of a high-intensity training load of various duration.

It creates conditions for the improvement of systolic heart efficiency, which is closely connected to aerobic productivity.

Adequate training activities: running various distances, running with changes of pace and specific and situational exercises of appropriate intensity.

Intensity of 60-90% with heart rate 150-180 beats/minute.

Rest interval is relatively short, 1-2 minutes between repetitions and 2-3 minutesbetween sets.

Number of repetitions and sets is determined on the basis of the athlete’s abilities (e.g. 4 repetitions in 5 sets).

25 - 8

Various training types for the development of aerobic endurance (modified according to Pyke, 2001)

Training

type

Heart rate

(b/min)

Duration Lactates

(mmol/L)

Perception

of load

Typical exercise

Running

Maximum

aerobic

190-200 2-5min 6-10 difficult

stressful

3x1200m, max. speed in the

final 600m, rest period

between repetitions 5-7 min

Anaerobic

threshold

170-180 15-30min 3-5 unpleasant

difficult

3x10min max. speed, rest

period between repetitions

1min

Aerobic of

low and

medium

intensity

120-150 5min-1h 1-3 Strenuous Slow or medium pace for

10km

A

T

I

R

D

Active rest

70% of 1RM

1 min (reps) 3 min (sets)

4 reps × 4 sets

400m

a) Standard

A

T

I

R

D

Active rest

70-65-60 % of 1RM

2-3-4 min … …

1 1 1

1000m 2000m 3000m

b) Variable

Examples of interval training for the development of aerobic endurance

25 - 9

25.3. Anaerobic training methodology

Improvement of functional abilities of phosphagen energy capacity

Improvement of glycolytic energy mechanism for the performance of high-intensity motor activities with extended duration

Improvement of efficiency of the neuromuscular activity in the specific conditions of oxygen debt and increased concentration of lactates

A) Goals

Increase of phosphagen anaerobic reserves

Increase of glycolytic anaerobic reserves

Increase of muscle enzymes that catalyze anaerobic energy processes

Improved synchronization of the nervous, muscular and energy systems

B) Most important functional effects of

anaerobic training:

25 - 10

Increased tolerance and removal of lactates – lactic acid

High-intensity activitiesduring competitions can be performed with increased frequency

Most importantly, high-quality anaerobic training will ensure a high-quality supply of anaerobic energy sourcesover an extended period of high-intensity training and competition motor activities

1) Phosphagen anaerobic training

The alactate - phosphagen component of anaerobic endurance is determined by the duration of the creatine phosphate reaction.

C) Types of anaerobic training:

25 - 11

Types of training for the development of phosphagen endurance

(modified according to Pyke, 2001)

Training type Heart rate

(b/min)

Duration Lactates

(mmol/L)

Perception

of load

Typical exercise

Running

Maximum

anaerobic

phosphagen

(alactate)

160-180 5-20s 3-5 Fast,

forced,

unpleasant

12x100m or 6x200m

max. speed, 60-120s

rest, jogging

between repetitions

Examples of interval training for the development of phosphagen anaerobic endurance

a) Standard

D 150m

R 4 (3) or 4 reps. × 3 sets.

I 2 (4) or 2 min between reps,

4 min between sets.

T 90% of 1RM

A AKT

b) Variable

D 100m 150m 200m

R 4 reps. 3 reps. 2 reps.

I 2-3 minutes between repetitions,

4-5 min between distances

T 90%-85% of 1RM

A AKT

25 - 12

2) Glycolytic anaerobic training

The lactate– glycolytic component of

anaerobic endurance: causing strong

glycolytic reaction and the use of energy

from anaerobic glycolytic compounds

(glycogen break-down).

Interval method of training with a duration of 2 minutes and 80-90% of maximum intensity causes the strongest physiological reactions (heart rate is above 200 beats per minute).

Several sets with 2-4 repetitions and an extended passive rest (up to 10 minutes) are used in order to develop tolerance to an increased concentration of lactate, i.e. lactic acid in the blood and muscles after a repeated application of the load.

Various types of training for the development of lactate-glycolytic endurance

(modified according to Pyke, 2001)

Training type Heart rate

(b/min)

Duration Lactates

(mmol/L)

Perception

of load

Typical exercise

Running

Circuit training

Maximum

anaerobic -

lactate

180-190 20-75s 15-20 Very

difficult

6x400m or 10x200m

max. speed, rests

between reps 4-

5min

Circuit training

Tolerance to

the lactate

level A

190-200 75-120s 8-12 Painful,

stressful

6x600m or 8x400m,

max. speed, rests

between reps 4-

6min

Tolerance to

the lactate

level B

190-200 40-60s 6-8 Painful,

stressful

4x300m or 6x200m,

max. speed, rests

between reps 30-

60s

Circuit training

25 - 13

A

T

I

R

D

combination of passive* and active rest

90%-85%-80% of 1RM

3 min between reps, 5-7 min between distances

4 reps 3 reps 2 reps

200m 400m 600m

b) Variable

A

T

I

R

D

combination of passive* and active rest

85% of 1RM

4 min between reps (6min between sets)

3 reps (2 sets)

400m

a) Standard

* in the case of lactate tolerance development

Examples of interval training for the development of glycolytic anaerobic endurance

26 - 1

Training Methodology of Quantitative Motor Ability

Lesson 26:


Define and describe strength/power training methodology

Define and describe speed training methodology Define and describe repetitive training

methodology Define and describe flexibility training

methodology Talk about the general training programmes for

the development of each quantitative motor ability Draft and explain the executive programmes

for the development of each quantitative motor ability.

26 - 2

Quantitative motor ability training methodologymust ensure an optimal development and maintenance of the basic and specific abilities that are essential for achieving success in a certain sport.

To understand fully the training methodology for each of the motor abilities it is necessary to learn its definition, classification, importance for the specific sport and all of the potential means, loads, methods and procedures for its measurement.

To understand fully the training methodology for each of the motor abilities in sport it is necessary to learn its definition, neuromuscular regulation basics and protocol for its measurement.

In their study programme and in the training theory basics students have already acquired a majority of this information.

26 - 3

26.1. Strength training methodology

12

10

8

6

4

2-3

1100

90

80

70

60

50

40

MAXIMUM

PYRAMID

INTENSIVE

PYRAMID

EXTENSIVE

PYRAMID

NUMBER OF REPETITIONS

EXTERNAL

LOAD

% OF 1RM

Maximum effort method (intensity is 80-100%, number of repetitions is 4-1)

Pyramid method (number of repetitions constantly decreases, while the mass of weight constantly increases)

Dynamic effort method – fast repetitions with 50-60-70% of external load

Isometric effort method Yielding effort method – muscles perform an

eccentric contraction with the muscle force lower than the external force

Plyometric (eccentric – concentric) effort method

26 - 4

26.1.1. Characteristics, application areas and strength training methods

(Ehlenz et al. 1983)

TRAINING FORM

MUSCLE VOLUME BUILDING TRAINING

COMBINED TRAINING

INTRAMUSCULAR COORDINATION TRAINING

Training effects characteristics

Increase of muscular fibre volume (hypertrophy)

Hypertrophy and synchronized activity of motor units

Synchronized activation of motor units

Application area

General and basic strength training for all sports

Primarily in professional sport for adult athletes

Professional sport for adult athletes

Training and load methods

Methods with an increased number of repetitions (10-15) and moderate intensity (40-75%)

Pyramid method with varied load (40-100%)

1. High and maximum intensity methods (75-100%) with a low number of repetitions (1-5)

2. Reactive plyometric effort methods (100% +)

Activation of various muscle groupsin lower leg extension exercises

1. m. quadriceps femoris (vastus intermedius)

2. m. quadriceps femoris (vastus lateralis)

3. m. quadriceps femoris (rectus)

4. m. quadriceps femoris (vastus medialis)

26 - 5

Activation of various muscle groupsin forearm flexion exercises (barbell curl)

Hypertrophy training methodology utilizes local (1 muscle) and regional (several muscle groups) exercises.

1. m. brachioradialis2. m. biceps brachii3. m. brachialis

In achieving the effect of hypertrophy, first the number of active muscle fibres is increased (B) and then their volume (C).

A B

C

26 - 6

26.1.2. Strength training methods(Watson, 1984)

TRAINING MODE CHARACTERISTICS SECOND NAME FOR THE METHOD

1. DYNAMIC

EFFORT METHOD

- use of low, medium and high

external load

- throwing

- body weight as a load in dynamic

conditions

Isotonic training

Repetitive effort

method

2. WEIGHT

TRAINING

EXERCISES

- concentric muscle contraction

dominates, mass of the weights

varies

Pyramid training

- constant external load

during the whole range

of motion

3. TRAINING WITH

ELASTIC BANDS -

SPRINGS

- load is achieved and increased by

stretching the elastic band

4. ISOMETRIC

EFFORT METHOD

- no movement

- attempted movement

- static object load

Static training

TRAINING MODE CHARACTERISTICS SECOND NAME FOR THE METHOD

5. ECCENTRIC

EFFORT WEIGHT

TRAINING METHOD

- external load is greater than the

muscle force, the muscle is forced

to stretch and elongate –

distension

Yielding effort method

6. ECCENTRIC-

CONCENTRIC

EFFORT METHOD

- elastic strength exercises

- after absorption, the concentric

phase is performed

Plyometric training

7. VARIOUS

RESISTANCE

TRAINING METHOD

- resistance of the “shell” varies

throughout the range of motion

“Nautilus training”

8. ADJUSTED

RESISTANCE

TRAINING METHOD

- angle speed is given (30, 60, 90,

180°/s). The athlete produces a

maximum force throughout the

range of motion

Isokineic training

26 - 7

Some advantages of trainingon exercise machines:

safety – there is a lower risk of falling, tripping and injury,

movement diversity – exercise machines provide resistance that cannot be achieved using free weights (e.g. leg adduction and abduction),

simple use – it does not require special coordination skills or techniques.

Selected strength exerciseson exercise machines

26 - 8

Some advantages of free weights training:

total body effect (in a standing position the load affects the majority of muscles, the athlete controls the movement and maintains his/her balance using muscles or muscle groups without the aid of any device)

exercise specificity (the majority of sports and training activities involve lifting and acceleration of an object. Free weights lifting involves natural coordination of several muscle groups)

Selected free weights strength exercises

26 - 9

Only a correctly performed weight training exercise can generate the full effect and prevent an injury of the sensitive bone-joint structures

and muscles.

CORRECT WAY TO LIFT WEIGHTS

INCORRECT WAY TO LIFT WEIGHTS

stretch

vertebra

pressurediscus

discus vertebra

General training operator programme for the development of repetitive strength

1. Training objective:

Development of repetitive strength

2. Sports group: Junior athletes

3. Training methods: Extensive interval training method

3.1. Load intensity: 50-80% of individual maximum (1RM); 40% warm-up weight

3.2. Load volume: Number of repetitions (NR): 12-4

Number of sets (NS): 3-6 in each weight

Number of sets (NS): 9-18 per exercise

3.3. Rest period: 1-2 minutes (between sets), 2-3 minutes (between weights)

3.4. Pace Moderate or varied

3.5. Rest activities Stretching and relaxation exercises

4. Training means General, basic and specific exercises for repetitive strength and strength endurance with weights or on exercise machines

26 - 10

Executive training operator programmefor the development of repetitive strength

Weight mass

(% 1RM)

Number of repetitions

Number of sets

Lifting pace

Rest (sets) Rest (weight)

Rest activities

40% 12 2 Moderate 1 2

50% 10 2 Moderate 1 2

60% 8 3 Accelerated 2 3

70% 6 2 Moderate 1 2

80% 4 2 Moderate 1 2

Active rest:

stretching and relaxation exercises

26.2. Speed training methodology

Repetition method(maximum intensity, short running distances, 4-6 repetitions, 2-3 sets with an extended period of active rest 3-5 minutes)

Interval training method(maximum intensity, slightly longer running distances, 3-4 repetitions, 2-3 sets with rest period 4-6 minutes – full recovery)

26 - 11

Running with the acceleration method (running speed is constantly increased at 60 –100 m distance)

Running with the flying start method (acceleration phase is performed prior to running 40-60 m with maximum speed)

Slope running method (3-5˚ with a flat ending)

Fast reaction method - responding to auditive and visual signals (latent reaction time as short as possible)

Fastest separate movement performancemethod

Fast frequency of movement performancemethod

Relay forms of speed training method

Handicap-running method (a certain advantage is given to the lower quality runner at the start)

Speed of movement, the rest interval (pause), as well as the techniques of the start, lane running and finish need to be constantly controlled in methodological procedures for the development of basic and specific speed.

26 - 12

General training operator programme for the development of speed and speed strength

1.Training objective: Development of speed-speed strength-sprint speed

2. Sports group: Junior athletes

3. Training methods: Repetition method, maximum interval training method

4. Load

4.1. Intensity – speed of movement: Maximum (95-100%)

4.2. Load volume: Duration: short (3-10 seconds)

Number of repetitions (NR): 2-6

Number of sets (NS): 4-2

4.3. Rest period: Between repetitions: 3-4 minutes

Between sets: 4-6 minutes

4.4. Rest activities Stretching and relaxation exercises

5. Training means Sprint exercises, flying sprints, slope running, one-leg jumping sets, agility exercises (direction of movement changes).

26.3. Endurance training methodology

Information on competitive load structure and pace in a given sport is crucial in the modelling of endurance training

The methodological pathway for endurance:

Improvement of the effectiveness of the oxygen transport system and anaerobic capacities

Improvement of the effectiveness of the neuromuscular system (number and duration of muscle contractions when the metabolic products are accumulating and fatigue starts to manifest itself)

26 - 13

26.3.1. Endurance training methods

Continuous training method (standard or varied load)

Continuous training till exhaustion method

Interval training method (standard or varied load)

Situational method

Endurance training for young athletes table

Training methodology

Training objective:

Development of endurance

Training method

Load

Volume Intensity

LONG-TERM

ENDURANCE

Predominantly

continuous method

High, extended

continuous running

for 5-8 km

Medium, 3-4 m/s

Interval method

Extended “pace”

running of distances

longer than 800 m

High, 75-90% of the

best result

MEDIUM-TERM

ENDURANCE

Continuous methodHigh, continuous

running for 2-3 kmMedium, 3,5-5 m/s

Interval method“Pace” running of

200-600 m distances

High, 80-95% of the

best result

SHORT-TERM

ENDURANCE

Predominantly

interval method

“Pace” running of

100-200 m distances

High, 80-95% of the

best result

Interval methodShort sprint running

20-60-120 m

Maximum, 90-100%

of the best result

26 - 14

26.4. Flexibility training methodology

Static stretching method(forms of passive stretching)

Dynamic stretching method (forms of active stretching)

Maximum stretching method– stretching (this exercises should be performed to the pain threshold with certain mental concentration; maximum range of motion is sustained for a maximum of 20 seconds)

Factors for flexibility development in sports(Grosser, 1982)

FACTORS FAVORABLE - POSITIVE NON-FAVORABLE - NEGATIVE

AGE Children athletes

(up to 14 years of age)

Adult athletes

ELASTICITY OF

MUSCLES, MUSCLE

FASCIAS AND

LIGAMENTS

Good elasticity and

intermuscular coordination of

agonists and antagonists

Poor elasticity and intermuscular

coordination of agonists and

antagonists

MUSCLE TENSION Relaxed muscles Increased muscle tension

EMOTIONAL, MENTAL

TENSION

Slight Strong and persisting

ANATOMIC AND

BIOMECHANICAL

FACTORS

Optimal activation of leverages

and degrees of freedom

Insufficient utilization of natural

relationships of leverages and

joint surfaces

THE TIME OF DAY 11-12 till 16 o’clock Morning hours

OUTDOOR

TEMPERATURE

Above 18° Below 18°

‘WARM-UP’ Full and extended Partial and short

FATIGUE – EXHAUSTION Restfulness of locomotor

system

Intense fatigue of locomotor

system

TRAINING DURATION Up to 1 hour of training More than 1 hour of training or

strong “hard” training

26 - 15

Selected exercises for the development of flexibility (Anderson, 2001)

Selected stretching exercises in pairs

26 - 16

Selected exercises for the development of flexibility (PNF stretching)

1a 1b 2a 2b

3a 3b4a 4b

27 - 1

Lesson 27:

Training Methodology of Qualitative Motor Ability

Define and describe the coordination training methodology

Define and describe agility training methodology

Define and describe accuracy training methodology

Define and describe balance training methodology

Explain general training programmes for the development of specific qualitative motor abilities

Draft and explain executive programmes of training operators for the development of specific qualitative motor abilities.

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:

27 - 2

Qualitative motor ability training methodology must ensure an optimum development and maintenance of basic and specific abilities that are essential in achieving good results in a given sport.

To understand fully the training methodology for a specific motor ability one must know its definition, classification, role in sports, all the potential loads and measurement methods and procedures.

To understand the training methodology for a qualitative motor ability one must know its definition, neuromuscular regulation basis and measurement protocols.

Students have already acquired this information in their study programmeand in the training theory basics.

27 - 3

Coordination training should be implemented in the early stages of a sports career (sensitive stages) when the best responses of children to coordination exercises can be achieved.

An athlete’s coordination is inextricably connected with sports technique.

27.1. Coordination training methodology

Sensitive phases for the development of coordination abilities (Hahn, 1982)

“It is never too early to start developing coordination abilities”

BALANCE6

SPATIAL ORIENTATION ABILITY5

MOTOR RHYTHM4

REACTION TIME TO AN AUDITIVE AND VISUAL SIGNAL

3

SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY2

GIR

LS

SPEED COORDINATION1

BALANCE6

SPATIAL ORIENTATION ABILITY5

MOTOR RHYTHM4

REACTION TIME TO AN AUDITIVE AND VISUAL SIGNAL

3

SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY2

SPEED COORDINATION1

10987654321

BO

YS

SCHOOL YEARCOORDINATION ABILITIESNO

S T

S T

A V

A V

27 - 4

Complete synchronisation of the higher regulation centres of the nervous systems with the peripheral parts of the locomotor system is essential for the successful performance of a coordination task.

Coordination can be developed in two ways:

By acquiring new and diverse movement structures,

By performing the acquired movements in changed conditions.

For the development of coordination the repetition method is used, with rest intervals necessary for the renewal of

mental energy, which affects concentration, attention and

performance control.

27 - 5

Selected exercises for

the development of coordination

Selected exercises for the development of the coordination of arms

27 - 6

27.2. Agility training methodology

Agility can be developed in the early stages of a sports career (sensitive stages). At that stage we can expect the best response of the child-athlete to agility exercises. The child should not be overloaded by an excessive number of repetitions causing an inadequate anaerobic load.Agility training is successfully combined with technique and tactics training.

Agility can be improved using exercises ofrapid change of direction of movement.

Nowadays, the integrated training of speed, agility and quickness (SAQ) is most commonly used since it has proven to be very effective in a large number of sports disciplines

The success of agility training depends on the ability of acceleration, deceleration (quickness), the mobility of the joint systems, dynamic balance, and the correct performance of a movement.

According to the classification of agility factors (Jukić et al., 2003), the training of this ability may be implemented in different variations (frontal, lateral and horizontal–vertical or with circular and angular shifts in the direction of the movement).

27 - 7

Selected exercises for the development of agility

In the methodology of accuracy training it is necessary first to achieve a certain level of performance technique as well as tactics, taking into account the biomechanical parameters.

The best method is situational training.

Accuracy training is first implemented in simple and standard, and later in increasingly complex and changing movements and situations.

27.3. Methodology of accuracy training

27 - 8

Selected exercises for thedevelopment of accuracy

Various means, loads and methods are used for the development of balance. Balance training requires a maximum level of neuromuscular system restfulness.

In determining the training pace we must take into consideration the load intensity and ensure sufficient rest for a complete recovery.

27.4. Balance training methodology

27 - 9

However, the possibility for the development of balance without ensuring complete recovery is not excluded in individual training.

A frequently used technology in the development of balance is that ofproprioceptive training on balance boards, airbags, balls, uneven surfaces, narrow walking surfaces and specially designed devices.

Key stimuli in the development of balance are:

- dynamic posturing where balance is sustained with or without the presence of an external force that disrupts the balance

- and quickly assuming and sustaining a balanced posture.

27 - 10

Selected exercises for the development of balance

28 - 1

Technical and tactical preparedness of athletes

Lesson 28:


Define sports technique and technical preparedness

Analyse the phases of a motor task performance

Define sports tactics and tactical preparedness

Describe the basic categories of tactics employment

Define and describe the phase structure of tactics employment in sport

28 - 2

28.1. Sports technique

A biomechanically correct and efficientperformance of sport-specific movement structures.

Rational techniqueenables the full utilization of the biological and psychological potentials of an athlete.

A result of these processes is technical preparednessthat refers to a high level ofan athlete's ability to control the motion or movements of body parts and the body as a whole while performing thetechnical elements of a certain sport.

Occurs as a result of long-term learning and practice.

Technical preparedness

28 - 3

Kinematic data for correct the jump-shot technique in basketball (Menzel, 1992)

H0 – height of the ball release; v0 – initial acceleration of the ball; 0 – ball elevation angle; e – basket entrance angle of the ball; d – horizontal

distance of a shot position, Δh – difference between the height of the rim and the height of the ball release; g – gravitational force

It is not an absolute category - it changes. The changes occur within permitted limits.

Movement stereotype refers to the ability of a controlled repetition of amovement structure in standard or variable conditions.

28 - 4

An absolutely "fixed" stereotype becomes a barrier for improvement of performance.

A fixation of movement stereotype or its stabilization in one phase of development of an athlete is as important as its modification-adaptation to the new psychophysical qualities of the athlete in the next stage of development.

Teaching in sport is a very dynamic process that tends constantly to deepen and expand the technical and tactical skills which become increasingly efficient.

28.2. Sports tactics

A set of all forms and modes of action by one or more athletes in a situational training session or competition.

A selection of certain technical-tactical elements and the mode of their implementation with the goal of the realization of a plan and the achievement of the desired effects or victory over the opponent.

Sports differ greatly in terms of the number and complexity of tactical elements that are employed in situational conditions. Polystructural and complex sports are therefore characterized by the richness of tactical actions.

28 - 5

Tactics in team sports refers to the joint and efficient actions of individuals, lines of players or groups of players in order to solve situational problems in the defensive, transitional or offensive phase of the game.

Individuals or a group of players seek to dominate the opponents by using their tactical decision-making skillsand actions.

Tactical preparedness

Ensures a direct execution of tactical actions in situational conditions on the field. It refers to the adjustment of atactical plan to the situational conditions.

Tactical abilities of the players

(situational reaction)

Relates to a specific opponent - the match and capacities of the opponent players

Tactical plan

(situational memory)

Depending on the quality of "our" players, tactical variations adjusted to their abilities are chosen

Game concept

(conceptual memory)

Forms of actions of two or more players within a certain game system

Tactical variations

Basic formation of the players and their basic actions

Game system


Definitions of basic categories of tactics employment in team sports

(Gabrijelić, 1984)

28 - 6

Team sports utilize various game systems in the defensive and offensive phase.

- E.g. in handball, offence with one or two pivot attackers; in basketball, 2-1-2 zone defence; in football, formation 3-5-2 or 4-5-1.

Basic formation of the players and their basic actions

Game system


In each game system themovements of the playersin their respective positions are strictly defined.

In zone press 1-2-2, defensive players (1 and 3) try to block or double a team player (1) who will start the dribbling after he/she receives the ball from the player (2)

Forms of actions of two or more players within a certain game system

Tactical variations

28 - 7

The quality of "our" players enables the selection and efficient implementation of the zone press 1-2-2 game system in the defence.

In this system "our" players 1 and 3 successfully block attacker 1 while the other players are ready for an efficient team reaction at any moment

Depending on the quality of "our" playerstactical variations adjusted to fit their abilities are chosen

Game concept

(conceptual memory)

The quality of "our" players enables an efficient implementation of the game system in the defence 5-1

This game system enables a full utilization of all the capacities of "our" players in relation to the "power" of the opponents

Relates to a specific opponent - match and the capacities of the opponent players

Tactical plan


28 - 8

The tactical plan for this situation provides that "our" player should shoot at the goal but in a fraction of a second he/she sees the pivot attacker in an ideal position to receive the ball and score, so he/shedoes not shoot but rather passes the ball.

Ensures a direct execution of tactical actions in situational conditions on the field. It refers to the adjustment of atactical plan to the situational conditions.

Tactical abilities of the players

(situational reaction)

Sports tactics occur as a result of long-term tactical preparation.

An athlete acquires a given amount of information related to the rules, the course of the game and the effects of a competition.

28 - 9

Phase structure of tactic activities in sport(Mahlo, 1965, modified according to

Jonath & Krempel, 1991)

2. MOTOR MEMORYProgrammes of motor

activities

6. ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION

EFFICIENCY - results (reafference)

Confirmation or correction

of the programme

1. PERCEPTION

AND ANALYSIS

of motor activity

5. RESULT

of motor

activity

(+, - , =)

3. CONCEPTUAL

SOLUTION

Selected programme

of motor

actions 4. MOTOR

SOLUTION

Execution

of motor

activity

The execution of a motor activity is performed through several phases:

It is necessary to perceive and analyse("scan") the structure of a situation.

By searching his/her motor memory the athlete "sees" whether the programme of the same or a similar motor activity as a response to a situational problem is stored there.

28 - 10

Motor programmes are sets of data defining the execution of a certain motor activity in standard or variable conditions.

In the next phase the athlete activates the peripheral part of the locomotor systemusing the efferent impulses and executes the motor activity.

At an advanced level of motor command, when the motor programmes are stable, correctionson the basis of perceived deviations from the expected performance are possible.

Subsequently, an athlete analyses the effect or a result of tactics employment on the basis of collected information from the internal and external circle of the motor command.

Feedback allows for either the confirmation of the adequacy of the chosen and executed motor programme or a correction of the programme.

28 - 11

Sports technique and tactics comprise anabundance of the motor programmes containing the sets of sorted and hierarchically organised motor information.

Efficiency of performance depends on the number and the level of quality of the stored motor information and the ability to use it in a timely manner.

28.3. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical

command

Motor programmes can have different levels of efficiency:

First level: initial information is acquired, the information is fragmented, a rough performance,a low level of movement parameters control, the need for constant interventions of the coach, theprogramme often needs to be reconstructed, concious control of all movement phases, high activity of CNS cortex, a good foundation for further learning

28 - 12

Second level: the motor programme is not fully

formed, there is a constant need for additional information, the coach strictly controls the performance, the programme needs to be constantly upgraded, "fine" coordination needs to be achieved, the mental participation of an athlete needs to be greater

Third level: a stable performance is resistant to

adverse external factors, there is self-control of movement parameters with a kinesthetic feeling, and excellent results. Specificities in style as a result of the individual characteristics of the athletes are tolerated. There is a subcortical regulation of movement

28 - 13

Fourth level: reflex command of movement

performance and reflex command in situational conditions, automated movements, for the activation of the motor programme only an impulse (external or from the other parts of CNS) is sufficient, minimal possibility for any disturbance of a high-quality performance, unconscious control of the performance (athlete does not think about the action but rather "feels it")

29 - 1

Technical-Tactical Preparation

MethodologyLesson 29:


Talk about the efficiency levels of technical-tactical programmes implementation in sport

Describe the role of motor task demonstration in the process of motor learning

Explain motor learning phases

Describe teaching methods

Talk about the coach and athlete in the learning process

29 - 2

29.1. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills

Technical-tactical preparation is an integralpart of the training process.

The teaching process establishes the relationship between the coach and the athlete. In this process the athlete learns.

The technique and tactics learning process refers to the emission, reception, processing and use of basic and additional information.

This information helps create an idea of the desired performance of the technical-tactical elements.

Rational learning in sport refers to the identification and correction of motor mistakes.

In the same way, the athlete can acquire an incorrect motor task command.

29 - 3

The coach must be able to describe and demonstrate the motor task which is the

learning goal.

The coach should not show an abstract technique and tactics but the one that can be perceived, performed, and acquired by the athlete.

The coach may have once been an excellent athlete but he or she can be a poor coach, particularly for the young athletes, if he or she can not adjust the demonstration to the athlete's abilities.

Role of motor task demonstration in the process of motor learning

(Grosser and Neumeier, 1982)

MOVEMENT

EXECUTION

DEMONSTRATION

OF MOVEMENT (EXTERNAL

INFORMATION)

1

ANALYSIS

OF EXECUTED

MOVEMENT

(INTERNAL

INFORMATION)

3a

4

MOVEMENT

MODEL

DESIGN 2

COACH

OR OTHER

INFORMATION

SOURCES

3b

5

6

7

29 - 4

The number of correct repetitions is a

prerequisite for efficient learning.

Learning can be successful if the following

indispensable prerequisites are met:

a efficient define and describe of motor task

good demonstration,

identification of mistakes,

identification of the causes and the consequences of mistakes

correction of mistakes and

constant control of the mental participation of the athlete who is learning the technique and the tactics of the sport.

Teaching rational technique and tactics to children and young people follows several

patterns:

children must acquire and master the rational technique and tactics of the sports discipline,

this does not refer to a "child(ish)" technique but rather to the technique that fits their abilities and skills.

A transposition of the acquired technique and tacticsfor “children” to the technique and tactics for "adults" is not possible. Otherwise, the positive impact of the long-term preparation would be lost.

29 - 5

Multilateral technical-tactical training (multiple player positions in team sports or a large number of techniques in combat sports) is a good foundation for a laterspecialization (a specific player position in team sports or several "favourite techniques" in combat sports) and an increasingly efficient performance of technical-tactical activities in competition conditions

The coach must create the proper atmosphere and encourage athletes to acquire TE-TA skills with the appropriate level of emotional engagement.

If the athlete is emotionally engaged, the process of acquiring TE-TA skills is faster and more efficient.

If there is no emotional stimulus, acquiring technique and tactics becomes boring and unchallenging.

29 - 6

29.2. Motor learning phases

The teaching or learning process in

sport is conducted in four interrelated phases:

ACQUISITION PHASE -initial teaching

The basic idea of the movement is formed

It refers to the "rough" coordination of a movement

The movement is performed with full concious control

The coach constantly provides additional information regarding the performance.

The athlete, assisted by the coach, identifies, comprehends and corrects his/her motor mistakes.

Movement is performed in favourable, simplified conditions

At the beginning the results are poor

The athlete does not distinguish between a good and a poor performance

Absurd movements occur

29 - 7

MASTERING PHASE - advanced teaching

The skill expands and reaches a higher level of quality

A “fine" coordination of the movement is very important

Success is related to the number of repetitions

Concious control of the performance still exists

The need for a verbal and cognitive reproductionof the motor task occurs

Detailed learning (the difference between a good and poor performance is often in details)

There are 7-8 good performances out of 10

Kinesthetic control is fully engaged

STABILIZATION PHASE - situation-level mastering Learning (practising) of technical-tactical skills in

variable conditions

An individual approach is permitted

Specificities in the style of performance occur

Strict control of motor engagement rhythm is important

Subcortical regulation becomes more prominent

A good performance is expected

The athlete feels and corrects the motor mistakes by himself/herself (autoregulation during the performance)

The high quality of technical-tactical skills provides for the full utilization of biological potentials

29 - 8

AUTOMATION PHASE - competition-level mastering This phase refers to the highest level of motor command in

sport and therefore constitutes the final goal of the information training

Gradual automation of the performance occurs

The motor skill becomes a stereotype (automatism)

Movement programme can be activated and employed automatically (reflexive action)

Concious control of the performance is minimal

Subcortical regulation

Maximum efficiency of the movement

A competition situation determines everything: decision-making and modes of engagement

T. K., 1991

“When I do not think about the course of the action and a solution, when I become emerged in the game, I am capable of amazing moves and scores.

And when I decided to make a certain move, it did not work.

I cannot tell myself to assist or to start dribbling to the right. The game dictates it all: my reactions and my feeling for space, time and scoring."

What is automatic engagement –reflexive action in sport?

29 - 9

Characteristics of the teaching phases are:

constant adjustment of the relation between the muscle force, the medium resistance and the inertia moments,

detailed coordination of movement with the elimination of all excessive degrees of freedom of the locomotor system

acquisition, mastering and stabilisation of performance, from the basic skill level via motor skill to technical-tactical stereotype.

INTEGRATIVE TE-TA

TRAINING FOR TOP

SPORTS RESULTS

IS IMPLEMENTED WITH:

COMPREHENSION

OF SET TE-TA

TASKS AND

THE POSSIBILITY FOR

THEIR PERFORMANCE

STRICT

PERIODIZATION OF

TRAINING

PROCESS

3

INTEGRATION

WITH PHYSICAL

CONDITIONING

TRAINING

LOAD

INTENSITY

INCREASE

TRAINING UNDER

STRESS AND

IN EXTREME

CONDITIONS

INTEGRATION

WITH MENTAL

PREPARATION

2

1

4

5

6

Conditions for the implementation of technical-tactical training (Grosser and Neumeier, 1982)

29 - 10

29.3. Teaching methods


information transfer mode

Vis

ua

l -

us

ing

im

ag

es

Mo

tor

(de

mo

ns

trati

on

)

Combined method

Pro

ble

m-b

as

ed

-s

ett

ing

of

a m

oto

r ta

sk

Ve

rba

l -

ora

l p

res

en

tati

on

With respect to

motor task mastering mode

An

aly

tic

Sit

ua

tio

na

l

Combined method

Ide

om

oto

r

Syn

the

tic

Analytic teaching method

Analytic learning is justified:

if the activity is very complex and demanding,

if the activity comprises many elements or structural units,

when synthetic learning causes fear or arisk of injuries, and

when the movement is performed very fast creating inertia forces that are difficult to control by a beginner.

29 - 11

Disadvantages of the analytic method: The athlete cannot "perceive" the movement as a

whole and the logic of the motor task performance

Phases or structural units of complex motor activity cannot be easily determined

The athlete can become demotivated because he or she does not feel the connection between the separate parts of the movement

Separately mastered parts of the complex movement structure are difficult to integrate

While learning the separate parts of the movement the rhythm is not taken into account. This can cause problems for the athlete in the final stage of learning in mastering this very important feature of correct performance.

Advantages of the synthetic method:

It is easier for the athlete to create a correct idea of the movement as a whole and to understand the basic movement structures as well as the links between the separate parts of the movement.

Movements are logically linked. That facilitates the understanding of the logic of the movement as a whole and motivates the learner.

Movements are performed in a logical sequence.

Synthetic teaching method

29 - 12

It is easier to utilize the effects of gravitational and inertia force. That is crucial for the correct performance.

Creation of a reliable kinesthetic idea and kinesthetic feeling as well as the feedback information is ensured, which is important for the mastering of a new movement.

The proper rhythm, which is crucial for the final result, is acquired from the very beginning.

Disadvantages of the synthetic teaching method: it is often hard to acquire a very complex

motor task as a whole since the amount of information that the athlete needs to absorb is too large,

in mastering a complex motor task with powerful inertia forces synthetic learning can be dangerous,

mastering of certain phases and structural units can be insufficiently accurate if the movement or the situation structure is complex,

there are difficulties preventing the athlete from performing the complex movement structure with an adequate control of space-time parameters.

29 - 13

Situational teaching method

Refers to learning and mastering techniques and tactics in the conditions that match those at competitions.

Basic information may be taught using the synthetic method, but the final stabilization of the acquired knowledge must take place on the situational level.

This method is best used in the final stages of motor skills or technical-tactical elements "acquisition".

Ideomotor method

Refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task by the athlete. Cognitive activities become prominent in the improvement of the performance of a motor task, because they enable us to make connections between the perceived and the performed movements.

It means that the athlete for a period of time repeats in his or her "head" what has been the subject of the motor learning at the trainingsession.

29 - 14

29.4. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical

teaching-learning

observe the athlete in action and identify the efficiency of the first attempts,

point out the main mistakes by comparing the performance to the demonstration of the coach, a video, a photograph...,

simply, precisely, clearly, and convincingly explain the principles of the performance while explaining the crucial actions,

The coach should:

analyse the repetition of movement sequences, demonstrate and monitor reactions - all of this should be done slowly, carefully and patiently,

have a positive, encouraging and motivating attitude

be very patient and positively oriented towards the athlete, give deserved praise

29 - 15

comprehension of the basic principles of the subject of learning,

perception and comprehension of the movement,

an ability to visualize his or her own performance of the movement structure,

effort to perform the action (movement stereotype) at an optimum speed and with a moderate load,

The learning process from the athlete’s point of view demands:

results analysis and aremodelling of teaching operators in cooperation with the coach with the goal of performance improvement.

an increase in force and speed of performance after a sufficient number of correct repetitions.

an athlete must be aware from the beginning that the greatest responsibility for success rests with him/her.

30 - 1

Lesson 30:

Programming of teaching technical and tactical skills

Define and explain the principles of programming the process of teaching

Describe the cybernetic model of programmed teaching in sport

Describe the reasons for the occurrence of motor mistakes and ways to correct them

Programme the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles


30 - 2

30.1. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills

The teaching process in sport is conducted

in several consecutive phases:

1) Presenting the technical or tactical task that is to be taught.

2) Discussing the importance and specificities of its elements.

3) Explaining the structural, biomechanical, physiological and other characteristics of the motor task.

4) The coach’s demonstration of the task. The task is first demonstrated in its entirety and then section by section. Critical phases need to be given more attention in the demonstration. The pace and the speed of performance must be adjusted to the athlete’s abilities.

5) The athlete performs the technical-tactical elements at a slower speed, using less strength, or with a semi-active opponent.

30 - 3

6) Performance of the task and identification of typical mistakes. The coach must first identify any major mistakes. He or she must determine the causes of the mistakes and find adequate methods for their correction.

7) Implementation of motor exercises aimed at correcting any motor mistakes.

8) Performance of the task at a quick pace and with a maximally active opponent in situational conditions.

30.2. Principles of programmed teaching - learning

1) The hierarchy principle

Respecting the sequence of the teaching ofmovement structures. Levels of performance follow one another and each level is conditioned by the mastering of the previous one. This means that none of the levels can be omitted if an adequate command of motor knowledge, skills and stereotypes is to be achieved.

30 - 4

2) Cyclic integration principle

It refers to the method of acquisition of motor knowledge, skills and stereotypes involving the organisation of the training process in such a way that a motor task is repeated on new functional and motor levels.

3) Individualisation principle

It requires respecting the individual characteristics of athletes in the selection and employment of special training means –teaching operators – in the process of acquiring and mastering TE-TA skills.

4) Intensification principle

It refers to an increase in the speed of performance (slow, fast, maximum speed of the performance of a motor task), and an increase in the opponent’s involvement (a passive, semi-active, very active and maximally active opponent).

30 - 5

30.3. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning

in sport

The process of learning involves the mastering certain number (n) of motor tasks.

The number depends on the complexity of the given sport.

The mastering of a new task follows only after the athlete has learnt to perform successfully and correctly the previous task.

Performance evaluation is a common element of motor learning.

…n1 2 3

Learning tasks

(information

training)

Control and self-

control of the level

of command of a

motor task

Learning outcome

Correct performance

of motor task

Incorrect

performance of

motor task

(Reasons A, B or C)

Additional training

Additional information

Additional repetitions

Additional

development of skills

Cybernetic model of learning in sport (Stančev, 1981)

30 - 6

Reasons for an incorrect performance of a motor task:

1) Insufficient information on the task.

2) Insufficient number of repetitions.

3) Insufficient level of motor abilities.

Motor mistakes

It refers to the performance of a motor task which significantly deviates from the ideal performance expected from the athlete based on his or her psychological and physical abilities.

Coaches must be aware of the possible reasons for an incorrect performance of a motor task and develop additional training means with a view towards eliminating the identified mistakes.

30 - 7

Classification of motor mistakes with respect to the probability for their

occurrence (modified after Korenberg, 1979)

MOTOR MISTAKES

SPONTANEOUS

SITUATIONAL

SPECIFIC

COMBINATION

OF EXTERNAL

AND INTERNAL

FACTORS

INADEQUATE

PREPARATION

PHYSICAL

PREPAREDNESS

TECHNICAL

PREPAREDNESS

TACTICAL

AND MENTAL

PREPAREDNESS

ATHLETE’S

CONDITION

PHYSICAL

CONDITION

MENTAL

CONDITION

MOTIVATION

SPECIAL

CONDITIONS

SPECIFICITY OF

PARTNER OR

OPPONENT

ENVIRONMENTAL

CONDITIONS

COMPETITION

RULES

Classification of motor mistakes with respect to the cause for their occurrence

(modified after Korenberg, 1979)

MOTOR MISTAKES

MOTOR

INSUFFICIENCY

INFERIOR

PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS

COORDINATION

INSUFFICIENCY

SPECIFICITIES

OF THE BODY

TYPE

SMALL

RANGE OF

MOTOR

PROGRAMMES

MENTAL

INSUFFICIENT

SELF-CONTROL

NEGATIVE

IMPACT

OF EXTERNAL

FACTORS

INSECURITY,

ANXIETY, FEAR

EMOTIONAL

TENSION

AND MENTAL

FATIGUE

UNUSUAL

CONDITIONS

SPECIFICITIES

OF ENVIRONMENTAL

CONDITIONS

SPECIFICITIES OF

PARTNER OR

OPPONENT

SPECIFICITIES OF

COMPETITION

RULES

INABILITY TO

PREPARE FOR

THE PERFORMANCE

INCIDENTAL

SPONTANEOUS

CAUSED BY

EXTERNAL

INCIDENTAL

FACTORS

CAUSED BY A

COMBINATION OF

EXTERNAL AND

INTERNAL FACTORS

NON-STANDARD,

MISCELLANEOUS

INADEQUATE

TEACHING

INADEQUATE

TEACHING

OF TECHNIQUE

METHODOLOGICAL

MISTAKES

INTERFERENCE

AND NEGATIVE

TRANSFER

INADEQUATE

CONTROL OF

MOTOR

REACTIONS

30 - 8

30.4. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and

annual cycles

From an early age children learn how to employ correctly the basic technique and tactics in order to gain a proper idea of the purpose of a sports activity and the types of motor actions

The first goal is the acquisition of the elementary technique and tactics of the chosen sport

Multilateral technical-tactical training(multiple player positions in team sports or a large number of techniques in combat sports) is a good foundation for a later specialisation (a specific player position in team sports or several “favourite” techniques in combat sports) and an increasingly efficient performance of technical-tactical activities in competition conditions.

30 - 9

New model of long-term sports preparation (Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 1991)

Programme of

multilateral and basic

preparation

Programme of specific

and situational

preparation

High demands on the energy processes and development of functional and motor abilities as a result of physical conditioning.

High demands on the systems for receiving, processing, retaining and using motor information as a result of technical-tactical training and development of coordination.

QUESTIONS 1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training 2. Classification and characteristics of training means 3. Examples of training means 4. The effects of training exercise implementation 5. Selection and order of training exercises application 6. Training and competition load 7. Total load and its components 8. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body 9. Classification (characteristics) of training loads 10. Training load management–dosage 11. Classification and description of training methods 12. Exercise methods 13. Teaching and learning methods in sport 14. Organisational training forms 15. Methodological forms of training 16. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning 17. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body 18. Physical preparation types 19. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities 20. Aerobic training methodology 21. Anaerobic training methodology 22. Strength training methodology 23. Speed training methodology 24. Endurance training methodology 25. Flexibility training methodology 26. Coordination training methodology 27. Agility training methodology 28. Methodology of accuracy training 29. Balance training methodology 30. Sports technique 31. Sports tactics 32. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command 33. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills 34. Motor learning phases 35. Teaching methods 36. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning 37. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills 38. Principles of programmed teaching – learning 39. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning in sport 40. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles

31 - 1

Planning and Programming Training Courses

I II III IV VIIVIV XIXVIII XIIXI

Lesson 31:


Define the planning and programming of training courses

Talk about sports preparation periodisation

Describe the determinants of successful planning and programming of training courses

Define and explain the planning and programming types with respect to the duration of a period

Describe the differences among the various planning and programming of training methods (serial, parallel, stochastic, mathematical)

Define and explain the planning and programming phases of training in sports preparation cycles

31 - 2

31.1. Planning of training

The planning of training is a complex control action that determines the goals and the objectives of the training process, the time cycles for their achievement (periodisation) and the necessary technical, material and personnel prerequisites.

Each training plan should be based on the quantitative (measurable) variables that provide an objective determination of its parameters and an evaluation of its effects

Diagnostics at the beginning of the training process, the competition calendar and the expected peak performance levels are the basic sets of data for successful sports preparation planning

31 - 3

31.2. Periodisation

Periodisation is becoming a widely recognized

and scientifically based element of planning

the training of contemporary sports

Periodisation is a procedure to determine the

typical sports preparation cycles

Periodisation simply means the

distribution/division of a longer cycle into

shorter cycles

The coach and the athlete use training periodisation for:

achievement of top results at the "right" moment

achievement of optimum effects in eachsports preparation cycle

It is defined as the time planning of training

and it encompasses the objective changes in the

means and structure of training for each cycle.

31 - 4

Periodisation variations for a sports training annual cycle (Platonov, 1997)

1. Monocycle periodisation

Cycles 1 macrocycle

Periods

Months

Preparatory period (PP)

XI - III

Competitive period (CP)

IV - IX

Transition

period (TP)

X

2. Bi-cycle periodisation

Cycles 1. macrocycle 2. macrocycle

Periods

Months

PP

X – II

CP

III – IV

TP

V

PP

V - VII

CP

VIII - IX

TP

IX - X

3. Tri-cycle periodisation

Cycles 1. macrocycle 2. macrocycle 3. macrocycle

Periods

Months

PP

X,XI,XII

CP

I,II

PP

III,IV

CP

V

PP

VI,VII

CP

VIII

TP

IX

31.3. Programming of training

Programming of training is a complex control action that determines the procedures containing the information on the means, loads and methods of training, and on the recovery and competition.

31 - 5

It refers to the selection, load management and

distribution of training operators. They are

used in all cycles of sports preparation.

They match an athlete's readiness levels and

the conditions for sports preparation

implementation.

For an efficient planning and programming of training several prerequisites need to be met.

1. the amount of scientific and professional knowledge

2. the number of coaches and other professional personnel involved in the training process and their professional qualifications

3. a permanent professional development of coaches through conferences, seminars and other forms of lifelong learning

31 - 6

Determinants of successful planning and programming of sports training

REALISTICALY DEFINED

TRAINING

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

FINANCIAL

OPTIONS

SCIENTIFIC

INFORMATION

SOCIO-CULTURAL

IMPACTS

COMPETITIONS

(CALENDAR

AND CONDITIONS)

TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL

SKILLS OF THE ATHLETES

CHARACTERISTICS AND

ABILITIES OF THE

ATHLETES (PROFILE)

COMPETENCES

OF THE COACHES

TRAINING AND

COMPETITION CONDITIONS

AVAILABE

TRAINING METHODS

ATHLETES' DEMANDS

AND NEEDS

MOTIVATION

TIME FACTORVALUES SYSTEM

OPERATIVE AND

PERIODIC CONTROL

TRAINING EQUIPMENT

AND GEAR

1

2

3

4

5 6

7

8

9

10

11

12

1314

15

16

Basic characteristics of a well-designed sports training plan and programme:

1) Goal/aim orientation - precisely defined goals/aims

2) Internal congruence - the training plan and programme must contain all of the important elements and they must be harmonised

3) Good structural layout - clear and distinct elements

4) Flexibility - the possibility for adjustments during the implementation of the plan

5) Economy – an optimum duration of the process with the engagement of minimum personnel, finances and other resources

31 - 7

If the selection of top athletes has been adequately managed, the efficiency of the

training process will depend on:

1) a precise determination of the initial state of the abilities, characteristics and skills of the athlete or the sports team

2) a precise definition of the desired final state in accordance with the demands of the given sports activity, and a realistic possibility to achieve the optimum effects in the given time using the available resources

3) the continuous modelling and correction of the programme based on the feedback regarding the achieved transitive states. The coach and the athlete must be aware at any given moment "where they are" and which path they must follow to achieve the final goal.

31 - 8

31.4. Types of planning and programming of training

LONG-TERM TRAINING

PLANNING AND

PROGRAMMING (PROSPECTIVE)

SPORTS CAREER

BI-OLYMPIC CYCLE

MID-TERM TRAINING

PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

OLYMPIC CYCLE

BI-ANNUAL CYCLE

SHORT-TERM TRAINING


ANNUAL MACROCYCLE

SEMI-ANNUAL MACROCYCLE

CURRENT TRAINING


MESOCYCLE-PERIOD

MESOCYCLE-PHASE

OPERATIVE TRAINING


MICROCYCLE

TRAINING DAY

TRAINING UNIT

There are several types of plans and programmes of training for periods of various duration.

Sports careers and bi-olympic cycles are managed by long-term or prospective planning and programming while Olympic and bi-annual cycles are managed by mid-termplanning and programming.

31 - 9

Short-term plans and programmes are used for annual and semi-annual macrocycles

For long and short mesocycles (periods and phases) current planning and programming is used while operative planning and programming is used for microstructural training (microcycle, a day of training and a training unit)

31.5. Methods of planning and programming of training

A serial or successive planning and programming method

A parallel or simultaneous planning and programming method

A grid modelling method

A mathematical modelling method (linear, deterministic, stochastic...)

31 - 10

Various methods are used for planning and

programming with the goal of ensuring the

complete development of athletes in different

sports preparation cycles with various

durations. An accidental approach does not

ensure certainty in the implementation of

training and the achievement of the desired

goals.

A serial or successive planning and programming method of training

4.A NEW TRAINING

PLAN AND

PROGRAMME

DEVELOPMENT

3. ANALYSIS

OF THE TOTAL

TRAINING ACTIONS

EMPLOYED

1. TRAINING

PLAN

AND PROGRAMME

2. TRAINING

PLAN AND PROGRAMME

EXECUTION

(REALISATION)

31 - 11

A serial planning and programming method

is based on the analysis of the total training

actions employed in the previous cycle.

Subsequently, the plan and the programme for

the next cycle is developed.

A parallel or simultaneous planning and programming method of training

4.A NEW TRAINING

PLAN AND

PROGRAMME

DEVELOPMENT

2.2. ELABORATION OF

A NEW TRAINING

PLAN AND PROGRAMME

DEVELOPMENT

3. ANALYSIS

OF THE TOTAL

TRAINING ACTIONS

EMPLOYED

1. TRAINING

PLAN AND

PROGRAMME

2.1. TRAINING

PLAN AND PROGRAMME

EXECUTION

(REALISATION)

31 - 12

A parallel planning and programming method of training is based on two sets of data:

an analysis of the total training actions employed in the previous cycle,

elaborated elements of a new plan and programme during its realisation.

This information is used in making the necessary corrections in the next microcycle, mesocycle or annual training cycle. This minimizes any contingencies.

The stochastic method of training modelling

The training process is mostly stochastic because it is conducted in time sequences where control actions transform the established state of the athlete into one of the states from the set of potentially possible states.

For this reason, the training process demands a continuous optimisation of the athlete's state and programmed training activities as well as the equalization of the achieved and the desired effects.

This implies the use of objective and reliable metric systems and mathematical methods of a linear, non-linear and dynamic modelling of the transformation processes.

31 - 13

31.6. A plan and programme modelling of training is conducted on five levels

1. level: annual cycle modelling

2. level: modelling of periods and phases

3. level: microcycle modelling

4. level: modelling of days of training

5. level: modelling of units of training

The sum parameters (budget) of a longer cycle are distributed to shorter training

cycles

Modelling of the plan and programme for an annual training cycle (first level)

SUMP

Months 12 XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Periods 3 Preparatory period (PP) Competitive period (CP) Tr.p.

Phases 6 Multilateral preparation

Basic preparation

Specific-situational

1. comp. phase

r.p. phas

e

2. comp. phase

Number of weeks 52 4 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 4 4

Number of training sessions 524 40 50 50 48 48 48 50 40 50 40 40 20

TRAINING DURATION 998 60 100 110 110 100 96 80 70 100 70 72 30

Multilateral and basic physical preparation programmes

224 20 34 36 30 24 18 10 10 20 8 6 8

Specific and situational physical preparation programmes

258 15 20 25 30 36 36 20 16 30 12 12 6

Technical-tactical preparation programmes

396 20 40 42 47 32 32 35 28 44 34 36 6

Theoretical preparation 40 5 6 3 3 4 2 3 0 2 0 2 10

Number of competitions 20 0 0 1 0 2 2 3 4 1 4 3 0

Number of performances 40 0 0 2 0 2 4 6 8 2 8 8 0

Effects control (excluded from the schedule)

10x 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Training unit duration 1.9 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.7 2.0 1.7 1.8 1.5

Number of training sessions per week

10.01 10 10 10 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 5

(SUMP=sum of annual cycle activity data)

31 - 14

Modelling of a training plan and programme in a mesocycle (second level)

Weeks SUMP I II III IV

Number of training sessions 48 12 12 12 12

TRAINING DURATION 100 26 24 26 24


24 8 4 6 6

Action and body regions strength factors 10 4 2 2 2

Action speed factors 6 - 2 2 2

General endurance 8 4 - 2 2


36 6 12 10 8

Explosive and speed power 20 4 6 6 4

Specific speed and agility 6 - 2 2 2

Specific endurance 10 2 4 2 2

Technical-tactical preparation programmes 32 8 8 8 8

Theoretical preparation 4 2 - - 2

Number of competitions 2 1 - 1 -

Number of performances (x2 hours) 2 1 - 1 -

Effects control (excluded from the schedule) 1 - - 1 -

(SUMP=sum of monthly cycle activity data; weeks I, II, III and IV)

Weeks SUMP MO TU WE TH FR SA SU

Number of training sessions 12 2 2 2 1 2 2 1

TRAINING DURATION 26 4 4 4 4 4 4 2

General and basic physical preparation programmes

6 1 ˝ ˝ 2 ˝ - - 1 ˝

Action and body regions strength factors

2 1 - 1 - - - -

Action speed factors 2 - - 1 - ˝ - ˝

General endurance 2 ˝ ˝ ˝ - ˝ - -


10 2 2 1 1 ˝ 2 1 ˝

Explosive and speed power 6 2 1 1 - 1 1 -

Specific speed and agility 2 - - - ˝ 1 - ˝

Specific endurance 2 - 1 - 1 - - -

Specific coordination and technique programmes

8 ˝ 1 ˝ 1 2 2 1 -

Theoretical preparation 0 - - - - - - -

Number of competitions 1 - - - - - 1 -

Number of performances (x2 hours) 1 - - - - - 1(2) -


1 - - - - - 1 -

Modelling of a training plan and programme in a microcycle (third level)

(SUMP=sum of weekly cycle activity data)

31 - 15

Day Time Location Goals Means Load(V) Load(I)

Tuesday

Morning

9-11

Hall

Gym

Motor abilities development (EP, SE)

Weight training exercises

Jumping exercises

Circuit training

120 4

Evening

17-19

Hall

Outdoor field

Technique improvement (TE)

Development of functional abilities (GE)

Imitation exercises

Situational technique training

Continuous aerobic training

120 4-5

Modelling of a training plan and programme for a day of training

(fourth level)

EP - explosive power, SE - specific endurance, TE - technique,

GE - general endurance

MICROCYCLE

No. 3

TRAINING

No. 3

MAIN TRAINING GOAL:

Basic body strength development

Date: 05/02/1993

Time: 9.30 – 11.05

Duration: 95 Organisational forms: frontal

Load intensity: 80 Training modes: interval

Number of players: 14 Training equipment: mats,

stopwatch

Number of coaches: 2 Location: Sports hall

Note:

Training parts: Training programme

5 min. Dribbling running - random, no shooting

10 min. Stretching

5 min. Track and field (running - race walk)

5 min. Basic toning - 10 push-ups, 10 squats, 10 sit-ups, 10 back extensions

60 min.

GLOBAL ACTIVATION OF THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM

TRAINING OPERATORS:

Set A

15 close push-ups (elbow inside)

-20 simultaneous leg and trunk lifts (while lying on the back) - no rest

-20 sit-ups

-15 one-leg jumps (right and left)

A plan and programme for a unit of training for basic strength in basketball (fifth level)

31 - 16

Rest 60"

Set B

- 15 wide push-ups

- 20 alternating leg lifts (right and left) and trunk lifts while lying on the back

-20 alternating lifts of the right arm and the left leg and the left arm and the

right leg while lying on the belly - no rest

Rest 90"

Set C

-20 wide push-up holds

-30" of high frequency sit-ups, opposite elbow

touches the opposite knee

-30" holds while lying on the belly with lifted trunk and legs

-20 squats

-Rest 120"

This sequence is repeated 4 x with 3' rests

10 min. Stretching and relaxation exercises

32 - 1

Long-Term Planning and Programming:

multi-annual cycle of training

Lesson 32:1.67

1.80

1.93

1.95

1.96

2.01

2.03

1.95

2.03

2.07 2.082.06

SP(juniori)

SP(juniori)

EP(do 23 god.)

SP(dv.)

SP(dv.)

SP

SP(dv.)

OI

SK

SP

SKup

SP(dv.)

2.05

2.03

SP


Talk about long-term sports preparation periodisation

Define a multi-annual cycle of training and its stages Model a long-term sports preparation process and

design a prospective plan of training Describe the distribution of sports preparation

programmes at all stages of a sports career List and explain the load sum parameters for

different age groups Define and explain the physical, technical-tactical

and theoretical preparation proportions for different age groups

32 - 2

It refers to the total duration of a sports career and the bi-Olympic cycle

Sports careers of some athletes last up to 30 years, e.g. from the age of 8 until the age of 38.

32.1. Long-term sports preparation periodisation

Long-term sports preparation periodisation (Bompa, 2001)

Training periodisation

Multilateral development

age 6 – 14

Specialised development

age 15 and older

Initiationage 6 – 10

Athletic formationage 11 – 14

Specialisationage 15 – 18

High performanceage 19 and older

Pre-puberty PubertyPost-puberty and

adolescenceMaturity

32 - 3

Long-term sports preparation periodisation (modified after Matvejev, 1999)

Preliminary

preparation

Beginning

of sports

specialisation

Narrowed

sports

specialisation

and actualisation

Record

achievements;

Life time peak

performance

Maintenance

of the level

of sports

results

Maintenance

of sports

readiness

Basic preparation

Maximum development

of an athlete's

individual capacities

Extended

sports career

I. STAGE II. STAGE III. STAGE

Universal

sports school

Athletic

development

monitoring

Sports

discipline

selectionForced

physical

conditioning

training

Completion

of the basic

technical-

tactical

preparation

Final

development of

physical

preparedness

Final

technical-

tactical

specialisation

and

automation

Technical-

tactical and

physical

conditioning

maintenance

training

The long-term cycle, after Matvejev (1999),

comprises three basic stages with sub-stages:

1. The basic preparation stage

preliminary preparation

beginning of sports specialisationPreliminary

preparation

Beginning

of sports

specialisation

Basic preparation

I. STAGE

Universal

sports school

Athletic

development

monitoring

Sports

discipline

selection

32 - 4

2. The stage of the maximum development of an athlete's individual capacities

narrowed sports specialisation, actualisation preparation

realisation of the best individual achievements (personal records)

Narrowed

sports

Specialisation

and actualisation

Record

achievements.

Lifetime peak

performance

Maximum development

of the athlete's

individual capacities

II. STAGE

Forced

physical

conditioning

training

Completion

of the basic

technical-

tactical

preparation

Development

of physical

preparedness

Technical-

tactical

subspecialisat

ion and

automation

3. Extended sports

career stage

maintenance of the sports achievement level

maintenance of sports readiness

Maintenance

of the level

of sports

results

Maintenance

of sports

readiness

Extended

sports career

III. STAGE

Technical-

tactical and

physical

conditioning

maintenance

training

32 - 5

The stages of the long-term plan do not havestrictly fixed boundaries

They depend on the athlete's talent, the characteristics of his or her physical and motor development, readiness, the years of training and the specificities of the sports specialisation

32.2. Long-term sports preparation modelling

(modified after Havliček, 1981 and Viru, 1995)

A) It is based on the information or data on:

historical development of sports results to date

sports results structure (hierarchical structure of success)

age dynamics and capacities for the development of the dimensions and sports achievements

technological procedures - training methodology in the past, present and future

32 - 6

B) A multi-annual sports career planning procedure includes:

prognosis of sports results development in the chosen sports discipline in the future

prognosis of the top athlete model -target situations (dimensions and model characteristics)

Prognosis of the resulting state matrix of "our" athlete - the final state prognosis

prognosis of the developmental states of "our" athlete in each stage of sports preparation

Top results of Blanka Vlašić (born 08/11/1983)

from 1997 until 2011

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

1.61

1.67

1.80

1.931.95

1.96

2.012.03

1.95

2.03

2.07 2.082.06

SP(juniori)

SP(juniori)

EP(do 23 god.)

SP(dv.)

SP(dv.)

SP

SP(dv.)

OI

SK

SP

SKup

2010 2011

SP(dv.)

2.052.03

SP

32 - 7

the morphological characteristics and motor preparedness match the model level of the top high jump female athletes

biomechanical analyses demonstrate a tendency towards the optimum performance technique

it is realistic to expect that this athlete will see further progress in her high jump results.

Various methods for an objective analysis of the achieved results and prognosis of the results that are expected in the future are used

Predicted results values are used in the selection and monitoring of potential Olympic candidates

Prognosis of the development of sports results

32 - 8

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

700

720

740

760

780

800

820

840

year

result (cm)

The long jump results prognosis (Milanović, 2003, after Vazny model, 1978)

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

athlete's age

Athletes of various ages and various initial results in the long jump have almost the equal chances of reaching the predicted level of olympic results in the Olympic cycle. This will qualify them for the upcoming Olympics.

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

700

720

740

760

780

800

820

840

godine

rezultat (cm)

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

dob sportaša

32 - 9

In the years included in prospective planning four important problems are to be solved:

Which changes or improvements of abilities, characteristics and skills should be made?

What is the best moment or period to make any changes or improvements?

What is the total time needed to initiate and make those changes?

How can one model training programmes for the development and maintenance of the changes made in the components of the athlete's readiness?

Long-term training plan for tennis players (modified after Müller, 1999)

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

8

30%

7

30% 5

30%

1

10%

5

25%1

30%

3

20%

6

15%

3

25%

4

25%2

10%

1

40%

1

50%

4

15%

3

25%2

10%

9

25%

2

10%1

65%

1. Tournaments

2. Psycho-regulatory techniques

3. General and specific physical

preparation

4. Specific technique and tactics

5. Specific technique

6. Basic tactical skills

7. Simple tennis games

8. Coordination abilities

9. Training and recovery

years

Pre

pare

dn

ess l

evel

32 - 10

Distribution of technical and physical preparation factors in a multi-annual training cycle for

decathlon athletes (Kunz et al., 1990)

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26Age of the athlete

Flexibility

Anaerobic endurance

Maximum strength

Speed

Explosive power

Aerobic endurance

Coordination abilities

Track and field disciplines technique

TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL PREPARATION FACTORS PROPORTIONS IN A MULTI-ANNUAL TRAINING CYCLE

TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL PREPARATION FACTORS

32.3. Long-term sports preparation planning and

programming

A determination of the functional sequence of the goals and objectives for each stage of a sports career. Global and partial training goals for each age group need to be determined.

A determination of sports preparation programmes proportions and approximate load curves in the training of children, young athletes and adults.

It is necessary to take into account the sensitive phases of sports-motor development.

32 - 11

An example of a training plan for young athletes in team sports (Sozanski, 1984), shows a continuous progression of the number of training days, training units, hours of training and competitions as well as the continuous changes in the programmes' proportionsthrough the stages of long-term sports preparation.

Training focus and

parameters

Age groups

A B C D E

10-12

years

12-14

years

14-16

years

16-18

years

18-20

years

1 Training days 150-200 250 280 300 320

2 Rest days 165 115 85 65 45

3 Training units 150-200 250-300 350-400 450-500 550-600

4 Training hours 300-400 500-600 700-800 900-1000 1100-1200

5 Number of competitions 30 40 50 60 70

6 Multilateral and basic

preparation (hours)

150

(100+50)

200

(100+100)

200

(100+100)

250

(100+150)

250

(100+150)

7 Specific and situational

preparation (hours)

50

(50+0)

100

(75+25)

150

(75+75)

250

(100+150)

350

(150+200)

8 Technical and tactical

preparation (hours)

200

(150+50)

300

(150+150)

450

(200+250)

500

(200+300)

600

(250+350)

9 Theoretical preparation

(excluded from the schedule)

10 20 30 40 50

10. Diagnostics (tests) 2x 4x 6x 8x 10x

Sum of load data in the process of sports preparation of each age group (Milanović, 1997, modified after Sozanski, 1984)

32 - 12

Numerical training load data for children aged 10 to 12 (150-200 training units, 300-400 training hours and 30 competitions) significantly differ from the training model for the young athletes aged 16 to 18 (300 training units, 450-600 training hours and 60 competitions).

In relation to the total amount of training, multilateral and basic sports preparation programmes decrease while specific and situational preparation programmes, especially the technical-tactical training programme, constantly increase.

32.3.1. Universal sports school (Martin, 1982)

5) Adaptation to rough forms of the basic technique and motor tasks of the future sports specialisation

4) Accumulation of movement experience from various sports activities

3) Motor learning - games, elementary forms of movement

2) Development of some coordination abilities (sensitive phases)

1) Development of all coordination abilities

Partial goals:

-6

-7

-8

-9

-10

Multilateral (complete) psychosomatic development

First global goal of the sports trainin

32 - 13

“Sensitive phases for the development of physical abilities. (Martin, 1982 after Grosser et al., 1986)

”Each dimension can be best developed at a certain period"

Ability Age and sensitive phases

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Motor learning

Speed reaction to an

audiovisual signal

Space orientation

Rhythm

Balance

Endurance

Strength

Speed

Flexibility

6) Initial demands for the competition results at regular sports events

5) Mastering of exercises for specific training, development of specific abilities and dynamic basics of technique and tactics

4) Further development of functional and motor abilities

3) Multi-discipline training (gymnastics, track and field), technical-tactical training for several player positions (team sports)

2) Further detailed motor learning in the chosen sports discipline

1) Basic sports specialisation technique and tactics learning - multilateral TE-TA training

Partial goals:

-11

-12

-13

-14

Initiation of specialised sports-motor development and sports specialisation

Second global goal of the sports training -10

32.3.2. Elementary sports school (Martin, 1982)

32 - 14

Third global goal of the sports training

Narrowed specific training and sports specialisation

-15

-16

-17

-18

-19

Partial goals: 1) Stabilisation of the sports technique and tactics at the highest level

2) Consequential development of primary and specific motor abilities

3) Forced increase of training load

4) Forced increase in the number of regular competitions and demands for high competition results

32.3.3. Specialised sports school (Martin, 1982)

Fourth global goal of the sports training

Final sports specialisation and tendency towards the highest sports results

-20

-21

-22

-23

and more

Integrative effects of sports preparation

Formation of stereotypes in technical-tactical command

Improvement through competitions

Accomplishment of high-quality, record achievements

32.3.4. Final sports specialisation(transfer from the junior to the adult age group)

(Martin, 1982)

Partial goals:

33 - 1

Mid-Term Planning and Programming (Olympic cycle)

Lesson 33:


Describe the Olympic Games as the largest multi-sport competition

Discuss the Olympic Games results of the competing countries

Define the Olympic cycle and basic training characteristics for each year

Explain the organisational aspects of the Olympic cycle planning

Describe the differential load characteristics of the Olympic cycle

33 - 2

To compete at the Olympics is the long-term goal of all top athletes and often the crown of their careers

Medals won at the big world and European competitions are indicators of athletes' success but a medal won at the Olympics is valued as the most significant sports achievement.

Despite the large number of international competitions, in the long-term periodisation the Olympics have a special place

33.1. The significance of the Olympic Games

Rankings of the countries by medals won at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta

Rank Country Gold Silver Bronze Total

1 USA 44 32 25 101

2 Russia 26 21 16 63

3 Germany 20 18 27 65

4 China 16 22 12 50

5 France 15 7 15 37

6 Italy 13 10 12 35

7 Australia 9 9 23 41

8 Cuba 9 8 8 25

9 Ukraine 9 2 12 23

10 South Korea 7 15 5 27

33 - 3

Rank Country Gold Silver Bronze Total

11 Hungary 7 4 10 21

12 Poland 7 5 5 17

13 Spain 5 6 6 17

14 Romania 4 7 9 20

15 Netherlands 4 5 10 19

16 Czech Republic 4 3 4 11

17 Greece 4 4 0 8

18 Switzerland 4 3 0 7

19 Denmark 4 1 1 6

20 Turkey 4 1 1 6

45 Croatia 1 1 0 2

At the last four summer Olympics Croatia won a total of 17 medals (Barcelona 1S+2B, Atlanta 1G+1S,

Sydney 1G+1B, Athens 1G+2S+2B and Beijing 2S+3B)

33.2. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning

For the Olympic Games,

the Mediterranean Games and

world championships,

for individual athletes

and sports teams

Main objectives

of each training year

Mass

selection of

candidates for

the national

team

Development

of a comparative

model for top

athletes

Final

selection

of the listed

candidates

Preparations

for the main

competition

33 - 4

Characteristics of the mid-term training plan and programme in the Olympic cycle are:

In the first year the extended multilateral

and basic preparation programme is

conducted. The training goal is to improve basic

athletes' functional and motor preparedness and

automation of the new, more rational technical

and tactical skills.

33 - 5

In the second year the shock integrative training programme is conducted. The training goal is to integrate physical and technical-tactical preparedness until the level of maximum efficiency is achieved. This year high goals are often set for competing at e.g. the world championship.

In the third year the training structure and the competition system predicted for the Olympic year dominates. In this part of the Olympic cycle the training and competition’s model for the Olympic year are tested.

In the fourth year the tested model that ensures the highest level of sports results at the Olympic competition, with any possible corrections, is realised.

In the Olympic cycle we can see an

undulating curve of sports results’

development and maintenance in accordance with the periodisation and the phase dynamics of the development of readiness and peak performance in each annual cycle.

33 - 6

1 2 3

Results

(peak

performance)

Sports results dynamics in each year of the Olympic cycle

(as the Olympic year approaches there is less room for the oscillation of results)

Olympic cycle years

4

Basic competitions Ranks for medals Testing results - WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS

AND OLYMPICS

I II III Kg WMax VO2max

1 1986 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500 84.7 380 61.39

2 1987 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

86.5 410 54.91

3 1988 – OLYMPIC

GAMES

S1 1000 90.8 430 63.33

4 1989 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

S4 500 88.7 390 58.06

5 1990 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500 86.4 390 63.08

S4 500

S4 1000

6 1991 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500 86.0 400 61.05

S1 1000

S4 1000

7 1992 – OLYMPIC

GAMES

S1 500

S2 1000

89.3 370 69.43

8 1993 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500 90.4 370 58.63

9 1994 – WORLD

CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 200 S1 1000 93.5 380 60.96

S1 500

I-III ranks in 12 years 5 4 6 C’ / S C’ / S C’ / S

Testing results - WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AND OLYMPICS 89.2 / 3.19 390 / 18.10 62.04 / 3.9

Results of all tests in 12 years (64) 89.7 / 2.70 395 / 33.41 59.95 / 4.4

Sports results and test results for a top kayaker during the Olympic cycle (Željaskov, 2004)

33 - 7

In the multi-annual cycle there is a continuous progression of the relative total load.

Each next macrocycle has a higher load than the previous macrocycle - in the preparatory, competitive and transition periods.

Each year starts with a higher load.

The highest load level increases in each subsequent year

This is particularly important for young athletes’ preparation programmes.

34 - 1

Short-Term Planning andProgramming (annual and

semi-annual cycles)

Lesson 34:


Define an annual and the semi-annual macrocycle

Define and explain the monocycle and bi-cycle periodisation of an annual training cycle.

Describe a model of an annual cycle plan and programme of training (the first level)

Discuss the short-term planning and programming steps (algorithm)

Describe an example of an annual cycle plan and programme of training with all its elements

Describe a preparatory, competitive and transition period

Explain the importance of additional individual training in anannual cycle

34 - 2

An annual training cycle is planned and programmed in one or more training macrocycles.

Each macrocycle contains three basic periods:

preparatory,

competitive and

transition.

34.1. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle

Modelling of an annual training cycle plan and programme (the first level)

SUMP

Months 12 XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Periods 3 Preparatory period (PP) Competitive period (CP) Tr.p.

Phases 6 Multilateral preparation

Basic preparation


1. comp. phase

r.p. phas

e

2. comp. phase

Number of weeks 52 4 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 4 4

Number of training sessions 524 40 50 50 48 48 48 50 40 50 40 40 20

TRAINING DURATION 998 60 100 110 110 100 96 80 70 100 70 72 30


224 20 34 36 30 24 18 10 10 20 8 6 8


258 15 20 25 30 36 36 20 16 30 12 12 6

Technical-tactical preparation programmes

396 20 40 42 47 32 32 35 28 44 34 36 6

Theoretical preparation 40 5 6 3 3 4 2 3 0 2 0 2 10

Number of competitions 20 0 0 1 0 2 2 3 4 1 4 3 0

Number of performances (x2 hours) 40 (80) 0 0 2 0 2 4 6 8 2 8 8 0


10x 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Training unit duration 1.9 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.7 2.0 1.7 1.8 1.5

Number of training sessions per week

10.01 10 10 10 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 5

(SUMP=sum of annual cycle activity data)

34 - 3

The internal structure of anannual cycle is determined by the number of competition seasons.

One competitive period (A) requires a monocycleperiodisation.

If the competitions extend throughout the year (winter-summer-autumn), the annual cycle should be structured in three macrocycles, the so-called tri-cycle periodisation (C).

XI XII I II III IV V VIVII VIII IX X

TP

70%

Competitive period (CP)PP

Recovery - preparatory mesocycle

Development and maintenance curves of annual cycle peak performance with two peaks

(monocycle periodisation)

100%

34 - 4

Rational planning and programming of the annual and semi-annual macrocycle is possible if the objective peak performance dynamics patterns are acknowledged.

The peak performance entrance phase corresponds to the preparatory period, stabilisation and the highest level phase correspond to the competitive period and the temporary loss phase to the transitionalperiod.

Peak performance dynamics in the monocycle periodisation of anannual cycle with anextended competitive period (1 – preparatory period, 2 – competitive period, 3- transitional period)

34 - 5

34.2. Algorithm of short-term planning and programming in an

annual training cycle

1. Define the global and the partial goals (ideal states - achievements) of an annual training cycle: competition results and desired rankings; Acknowledge the previous competition results and achievements.

2. Conduct the diagnostics of an athlete's initial state (measurements, tests, subjective assessment: characteristics of the individual or the team). Diagnostics requires a selection of the dimensions that need to be measured and testsor measuring instruments for their assessment.

Example: test results of topfemale handball players (initial state assessment)

Side steps

Sargent1 Sargent2 Standing long jump

30 m, standing

start

Bench press

Sit-ups „Suicide„ shuttle run

"Beep" test (10

levels)

V.C. 843 42 45 210 4.88 45 31 43.48 86.52

R.D. 882 50 50 235 4.58 55 30 42.56 86.19

A.F. 818 53 59 232 4.85 55 29 43.13 84.66

A.H. 855 42 51 220 4.81 45 32 44.84 88.73

B.J. 861 48 50 219 5.37 45 30 47.79 103.13

N.K. 862 45 54 220 4.71 62.5 31 46.32 88.46

I.M. 857 43 44 225 5.18 40 30 47.94 94.68

V.M. 844 50 56 215 4.59 45 30 45.22 92.71

B.P. 798 46 51 220 4.88 55 28 43.28 80.52

S.P. 873 49 56 225 4.98 55 31 44.62 90.33

J.P. 922 37 39 202 5.16 40 30 47.5 100.43

M.R. 885 39 47 210 5.10 45 27 46.33 92.04

T.Š. 882 45 49 225 5.09 50 29 44.52 92.03

M.T. 836 46 47 4.98 45 32 43.65 85.40

LJ.V. 849 46 58 213 4.87 45 31 46.84 94.35

34 - 6

3. Determine the realistic goals for an annual training cycle based on the diagnostics of the initial state (define the dynamics for the achievement of the expected transitive states of preparedness and readiness and dynamics for the sports results achievement)

After the collected data have been processed, aglobal assessment of the individual or the team preparedness is carried out and followed by adefinition of the partial goals and objectives in accordance with the observed deficits and shortcomings of the readiness components.

4. Define the annual training cycle periodisation (competition calendar, peak performance dynamics, typical sports preparation cycles)

First macrocycle

Preparatoryperiod

Competitiveperiod

Transitionperiod

20/06/2001 -28.07.2001.

29/07/2001 – 10.12.2001.11/12/2001 -09.01.2002.

Annual cycle periodisation for a top Croatian football team (bi-cycle periodisation)

34 - 7

Second macrocycle

Preparatoryperiod

Competitiveperiod

Transitionperiod

10/01/2002 –23.02.2002.

24/02/2002 – 03.05.2002.14/05/2002 –

15.06.2002.

In Croatian football, bi-cyclic periodisation of an annual cycle is used (two preparatory periods for two competition seasons)

This is due to the geographical and climaticconditions and a relatively low standard of facilities, which are inadequate for the winter competition season

Cyclic structure and parameters of an annual

training cycle (Milanović, 1993)

Preparation period

(XI - ½ IV)

22 weeks

548training &

competition

hours

Stage of versatile-

basic preparation

10weeks×26h=260hours

Stage of special-

situational preparation


XI XII ½ I ½ I II III ½ IV

Competition

period

( ½ IV - IX) 24 wks

½ IV V VI VII VIII IX 456training &

competition

hours

Precompetition stage

(introductary preparation comp.)


Competition stage

(official competitions)


Transition period

(IX-X)

6 weeks

END IX X END X

48training hours

Closing stage

4weeks×10h=40hours

Active rest

2weeks×4h=8hours

Mesocycle:

3 periodsMesocycle:

6 stages

Microcycle:

52 weeks

1052 hours of training &

competition

34 - 8

5. Define the available resources -sports preparation prerequisites (staff, facilities, equipment, financial means, annual training cycle costs)

6. Make a Model of some sports preparation programmesa. Define the sets of practicable

activities or sports preparation means

b. Define the practicable loadparameters (number of training days, number of training sessions, number of training and competition hours)

c. Define the practicable training methods

d. Select locations and choose thetraining equipment

7. Define the proportions – the relations of the sports preparation programme means and methods (for the achievement of the desired goals), it is necessary to develop physical abilities (%), technique (%) and tactics (%) by means of multilateral (%), basic (%), specific (%), and situational (%) preparation.

34 - 9

Proportions of the sports preparation programmes in each month of an annual

training cycle

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Physicalconditioning

Technicaltraining

Tactical training

Individualtraining

Proportions in the bi-cycle periodisation of anannual training cycle for top basketball players

(Željaskov, 2004)

First cycle Second cycle

Preparatory period Competitive period Preparatory period Competitive period

GP SPP Competitions GP SPP 1st comp.

phaseMain

competitions

60

30

2030 20

1010

30

40

30

40

40

30

20

50

10

30 3040

6070

0

60

90

30

20

40

70

80

50

10

100%


preparationBasic preparation General preparation

34 - 10

Proportions of different types of physical conditioning programmes in an annual cycle

(modified after Jukić, 2002)

Periods Preparatory period (PP)Competitiveperiod (CP)

PhasesMultilateral preparation

phase

Basic preparation

phase

Specificpreparation

phase

Situational preparation

phase

Preventivephysicalconditioningprogrammes

40 % 25 % 20 % 10 % 20 %

Developmentalphysicalconditioningprogrammes

50 % 60 % 50 % 45% 25 %

Maintenancephysicalconditioningprogrammes

5% 10 % 20 % 35 % 40 %

Recoveryphysicalconditioningprogrammes

5 % 5 % 10 % 10 % 15 %

8. Define the distribution - training and the competition load distribution in different stages of an annual sports preparation cycle Determine the approximate curve of the total load and its components.

34 - 11

Range and distribution of specific and non-specific training loads in the annual cycle for female athletes competing in discus throw

(Rachmanlijev and Harnes, 1990)

Training means Months Total

(annual

cycle)XI I II V VI VIII

Throwing exercise

(no.)

2310 1750 1830 1180 890 1100 18 700

Weight training

exercises (t)

169 325 284 94 78 102 1918

Jumping exercises

(no.)

2960 1350 1290 980 920 720 16 510

Running exercises

(km)

8,2 8,0 6,8 3,6 4,6 3,5 76,5

Complementary

sports (hours)

39 13,15 14 11,3 8 9 203

MAIN

COMPETITION

1 5

PREPARATORY PERIOD (PP) COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)TRANSITION

PERIOD

I II III IV VIIVIV XIXVIIIXIIXI

TOTAL LOAD

LOAD VOLUME

LOAD INTENSITY

LOAD COORDINATION

COMPLEXITY

MENTAL TENSION

INTRODUCTORY

PREPARATION PHASE

BASIC PREPARATION

PHASE

INTRODUCTORY

COMPETITIONS PHASE

BASIC COMPETITIONS

PHASE

Approximate load curves in an annual cycle

2 3 4

1

2MULTILATERAL

PREPARATION PHASE

3

SPECIFIC

PREPARATION PHASE4

5 6

6

34 - 12

9. Define the general programme for the training and competitions as well as the recovery means in a preparatory period

10. Define the general programme for the training and competitions as well as the recovery means in a competitive period

11. Define the general programme for the training and competitions as well as the recovery means in a transition period

12. Define the schedule for the control of the sports preparation effects (dimensions, tests, state assessment criteria)

The plan and the elements of an annual training cycle programme

(Željaskov, 1998)

Total training activity data for an annualtraining cycle is provided: the number of training days, competition days and rest days, the numberof training units and training hours

Periodisation is always the starting point for the development of an annual training cycle plan and programme

The competition calendar defines the duration and the structure of the competitive period

Periodisation refers to the distribution/division of each period to several stages or phases.

34 - 13

The duration of the preparatory period in an annual cycle is 6 months and it comprises four phases:

multilateral,

basic,

specific and

situational or pre-competitive preparation

The duration of each phase is one and a half months

The duration of the competitive period is five and a half months and it comprises three phases: first competitive phase (two months), recovery -preparatory phase (one month) and second competitive phase (two and a half months)

The duration of the transition period at the end of an annual cycle is two weeks

34 - 14

Load curve is defined by the volume component of the training (the number of training hours)

Coefficients between 2.0 and 3.5 in the seventh row represent an average training day load duration in each training mesocycle (month)

We can see that there were 46 training units in the second mesocycle and 38 training units in the third mesocycle with a total number of hours 114and 94, respectively.

This annual training cycle plan is adequate for several sports, including rowing and track and field (especially technical disciplines)

In one year, there were 270 training days, 15competition days and 80 rest days.

The total number of training units (421) and the total number of training hours (941) meet the high training amount criteria in an annual cycle

34 - 15

The second part shows the distribution of sports preparation types in an annual training programme.

The basic motor preparationdominates in the first part of the preparatory period, while the specific motor preparation reaches its maximum later on.

The information (technical-tactical) preparation has the largest proportion by the end of the preparatory period and in the competitive period.

In the recovery-preparatory phase the proportion of the basic and specific preparation rises

In the transition period, basic exercises are more dominant than specific physical and technical preparation exercises.

The fact that 634 hours out of the total number of training hours (941) were spent on various types of physical conditioning indicates the forced functional and motor preparation in this cycle.

35 - 1

Current Planning and Programming:

(mesocycles: periods and phases)

Lesson 35:


Define the periods and phases of the preparatory period Discuss training process modelling in the preparatory

period Define load dynamics in the preparatory period Define and explain the sum of training data for the

preparatory period Discuss training process modelling in a competitive

period Explain the training rules in the immediate preparation

phase for a main competition Discuss the training process modelling in a transition

period Define and explain all the phases in each period of an

annual cycle

35 - 2

Periods and phases planning and programming is a crucial part of the training process because it ensures an efficient control of the cumulative training effects

Periods are integral parts of a macrocycle and they comprise several phases

35.1. Periods and phases characteristics

The specificities of the training means and loads in different periods and phases need to be taken into account when constructing mesocycles

Determining the dynamics of the total loadand its components is very important

35 - 3

Modelling of a training plan and programme in a mesocycle (second level)

Weeks SUMP I II III IV

Number of training sessions 48 12 12 12 12

TRAINING DURATION 100 26 24 26 24


24 8 4 6 6

Action and body regions strength factors 10 4 2 2 2

Action speed factors 6 - 2 2 2

General endurance 8 4 - 2 2


36 6 12 10 8

Explosive and speed power 20 4 6 6 4

Specific speed and agility 6 - 2 2 2

Specific endurance 10 2 4 2 2

Technical-tactical preparation programmes 32 8 8 8 8

Theoretical preparation 4 2 - - 2

Number of competitions 2 1 - 1 -

Number of performances (x2 hours) 2 1 - 1 -


1 - - 1 -

(SUMP=sum of monthly cycle activity data; weeks I, II, III i IV)

Build-up preparation programmes that will ensure the achievement of a peak performance are utilised in the preparatory period.

Preparatory periods have a different duration in different sports. In some sports the duration is 6-8 weeks (football, tennis), while in others it can last up to 6 months (rowing, track and field)

35.2. Preparatory period (PP)

35 - 4

Training effects can occur simultaneously with the load dynamics in the second phase of the same period or they can be delayed.

%

1 2 3 4 5

10

20

30

months

%

1 2 3 4 5

80

100

120

140

months

Beginning of the competitive period

Delayed transformation effects (Vjerhošanski, 1979)

This discrepancy (delayed transformation effects) can ensure a high and stable level of sports results in the competitive period.

2 4 6 8

A

Peak performance

weeks 2 4 6 8

B

Peak performance

weeks

2 4 6 8

C

Peak performance

weeks

Peak performance development curves during the preparatory period (Bondarčuk, after Tschiene, 1985)

(Diagrams B and C show the delayed transformation phenomenon)

35 - 5

A: Verstile preparation phase

B: Basic preparation phase

C: Specific preparation phase

D: Pre-competitive phase

Load volume dynamics in the preparatory period ( Platonov, 1984)

A B C D

PREPARATORY

PERIOD

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

MAIN COMPETITIVE

SEASONACTIVE

REST

training hours

duration

As the competitive season approaches, training sessions become shorter, more intense and more specific.

Load volume in the preparatory period continuously and gradually decreases. This controlled volume reduction does not go below the level that ensures an adequate amount of training.

35 - 6

The training duration and the structure in each phase depend on the duration of the preparatory period, the observed states of an athlete and the preparation implementation conditions.

The preparatory period can comprise two to five phases. They are defined by the dominant type of the sports preparation.

35.2.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the preparatory period phases

1. PHASE - foundation building (general preparation phase) - 2 weeks

a. General description: Improvement of all physical and mental factors. Fewer situational elements of the sports discipline

b. High volume - lower intensity (60-80%):a high number of repetitions in all tasks, of longer duration and a higher frequency of the stimuli during training

c. Long-distance running for cardio-respiratory efficiency. General physical preparation. Fitness programmes.

d. If necessary (initial state), the proportion of technical-tactical preparation can be increased. Correction of mistakes and stabilisation of motor skills

35 - 7

2. PHASE - build-up (basic preparation phase) - 3 weeks

a. Improvement of all factors relevant to the actual sports activity. Moderate participation in the actual sports activity (competition and situational training). Training models for all athletes. Build-up programmes take into account the individual characteristics of the athletes.

b. High total load: intensity is between 80% and 100% of the maximum with medium number of repetitions. Prevent overtraining.

c. Special focus on the development of the dominant physical abilities. Focus on the weak spots.

d. Basic physical preparation. Short-distance running. Speed power and agility, reaction speed. 12-minutes running and interval sprints. Training on strength exercise machines. Injury prevention.

3. PHASE - stabilisation (situational preparation phase) -3 weeks

a. Training specifically targeting the factors that affect sports results. High frequency of participation in the actual sports activity and at competitions / a lot of time reserved for the sports specialisation. Situational training

b. Less volume - high intensity, a fewer number of repetitions; abandoning additional exercises. Training sessions frequency in the microcycle can be reduced.

c. The total load is 75-90% of the maximum. Technical-tactical training utilises maximum intensity.

d. A regular distribution of training and rest. Injury prevention.

35 - 8

A plan and one part of a programme for the preparatory period (Milanović, 1985)

PREPARATORY PERIODTOTAL

MESOCYCLE 1 2 3 4 5

Mesocycle type Introductory Multilateral Basic SpecificPre-

competitive

Mesocycle duration 25/07-02/08 03/08-13/08 14/08-26/08 27/08-06/09 07/09-18/09 25/07-18/09

Energy and information training ratio

50 / 50 60 / 40 70 / 30 40 / 60 30 / 70

Number of days in the mesocycle

9 11 13 11 12 56

Number of training and competition days

8 9 12 9 10 48

Number of training sessions

12 18 26 16 10 82

Number of matches 2 1 2 3 7 15

Number of training and competition hours

18 36 56 30 32 172

Number of rest days 1 2 1 2 2 8

Number of energy and information training hours

9+9 22+14 40+16 12+18 10+22 93+79

Training day load volume 2.25 4.00 4.66 3.33 3.20 3.48

Training day load intensity 70 75 80 85 90 80

Test date 03/08 05/09

The training process sum of data in this preparatory period shows that out of 56 days, there were 48 training and competition days. Also, there were 82 training units and 15 control-preparatory matches with a total duration of 172 hours.

The training effects were controlled twice.

35 - 9

35.3. Competitive period

Peak performance and the highest sports results occur in the competitive period at official competitions.

Depending on the sport, the duration of the competitive period varies from several months to several weeks.

One annual cycle can comprise several competition seasons (multi-cycle periodisation)

Competitive period periodisation with training programmes distribution dynamics

(Matvejev, 1999)

SPECIFIC-SITUATIONAL PREPARATION DYNAMICS

MULTILATERAL-BASIC PREPARATION DYNAMICS

COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)

INT

RO

DU

CT

OR

Y

CO

MP

ET

ITIO

NS

PH

AS

E

FIR

ST

CO

MP

ET

ITIV

E

PH

AS

E

RE

CO

VE

RY

-

PR

EP

AR

AT

OR

Y

PH

AS

E

SE

CO

ND

CO

MP

ET

ITIV

E

PH

AS

E

IMM

ED

IAT

E

PR

EP

AR

AT

ION

MA

IN C

OM

PE

TIT

ION

S

PO

ST

-CO

MP

ET

ITIV

E P

HA

SE

COMPETITIONS

35 - 10

A rational distribution of multilateral-basic and specific-situational preparation programmes in accordance with the dynamics of important competitions

Planning of a short recovery-preparatory phase in the middle of the competitive period, and

Programming a rational training and load structure in the phase of immediate preparation for the main competition of the season

SPECIFIC-SITUATIONAL PREPARATION DYNAMICS

MULTILATERAL-BASIC PREPARATION DYNAMICS

COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)

INT

RO

DU

CT

OR

Y

CO

MP

ET

ITIO

NS

PH

AS

E

FIR

ST

CO

MP

ET

ITIV

E

PH

AS

E

RE

CO

VE

RY

-

PR

EP

AR

AT

OR

Y

PH

AS

E

SE

CO

ND

CO

MP

ET

ITIV

E

PH

AS

E

IMM

ED

IAT

E

PR

EP

AR

AT

ION

MA

INC

OM

PE

TIT

ION

S

PO

ST

-CO

MP

ET

ITIV

E

PH

AS

E

COMPETITIONS

Construction of a competitive period requires three actions:

Seasonal maintenance of a peak performance - the competition season

a. The training is specific and situational. It refers to exercise selection and load management.

b. Less total load. Intensity 80%(90%)-100% of the maximum load. A high number of repetitions for all TE-TA exercises. Control the duration of rest periods between work intervals.

c. Peaking using exercises for agility, explosiveness and speed, and technical-tactical training. The intensity and the proportion of situational training increase.

d. Goal: maintain good physical preparedness achieved in the earlier phases. Preparedness - maintaining physical conditioning training. Injury prevention.

35.3.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases

35 - 11

LO

AD

(%

)

PE

ND

UL

UM

AM

PL

ITU

DE

100

90

80

WEEKS

Specific load

General load (non-specific)

Active rest

PCC I PCC II PCC III CC

"Pendulum" principle in the phase of the immediate preparation for a main competition

(Arosjev after Tschiene, 1985) As a main competition approaches, the total and non-specific load decreases,

while the proportion of the specific and situational training increases

PCC I, II, III –

pre-competitive microcycles

CC - competitive microcycle

35.4. Transition period

In the transition period peak performance is temporarily lost. The number of days of training and training units significantly decrease, as well as the load level

The transition period has a longer duration in some sports, but its duration never exceeds several weeks.

There are two phases in the transition period: the final phase and the active rest phase.

35 - 12

35.4.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases

A temporary loss of a peak performance and the recovery of the working potentials for the following cycle

a. At the end of the season the training activity decreases.There is active rest for a few weeks.

b. Classic training tasks are performed in the first phase, while complementary sports and recreational activities are utilised in the second phase.

c. After that, new objectives are set and a new cycle begins.

d. This period should enable the employment of a load level that is higher than the level that was utilised at the beginning of the previous preparatory period.

36 - 1

Operative Planning and Programming (microcycle)

Lesson 36:


Describe planning and programming of training in a microcycle

Classify microcycles

Describe modelling of training in microcycles

Describe an example of training or competition microcycle

36 - 2

36.1. Planning and programmingtraining in a microcycle

Microcycles are basic cycle structures of asports preparation process.

Each microcycle is a relatively closed unit that is repeated with major or minor corrections, which depend on the periodisation and the achieved effects.

They provide a successful control of delayed training effects.

Modelling of a plan and programme of training in a microcycle (third level)

Weeks SUMP MO TU WE TH FR SA SU

Number of training sessions 12 2 2 2 1 2 2 1

TRAINING DURATION 26 4 4 4 4 4 4 2

General and basic physical preparation programmes

6 1 ˝ ˝ 2 ˝ - - 1 ˝

Action and body regions strength factors

2 1 - 1 - - - -

Action speed factors 2 - - 1 - ˝ - ˝

General endurance 2 ˝ ˝ ˝ - ˝ - -


10 2 2 1 1 ˝ 2 1 ˝

Explosive and speed power 6 2 1 1 - 1 1 -

Specific speed and agility 2 - - - ˝ 1 - ˝

Specific endurance 2 - 1 - 1 - - -

Specific coordination and technique programmes

8 ˝ 1 ˝ 1 2 2 1 -

Theoretical preparation 0 - - - - - - -

Number of competitions 1 - - - - - 1 -

Number of performances (x2 hours) 1 - - - - - 1(2) -


1 - - - - - 1 -

(SUMP=sum of weekly cycle activity data)

36 - 3

Different sports disciplines utilize microcycles of various structures and durations.

It is necessary to define precisely: the number of days of training, training units and training hours as well as the means of training, the loads and methods in each day and at each training session.

The character of a microcycle depends on the age of an athlete.

The load dynamics and the means distribution in the microcycle of training for young athletes significantly differ from the microcycle oftraining programmes for adult top athletes.

36 - 4

Microcycles of training comprise only days of training, while competitive microcycles comprise one or more competitions.

36.2. Microcycle classification

If the main goal of the microcycle is the training of a technique, it can be called a "technique microcycle". If the main goal is strength development, this microcycle is called a "strength microcycle".

36 - 5

When considering training and competition load levels and distribution, the following types of microcycles can be distinguished:

- ordinary - normal

- shock

- relaxation

Ordinary - normal microcycle

It is characterised by the classic distribution of training sessions with a higher or lower load. Training sessions with medium and submaximum loads prevail. Its focus is readiness maintenance.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

36 - 6

Shock microcycle

It is characterised by a large number of days of training and training units with high and maximum loads. The proportion of these training sessions is more than 50%.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Recoverymicrocycle

It comprises a large number of training days and training units with low or moderate loads.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Recreational microcycle

It comprises fewer training days and training units with complementary sports.

36 - 7

The sequence of training loads and unloading periods (rest) is defined in microcycles.

There are various types of training distribution (1:1,2:1,3:1,1:2,2:2 etc.).

Intervals of higher or lower training loads correspond to the stimulation or relaxation stages of a microcycle.

Microcycle modelling of training

Each microcycle comprises:

1) A stimulation phase(the training load is usedto obtain a certain level of fatigue or exhaustion)

2) A relaxation phase(a decrease in the training load resultsin the recovery or regeneration ofenergy and other potentials, on whichan athlete's readiness for the nexttraining session depends)

36 - 8

Structure of one microcycle in the second phase of a preparatory period

(Grosser et al., 1986)

I

II

III

IV

MO

1T

SpP

SpS

TU

2T

SSP

SPE

WE

1T

AeE

acR

TH

1T

SCC

Te

SpS

FR

2T

SpP

SpS

SPE

SA

2T

SCC

SP

SE

SU

1T

acR

SpP – specific power, SpS – specific speed, SP – speed power, SPE – specific

endurance, AeE – aerobic endurance, acR – active rest, SCC – speed coordination,

S - speed, Te – technique, SE – speed endurance

Lo

ad

le

ve

l

total load

load intensity

load volume

Each training session induces certain fatigue reactions, which are neutralised in the recovery phase when compensation and supercompensation begin to occur

When developing a microcycle plan, it is necessary to determine its duration, the number of days of training and rest days, and the number of training and competition hours. This enables the calculation of the training work stress in one microcycle.

36 - 9

MO

1T

TU

2T

WE

2T

TH

2T

FR

1T

SA

C

SU

1T

Structure of a microcycle in a competitive period (Grosser et al., 1986)

T Training

C Competition

Lo

ad

level

I

II

III

IVtotal load

load intensity

load volume

PC

(B)

TTCC

AR

PC

(S)

TUE WED THU FRI SAT SUNMON

2 2 1 2 1 1+11

IT

TT

TT T

COMP

Lo

ad

AR – active rest, FMP (B) functional motor preparation (basic), FMP (S) functional motor

preparation (specific), TT– technical-tactical training, CC – control competition, TO – toning

load, COMP - competition

Example of a competition microcycle

AR

36 - 10

Operative training programme in themicrocycle of a top football team

(Milanović, 1997)DAY T TRAINING

GOALS

LOCATION TRAINING MEANS LOAD

VOL/INT

22/01

MON

MORNING

Strength, Fitness, Technique

Fitness centre,

outdoors

Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics, elementary and advanced techniques

90 min. 4

high

Afternoon

Complex training

Outdoors -jogging

-- basic ball exercises

60 min. 3

Medium

23/01

TUE

MORNING

Aerobic, General strength

Technique

Outdoors - Continuous running 20-30 min.

-exercises for global activation of the locomotor system - pair exercises

- elementary technique

90 min. 3

Medium

Afternoon

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors - offense organisation and tactics training 120 min. 4

Submaximum

24/01

WED

MORNING

Strength, Fitness

Technique

Fitness centre,

outdoors

Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics, elementary and advanced technique

90 min. 4

Medium

Afternoon

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors - offense organisation and tactics training 120 (135) min.

4

Submaximum

25/01

THU

MORNING

REST

Afternoon

Speed, Agility,

Explosiveness,

Strength, TE-TA

Outdoors - general speed exercises - direction changes

- jumping ability - clean and jerk exercises

- TE-TA preparation exercises

75-90 min.

4

Submaximum

26/01

FRI

MORNING

Aerobic, General strength

Technique

- continuous running, 30-40 min., variable pace

- general strength exercises

- specific technique preparation exercises

90 min. 3

Medium

Afternoon

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors - technical tactical training

- football game phases mastering

120 (150) min.

4

Submaximum

27/01

SAT

MORNING

Technique,

Tactics

Outdoors Offense and defense segments detailed learning 120 min. 4

Submaximum

Afternoon

Strength, Fitness

Flexibility, Technique

Fitness centre,

outdoors

Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics, complex technique exercises

90 min. 4

Submaximum

28/01

SUN

MORNING

REST

Afternoon

Aerobic,

Swimming

Relaxation

- active rest

- jogging, 45 min.

- pool stretching, relaxation exercises

60 min. 2

low

DAY T TRAINING GOALS

LOCATION TRAINING MEANS LOAD

VOL/INT

38 - 1

Modelling of Physical Preparation

Lesson 38:


Define training, physical conditioning, diagnostics andprogramming

Explain specificities of the competition activity in team sports

Describe factorial structure of readiness

Make an example of model characteristics of top athletes

Explain diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics

Compare individual and model preparedness characteristics

Describe methodology of physical preparation

Explain physical preparation plan and programmemodelling in an annual training cycle

38 - 2

Physical conditioning should be understood as a long-term physical exercise process in which loads and rest, and stress and adaptation to load constantly alternate. This will lead to a high-quality physical preparedness and, what is very important, high and stable sports results.

Physical conditioning programmes are a result of long-standing experience of coaches and their assistants in many sports as well as the applied research in sports training.

Introduction

A training programme which is well-planned and programmed for physical conditioning demonstrates the following values:

it produces optimal sports preparedness and the desired sports results

it ensures an improvement in psycho-physical abilities

it decreases the number and the severity of athletes' injuries

it ensures delayed fatigue reactions

it accelerates the recovery process after training and competition

the time and the effort invested in physical preparation provide multiple benefits for the athletes - during a competition they are able to utilise all of their biological, mental and technical-tactical potentials.

38 - 3

Definitions:

Training is a regulated system of all transformation operators that are defined by the: applicable motor activities total load measures, and modes of implementation,which are systematically used with the goal/aim of achieving explicitly defined goals in the sports preparation cycles.

Programming of trainingis a set of control actions that are used for

selection,

load management, and

distribution

of training operators during training, and a means of recovery during a rest period.

Training operators are the stimuli that produce the transformation effects or quantitative and qualitative changes in the sports preparation cycles.

38 - 4

Readiness diagnostics is an objective procedure for determining the level of abilities, characteristics and motor skills of an athlete and for detecting his/her "strengths" and the "weaknesses" of preparedness.

Model characteristics the results of top athletes when tested for abilities, characteristics and motor skills, and in the situational efficiency variables.

Physical preparation is a complex and comprehensive process of the application of several programmes for the development and maintenance of the functional and motor abilities, as well as the morphological characteristics.The main objective of all programmes is to improve readiness and sports results by increasing the general, basic and specific abilities, and characteristics that are necessary for a successful participation in training and competition activities.

38 - 5

Modelling - physical preparation planning and programming

Many authors (Gabrijelić, 1980, Bangsbo, 1994, Platonov, 1997, Milanović, 1997, Műller, 1999, Željaskov, 1998, Issurin, 2008 and others) define the PHYSICAL preparationprocess using a systematic approach and closed-loop modelling

Closed-loop modelling of the physical preparation process

1. Specificities of the competition activity in a chosen sport

3. Model characteristics of top athletes

4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics

5. Comparison of individual and model characteristics

7. Training planning: goals, objectives, periodisation and conditions

8. Training programming: selections of means, loads and methods

9. Training employment

10. Training effects control

2. Factorial structure of success in a sports discipline

6. Physical and technical-tactical preparation methodology

38 - 6

38.1. Specificities of the competition activity in team

sports

Heart rate during a football match (a) and the correlation between the HR and the VO2 while running on the treadmill for one player (b). With HR mean between 171 and 164 b/min in the first and the second half VO2 is between 51.1 ml/mol/kg (78% VO2max) and 46.2 ml/mol/kg (72% VO2max)(Bangsbo, 1994)

VO2max = 65.3 ml/min/kg

38 - 7

Distance covered by top football players during a match is between 8 and 12 km

Of the total time spent on the football field players:

stand 12% of the time

walk 32% of the time

run slowly 38% of the time

run fast 16% of the time

sprint 2% of the time (around 120 s)

Amount of active time (ball in the game) - 60 minutes

Distance run by the players in a handball match (Bon et al., 2002)

4790

2230

2560

0 2000 4000 6000

cijela utakmica

drugopoluvrijeme

prvo poluvrijeme

This data refers to the new handball rules which include the fast centre.

First half

Second half

Match

38 - 8

The various movement pace of players in the active part of a handball match

(Bon et al., 2002)

37%

31%

25%

7%

walk (to 1.5m/s)

jog (1.5-3.0m/s)

fast run (3.5-5.2m/s)

sprint (faster than 5.2m/s)

Proportion of energy processes in different sports (modified after Željaskov, 1998)

SPORTEnergy process

AEROBIC

ml//kg/min VO2

ANAEROBIC-ALACTATE

ml/kg/min VO2 debt

ANAEROBIC-LACTATE

% of lactates concentration

toleration

CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING 79 38 140

CYCLING 78 35 160

LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING 76 40 150

SPEED SKATING 72 51 195

SWIMMING 71 49 205

MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING 70 48 290

RACEWALKING 69 34 180

ROWING 66 48 205

ICE HOCKEY 65 54 240

WATER POLO 64 50 230

FOOTBALL 63 48 210

BASKETBALL 62 55 215SHORT-DISTANCE RUNNING 61 59 220

WRESTLING 60 56 200

SKIING 59 48 185

FIGURE SKATING 55 52 215

VOLLEYBALL 54 49 180

ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS 45 38 150

38 - 9

38.2. Factorial structure of readiness

Mean data for the maximum oxygen uptake in various sports (Bangsbo, 1994)

mlO2/min/kg

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

women men

football

handball

middle-distance running

untrained individuals

38 - 10

40 30 20 10Parallel

processor efficiency

Input processor efficiency

Serial processor efficiency

Cognitive dimensions interaction

40 30 20 10Controlled aggression

MotivationMicro-social adaptability

Cognitive dimensions interaction

40 30 20 10Speed -

explosive power

Coordination-agility

Aerobic and anaerobic capacities Accuracy

General hypothetical model of success in team sports (%)

PERSONALITY30

BODY TYPE

20

COGNITION10

PHYSICAL PREPAREDNESS

40

30 20 10Body dimensions

index

VoluminosityTransversal dimension

Longitudinal dimension

40

Coordination15%

Flexibility10%

Speed25%

Endurance30%

Strength20%

Influence of motor abilities on performance in football

ESF = f (a1E + a2S + a3P + a4CC + a5F)

ESF = (30%E + 25%S + 20%P + 15%CC + 10%F)

38 - 11

38.3. Model characteristics of top athletes

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES MODEL DATA

1. Body height 178.0

2. Body weight 74.0

3. 30 m run with flying start 3.30

4. 10x30 m run, rest 15'' 40.0

5. Standing vertical jump 65.0

6. Vertical jump with an approach run 75.0

7. Pull-ups 10.0

8. Deep squat 111.0 kg (150% of body mass)

9. Zigzag run without the ball 8.60

10. Zigzag run with the ball 10.10

11. Oxygen uptake - VO2 ml/kg/min 68.00



Preparedness model characteristics of top football players

38 - 12

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES MODEL DATA


2. Body weight 90.0

3. Biacromial span 44.30

4. Arm span 195.0

5. Hand span 25.2

6. Ball throwing, 800 g 32.59

7. Standing long jump 262.42 (280)

8. Standing double leg vertical jump 59.42

9. Standing single leg vertical jump 65.71 (70)

10. Lateral movement 7.57

11. Double triangle movement 6.6

12. Sit-ups 29.17 (35)

13. Bench-press 88.13 (95)

14. Multi-stage shuttle run test 30.78

15. 30 m run with standing start 4.82 (4.50)

Preparedness model characteristics of top handball players (Croatian national team)

Test data for basic and specific physical preparedness of cadet (C), junior (J), and senior

(S) basketball players

A.M.C S.D.C A.M.J S.D.J A.M.S S.D.S

SAR cm 70.02 7.57 74.08 6.55 77.01 6.77

TRO cm 754.60 40.80 764.42 53.44 814.70 59.10

BLG cm 1513.30 135.10 1560.70 119.52 1720.80 466.60

CAT rep. 27.87 2.53 32.06 2.27 32.15 2.79

VS20 s 3.23 1.83 3.06 0.18 3.00 0.16

DO30 rep. 22.73 0.15 24.42 2.53 25.62 1.85

S4×5 s 5.26 0.50 5.34 0.51 4.79 0.41

OSMS s 9.09 0.44 8.93 0.63 8.80 0.51

KUS s 7.69 0.35 6.82 0.32 6.63 0.92

SMB s 29.46 1.52 27.56 1.54 26.69 1.28

TRB rep. 29.60 2.44 31.23 3.91 36.77 4.21

A.M. - arithmetic mean, S.D. - standard deviation

38 - 13

38.4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics


TEST DATA OF AN ATHLETE X


2. Body weight 72.0

3. 30 m run with a flying start 3.48

4. 10x30 m run, rest 15'' 43.2

5. Standing vertical jump 56.7

6. Vertical jump with an approach run 62.6

7. Pull-ups 7.0


9. Zigzag run without the ball 8.80

10. Zigzag run with the ball 10.71

11. Oxygen uptake - VO2 ml/kg/min 62.78



Test data of an athlete X in anthropological variables of football players

38 - 14


BACKCOURT PLAYER X DATA

PIVOT PLAYER Y DATA

1. Body height 192.8 184.5

2. Body weight 89.0 83.6

3. Biacromial span 43.0 44.5

4. Arm span 200.0 183.5

5. Hand span 25.4 24

6. Ball throwing, 800 g 38.07 32.53

7. Standing long jump 259.67 269.33

8. Standing double leg vertical jump 62.33 68.33

9. Standing single leg vertical jump 62.33 73

10. Lateral movement 7.22 6.35

11. Double triangle movement 6.17 5.82

12. Sit-ups 26.33 36.33

13. Bench-press 85 85

14. Multi-stage shuttle run test 30.45 29.05

15. 30 m run with a standing start 4.85 4.51

Test data of handball players X and Y in the physical preparedness variables

38.5. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics

38 - 15


MODEL DATA TEST DATA OF AN

ATHLETE X

1. Body height 178.0 176.3

2. Body weight 74.0 72.0

3. 30 m run with flying start

3.30 3.48

4. 10x30 m run, rest 15''

40.0 43.2

5. Standing vertical jump

65.0 56.7

6. Vertical jump with the approach run

75.0 62.6

7. Pull-ups 10.0 7.0


96.4 kg (134% of body mass)

9. Zigzag run without the ball

8.60 8.80

10. Zigzag run with the ball

10.10 10.71

11. Oxygen uptake -VO2 ml/kg/min

68.00 62.78

12. Cognitive test 1 6.00 4.40

13. Cognitive test 2 70% (+) 45% (+)

Model characteristics and test data of an athlete X in anthropological variables of football players

1 4 6 8 10 12

20

30

40

50

60

70

2 13119753

Points

Characteristics and

abilities


MODEL DATA

BACKCOURT

PLAYER X DATA

PIVOT PLAYER Y DATA

1. Body height 192.0 192.8 184.5

2. Body weight 90.0 89.0 83.6

3. Biacromialspan

44.30 43.0 44.5

4. Arm span 195.0 200.0 183.5

5. Hand span 25.2 25.4 24

6. Ball throwing, 800 g

32.59 38.07 32.53

7. Standing long jump

262.42 259.67 269.33

8. Standing double leg vertical jump

59.42 62.33 68.33

9. Standing single leg vertical jump

65.71 62.33 73

9. Lateral movement

7.57 7.22 6.35

11. Double triangle movement

6.6 6.17 5.82

10. Sit-ups 29.17 26.33 36.33

11. Bench-press 88.13 85 85

12. Multi-stage shuttle run test

30.78 30.45 29.05

13. 30 m run with standing start

4.82 4.85 4.51

Test data of handball players X and Y in physical preparedness tests

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

IGRAČ X IGRAČ Y

38 - 16

Results of top Croatian basketball players in tests for the assessment of basic and

specific motor abilities

Measuring instruments - tests Desired result

P.1. P.2.

1. Vertical jump (jumping type of explosive power) 82 cm 82 cm 64 cm

2. Standing triple jump (jumping type of explosive power) 8.50 m 8.60 m 7.80 m

3. Forward - backward run (speed endurance) 25.5 s 25.3 s 27.04 s

4. Chest ball throw (throwing type of explosive power) 18 m 18.5 m 16.30 m

5. 20 m sprint with standing start (speed power) 2.85 s 2.86 s 3.03 s

6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity) 65 ml/kg 70 ml/kg 74 ml/kg

7. Sit-ups (abdominal muscles strength) 40 42 36

Shooting guards

Physical preparedness profile of a top basketball player (T.1.)

0 = average results of the group of top basketball players (0 to 1 = model data)

Z-values

TestsSAR1TROJ OSMB 4*5B 20VS TRB

AEC

-3

-2

-1

3


0

1

2

38 - 17

38.6. Methodology of physical preparation

Verstile (multilateral) physical preparation

Verstile or multilateral physical preparation refers to the process of a harmonious multilateral development of functional and motor abilities

It leads to the improvement of functional and motor abilities, which can not be directly applied, but which contribute to the later development of basic and specific abilities

38 - 18

Selected general physical

preparation exercises



38 - 19



Fundamental or basic physical preparation

It utilises exercise, loads and methods (operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results in a given sports discipline.

After Gabrijelić (1987), it refers to the further improvement of functional abilities of various organs and organ systems, the improvement of neuromuscular coordination, dimensions of strength, speed, endurance and flexibility, and the improvement of recovery efficiency

38 - 20

Selected basic physical


Specific physical preparation

It ensures the energy adaptation to specific requirements of a sport utilizing a set of exercises similar to movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique.

In a certain way, it integrates physical and technical-tactical training

38 - 21

Selected exercises for specific

physical preparation of football players

Training variables for the development of start speed, maximum speed and speed endurance

(Pyke, 2001)

Maximum speed

Start speed, acceleration

Speed endurance

Intensity 95-105% 100% 85-95%

Distance 10-20m 5-30m 20-30m / 120-300m

Recovery between repetitions

Full (3min+) Full (3min+) 30-90s / 5-8 min

Start Flying Standing or slow walking

start

/

Basic abilities Speed/ Speed strength

Explosive power

Speed/ Anaerobic capacity -

phosphagen


2 2-3 2-3

38 - 22

Training load management for the development of muscular endurance

No. TRAINING PARAMETRES SYMBOL TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS

1 External load – weight EL 40-60% 1 RM

2 Number of repetitions NR 20 - 10 repetitions

3 Number of sets NS3 - 4 sets with each weight

10 - 20 sets total

4 Rest interval RI

1 - 2 minutes between sets

2 - 3 minutes between weights

3 - 4 minutes between exercises

5 Rest activities AR Stretching and relaxation exercises

6 Performance pace PP Medium


8 Exercises per training session NE 2 - 6 exercises

9 Training frequency (per week) TF 2 - 3 × week

10 Super-compensation period SP 48 hours

Training programme for the development of maximum strength

No. Training load parameters Symbol Training characteristics


2 Number of repetitions NR 5-1 repetitions

3 Number of sets NS 6-12 sets

4 Rest interval RI 4-6 minutes between sets


6 Performance pace PP Fast


8 Exercises per training NE 2-4 exercises

9 Training frequency (per week) TF 1-2 per week

10 Super-compensation period SP 60-72 hours

38 - 23

Training programme for the development of the strength for child athletes

No. Training load parameters Symbol Training characteristics


2 Number of repetitions NR 20 -30 repetitions

3 Number of sets NS 4-6 sets

4 Rest interval RI 30-60 seconds between sets


6 Performance pace PP Moderately fast

7 Means (exercises) ME General physical preparation exercises

8 Exercises per training NE 8-12 exercises

9 Training frequency (per week) TF 3 per week

10 Super-compensation period SP 48 hours

Load management in different types of training programmes for strength using different training methods

Training load parameters

Methods

Intensity

(%)

Number

of rep.Rest

Number

of setsPace Main training effects

Maximum interval training

method (A)85-100 5-1 2-3 min

3-5

5-8 *

Powerful and

explosive

Dynamic, maximum and

explosive strength

Maximum interval training

method (B)70-85 6-4 2-4 min 3-5 Explosive

Maximum strength - muscle

hypertrophy

Intensive interval training

method (A)60-70 8-6 3-5 min 4-6

Fast and

explosiveSpeed power

Intensive interval training

method (B)50-60 10-8 60-90 s 3-5**

Very fast -

standard or

variable

Maximum and speed-

strength endurance

Extensive interval training

method (A)40-50 15-10 30-60 s 4-6

Fast - standard

or variableRepetitive power

Extensive interval training

method (B)30-40 20-15 30-60 s 6-10

Moderate -

standard or

variable

Muscle endurance

331211

331100

63295

93390

153585

R×SSR%

*

23620

244670

324860

4041050

6041540

8042030

R×SSR%

**

38 - 24

Energy mechanisms operative zones in sports activities (Winckler & Gambetta, 1987)

ZONESPORTS

ACTIVITIY

DURATION

LOAD

INTENSITY

SPORTS

ACTIVITY

ENERGY

SOURCES

DOMINANT ENERGY

PROCESSES %

ANAEROBIC AEROBIC

1 1-15 smaximum

(95-100%)

ATP

CP95-100 05-00

2 15-60 sSub-maximum

(85-95%)

ATP

CP

+G

80-90 20-10

3 1-6 minhigh

(75-85%)

G+

aerobic

CH

70-40 30-60

4 6-30 minmedium

(60-75%)

aerobic

CH+FA40-10 60-90

5 > 30 minlow

(30-60%)

aerobic

CH+FA05 95

ATP – adenosine triphosphate, CP – creatine phosphate: phosphagen anaerobic process,

G – glycolytic anaerobic process, CH – carbohydrates, FA – fatty acids

Load management in a training task: the 100 m run

Time/

intensity

%

100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60

11.0 11.2 12.2 12.9 13.7 14.7 15.7 16.9 18.3

11.5 12.1 12.8 13.5 14.4 15.3 16.4 17.7 19.2

12.0 12.6 13.3 14.1 15.0 16.0 17.1 18.5 20.0

12.5 13.1 13.9 14.7 15.6 16.7 17.8 19.2 20.8

13.0 13.7 14.4 15.3 16.2 17.3 18.6 20.0 21.7

13.5 14.2 15.0 15.9 16.9 18.0 19.3 20.8 22.5

14.0 14.7 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.7 20.0 21.5 23.3

14.5 15.3 16.1 17.0 18.1 19.3 20.7 22.3 24.2

15.0 15.8 16.7 17.6 18.7 20.0 21.4 23.1 25.0

38 - 25

Load management in the training of a jumping type of explosive power

• Exercise: drop jumps

• Location: a sports hall

• Training equipment: Swedish box (5), mat

• Training methods:– Interval training

– Eccentric-concentric muscle contraction

– Individual training

– Station method

• Load management:– Swedish box height can be set at 70 cm

– (result for the jumping ability in the Sargent test)

– Distance between Swedish boxes: 100 cm

– Number of repetitions: 1 X 5

– Number of sets: 10

– Rest between sets: 2-3 min

– Pace (performance speed): fast

– Rest activity: stretching and relaxation exercises

– Super-compensation period: 72 hours

– Frequency per week: 2x

Biological factors and risks in the motor abilities training at a young age

(Keul, 1982 according to Milanović, 1997)

Ability Duration Limiting system Risk of

injury

Sport example Possibility for

development

or "sensitivity"

STRENGTH < 5 min Muscle contraction mechanism Bone-cartilage

tissue

Weight lifting, throwing

disciplines0

SPEED < 15 s Phosphagen (alactate) energy

process

Muscles Tennis, 60-100 m run +

SPEED

ENDURANCE< 1 min Phosphagen (alactate) +

glycolytic (lactate) energy

process > 90%

Catabolic

(catecholamine)

and vegetative

system

300 m running and

combat sports0

SHORT-TERM

ENDURANCE1-5 min 50-70% aerobic; 50-30%

anaerobic energy process

600 m run and 400 m

swim+

MEDIUM-TERM

ENDURANCE5-30

min

80-90% aerobic; 20-10%

anaerobic energy process

Tendon system 1500 m run, 800 m i 1500

m swim++

LONG-TERM

ENDURANCE> 30

min

95% aerobic; 0.5% anaerobic

energy process

- Cross country skiing and

long-distance running++

COORDINATION - Neuromuscular synchronisation Joints and

tendon system

Team sports, gymnastics,

track and field++

BALANCE - Balance centre - Figure skating and

gymnastics++

ACCURACY - Oculomotor coordination - Team sports, shooting ++

FLEXIBILITY - Ligaments and tendons elasticity Joints and

muscles

Volleyball, rhythmic

gymnastics and karate ++

38 - 26

FACTORS FOR FLEXIBILITY DEVELOPMENT IN SPORTS (Grosser, 1983)

FACTORS FAVORABLE - POSITIVE NON-FAVORABLE - NEGATIVE

Age Child athletes (up to 14 years of age) Adult athletes

Elasticity of muscles,

muscle fascias and

ligaments

Good elasticity and intermuscular

coordination of agonists and

antagonists

Poor elasticity and intermuscular

coordination of agonists and antagonists

Muscle tension Relaxed muscles Increased muscle tension

Emotional, mental

tensionSlight Strong and persisting

Anatomic-

biomechanical factorsOptimal activation of leverages and

degrees of freedom

Insufficient utilization of natural

relationships of leverages and joint

surfaces

Time in the training day 11 a.m. - 12 p.m. until 4 p.m. Morning hours

Outdoor temperature Above 18° C Below 18° C

‘warm-up’ Full and extended Partial and short

Fatigue – exhaustion Restfulness of locomotor system Intense fatigue of locomotor system

Training duration Up to 1 hour of training More than 1 hour of training or strong

“hard” training

38.7. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in

an annual training cycle

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Physicalconditioning

Technical

training

Tactical training

Indivudualadditionaltraining

38 - 27

Training programmes proportions in the preparatory and competitive period according

to 59 German football coaches

28,4

15,315,2

19,6

21,1

Physical conditioning without ball

Technical training

Tactical training

Complex training

Match

16,2

21,3

20,1

21

21,3

Preparatory period training programmes (%)

Competitive period training programmes (%)

Training focus in the phases of the preparatory period of an annual cycle for sprinters (G. Winkler, 1991)

General preparation

phase

Special preparation

phase

Pre-competitive phase

Very important Very important Very important

• General endurance

• Extensive running endurance

• Aerobic capacity

• Aerobic power

• General strength

• Flexibility

• Coordination

• Endurance at a slow speed

• Specific endurance

• Anaerobic capacity

• Speed

• Glycolytic endurance

• Specific and general strength

• Lactates tolerance

• Technique

• Tactics

• Situational physical preparation.

• Technique

• Speed

• Specific endurance

• Speed endurance

• Tactics

• Team synchronisation

• Situational physical preparation

• Peak performance stabilisation

Less important Less important Less important

• Technique

• Speed

• Anaerobic capacity

• Tactics

• General endurance

• Aerobic power

• Aerobic capacity

• Flexibility

• General and specific strength

• Flexibility

• Aerobic power

38 - 28

Transition period

2. Competitive period

Inter-period

1. Competitive periodPreparatory period (PP)

Periods

Peak performance

loss

2. Peak performancePeak performance decline

1. Peak performancePerformance build-up

Performance

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

VI VII VIII IX X XI XII I II III IV V

60

70

80

90

100

Months

Mesocycles

Peak performance

Volume

Intensity

First

round

Training programmes distribution in an annual cycle for basketball players

Periods of an annual

cycle

Preparatory

periodCompetitive period

Preparatory

periodTransition

period

Multilateral-basic

motor preparation1

Special-situational

motor preparation2

Technical preparation3

Shooting practice

(shooting at

the basket)4

Tactical preparation5

Preparatory matches,

control matches,

championship

and cup matches

6

Theoretical preparation7

Control of the

training effects8

Active rest9

VIII IX X XI XII I II III IV V VI VIIMonths

38 - 29

Annual cycle periodisation for a Croatian top football team (bi-cycle periodisation)

1.

Preparatoryperiod

Competitiveperiod

Transitionperiod

20/06/2001 – 28/07/2001 29/07/2001 – 10/12/2001 11/12/2001 - 09/01/2002.

2.

Preparatoryperiod

Competitiveperiod

Transitionperiod

10/01/2002 – 23/02/2002 24/02/2002 – 03/05/2002 14/05/2002 – 15/06/2002

First cycle

Preparatory period (PP)1.1.

1st preparatory period phase

2nd preparatory period phase

3rd preparatory period phase

20/06 – 30/06 2001 01/07 -14/07 2001 15/07 – 28/07 2001

multilateral-basic preparation

build-up / basic-specific preparation

maintenance / specific-situational preparation

1.2 Competitive period: 29/07 – 10/12/2001 In the competitive period (autumn season) there were:

18 championship matches

3 cup matches

(17 wins/3 draws/1 loss)

1.3 Transition period: 11/12/2001 – 09/01/2002

38 - 30

Training plan and programme for a top basketball team in the preparatory period

Training plan elements Preparatory period (PP) Comp.

periodTotal

Mesocycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 6

Mesocycle type Introduct-

ory

Multilate-

ral-basic

Basic Special-

situation-

al

Pre-

competi-

tive

Competi-

tive

Mesocycle duration 25/7-2/8 3/8/-13/8 14/8-26/8 27/8-6/9 7/9-18/9 19/9-

12/10

25/7-

12/10

Energy and information training

ratio

50 / 50 60 / 40 70 / 30 40 / 60 30 / 70 20 / 80 45 / 55

Number of days in the mesocycle 9 11 13 11 12 24 80

Number of training and match days 8 9 12 9 10 19 67

Number of training sessions 10 14 18 12 6 20 80

Number of matches 2 1 2 3 7 7 15+7*

Number of training and match hours 16 25 36 25 20 38 160

Number of rest days 1 2 1 2 2 5 13

Number of physical conditioning

and information training hours

8+8 15+10 25+11 10+15 6+14 8+30 72+88

Training day load volume 2.0 2.78 3.0 2.78 2.0 2.0 2.43

Training day load intensity 60 80 90 80 90 95 825

Second cycle

Preparatory period (PP)2.1

1st preparatory period phase

2nd preparatory period phase

3rd preparatory period phase

10/01 – 20/01 2002 21/01 -12/02 2002 13/02 – 23/02 2002

multilateral-basic preparation

build-up / basic-specific preparation

maintenance / specific-situational preparation

2.2 Competitive period : 24/02 – 03/05/2002 In the competitive period (spring season) there were:

12 championship matches

2 cup matches

(7 wins/4 draws/3 losses)

2.3 Transition period : 14/05 – 15/06/2002

38 - 31

Proportions of different physical preparation types and programmes in long-term sports

training

7-10 YEARS 11-14 YEARS 14-18 YEARS

MULTILATERAL

PREPARATION50 40 20

BASIC

PREPARATION30 30 30

SPECIFIC

PREPARATION20 20 30

SITUATIONAL

PREPARATION0 10 20

BUILD-UP

PROGRAMMES

50 50 30

MAINTENANCE

PROGRAMMES

10 20 30

RECOVERY

PROGRAMMES

10 10 20

PREVENTIVE

PROGRAMMES

30 20 20

Analysis of the annual training cycle implementation for 16-year old cadets

• AN annual cycle comprises two macrocyclesdue to two competitive seasons

• There were 552 training hours and 142competition hours out of a total of 694 hours

• This amount of training and competitions was realised in 272 working days

• The transition period was too long - 58 days without any training cannot be tolerated when working with this age group.

38 - 32

38.8. Physical preparation programme modelling in a

competitive microcycle

Lo

ad

level

MO1T

TU2T

WE2T

TH2T

FR1T

SAC

SU1T

T TrainingC Competition

Structure of a microcycle in the competitive period (Grosser et al., 1986)

Lo

ad

level

Total load

Intensity

Volume

MO1T

TU2T

WE2T

TH2T

FR1T

SAC

SU1T

T TrainingC Competition

38 - 33

Example of a competitive period microcycle in handball

Competitive microcycle with one match

number of training days - 5

number of training units - 8

number of training and competition hours –

12 h 05 min

number of rest days - 1

match - Saturday (1)MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT SUN

TRAINING SESSION

_________ TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

________ ________ _________

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

CHAMPIONSHIP

MATCH_________

Competitive microcycle with two matches

number of training days - 7

number of training units - 7

number of rest days - 0

match - Wednesday and Saturday (2)

MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT SUN

---------- TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION TRAINING

SESSION

---------- TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

---------- MATCH ---------- TRAINING SESSION

MATCH ----------

38 - 34

Monday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + motor abilities + global exercises for the trunk), training duration: 75 -90 min

Tuesday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + prevention), training duration: 60-75 min

Wednesday: toning + MATCH

Thursday: medium intensity training (aerobic-recovery+TE-TA + global exercises for the trunk), training duration: 75-90 min

Friday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + prevention), training duration: 60-75 min

Saturday: toning + MATCH

Sunday: recovery training (+pool and the massage)

Competitive microcycle operative training programme

38.9. Conclusion

Physical preparation planning and programming in sport is an important part of the coach’s and the expert team’s activities.

It minimises contingencies and ensures a safe and efficient accomplishment of optimal sports results that are in accordance with an individual athlete's characteristics and conditions for the implementation of the training process.

38 - 35

To make the most of a large physical preparation system we must make sure that the system meets or fulfils five basic conditions:

1. Frequency - how often to train?

2. Duration - how long to train?

3. Intensity - what is the amount of intensive training?

4. Diversity of means - which exercises to do?

5. Specificity - what is the level of direct applicability in football?

• The training process presents a coach and an expert team with many challenges, pitfalls and dangers.

• Overtraining, as a result of the application of an excessive load can be extremely dangerous for an athlete.

• It is the result of a disbalance between the time ratio of the training and the competition load and the recovery. It can have an acute (overreaching) and a chronic (overtraining) form.

38 - 36

• The well-coordinated approach of an expert team is necessary to improve successfully the readiness components, to manage peak performance and to prevent excessive training and overtraining.

Nowadays, the individual and team physical preparation is conducted mostly by the physical conditioning coaches.

Favourable conditions for successful work and achievement of top results are created if physical conditioning coaches have the specific education and experience in the given sport.

Individual additional training in a competitive period can be useful from the training and the competition point of view, but the frequency and proportions of each additional training type should be carefully planned for each phase of this period.

38 - 37

Coaches and athletes should find the answer to the most important question: which PHYSICAL PREPARATION system will provide the individual and team preparedness that will ensure the highest sports results.

39 - 1

Introduction to Research Methodology in Sport

Lesson 39:


Understand the importance of academic research in sport

Classify the areas of applied research in the sports kinesiology

Define the structure of sports activity research, athletes' dimensions and competition efficiency factors

Discuss research in the area of the effects of drill and teaching methods and the programmed process of sports preparation

Explain the possibilities for applying research results in the sports practice

39 - 2

39.1. Research in the field of sport and the sports training

Contemporary research in the field of sport is carried out using various approaches, which are usually interdisciplinary on various levels, depending on the general characteristics of the given sport and the specificities of the sports discipline.

Therefore, the sports science includes various levels of general and specific approach.

The sports science determines general patterns of the sports preparation, training, and competition, basic guidelines for the training employment, as well as the specificities of various sports groups and sports disciplines and individual characteristics of athletes

Thus, the sports kinesiology defines its own field and methodology of research, with possible inclusion of other sports research disciplines using interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approaches.

39 - 3

There are six basic groups of academic research in the field of sport and sports theory:

1) Research into sports and sports results

2) Research into the characteristics of sports activities

3) Research into athletes' dimensions (abilities, characteristics and skills)

4) Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods

5) Research into the effects of the programmed training process in different training cycles

6) Research into the competition efficiency factors

39.2. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport

and sports training

Scientific research and knowledge must help coaches and "their" athletes improve the training quality and sports results.

39 - 4

39.2.1. Research into sports and sports results

History of the development of a sport

Analysis of the sports results developmenttrends

Analysis of the systems for the collection and the evaluation of sports results data

Academic knowledge contributes to:

Comprehensive understanding of thecharacteristics of monostructural, ploystructural, complex and conventional sports activities

Development of the criteria for the classification of sports

39 - 5

39.2.2. Research into characteristics of sports activities

Structural analysis of sports activities

Biomechanical analysis of sports activities

Functional analysis of sports activities

Research findings are used in:

Evaluation of the athlete's readiness (sports diagnostics)

Determination of model characteristics for top athletes of various ages and of both genders

Determination of relations between the basic and specific anthropological characteristics and the sports efficiency

Analysis of the effect of standard competition efficiency data on the final result at the competition

39 - 6

39.2.3. Research into the athletes' dimensions

Analysis of athletes' basic anthropological characteristics

Analysis of athletes' specific abilities and skills

Collection and the analysis of the competition efficiency data

Effects of basic anthropological characteristics

Effects of specific abilities and skills

Effects of competition efficiency parameters

39.2.4. Research into the competition efficiency factors

39 - 7

39.2.5. Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods

Analysis of the effects of various physical conditioning methods

Analysis of the effects of technical-tactical training methodological procedures

Analysis of the effects of integrative preparation

39.2.6. Research into the effects of the programmed sports preparation

process Modelling and evaluation of the sports

preparation process in multi-annual cycles

Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation process in annual cycles

Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation in mesocycles and microcycles

39 - 8

39.3. Applicability of scientific research results in sport

Sports kinesiology or sports science and related sciences can significantly affect the development of sport and the sports training theory and practice

Results of applied research can improve the sports practice by affecting:

Identifying sports talents (the sports selection)

Testing and evaluating athletes' abilities and characteristics or detecting strengths and weaknesses in preparedness based on the comparison of the results with the top athletes' model results

Training planning and programming in different sports preparation cycles (the periodisation and the training process programming)

39 - 9

It is necessary to ensure the transfer of academic research findings and results through various forms of professional education and training of coaches and other members of expert teams

Only educated sports professionals can successfully apply the increasing body of knowledge in improving sports preparation systems

QUESTIONS 1. Planning of training 2. Periodisation 3. Programming of training 4. Types of planning and programming of training 5. Methods of planning and programming of training 6. Long-term sports preparation periodisation 7. Long-term sports preparation modeling 8. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming 9. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning 10. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle 11. Periods and phases characteristics 12. Preparatory period 13. Competitive period 14. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases 15. Transition period 16. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases 17. Planning and programming training in a microcycle 18. Microcycle classification 19. Operative planning and programming of a day of training 20. Planning and programming a training unit 21. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports 22. Factorial structure of readiness 23. Model characteristics of top athletes 24. Diagnostics of individual athletes’ characteristics 25. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics 26. Methodology of physical preparation 27. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle 28. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle 29. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training 30. Applicability of scientific research results in sport

THESAURUS

Adaptation in sports - process of transformation, the changing of an athlete’s characteristics and abilities relevant to his/her best, or at least, acceptable functioning in either standard or variable conditions of athletic work.

Aerobic training - is physical exercise of relatively low intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process.

Anaerobic training - is physical exercise of short duration, characterized by high intensity activities, which last from mere seconds up to about 2 minutes. Energy is gained through two types of anaerobic energy systems: 1) the high energy phosphates, ATP adenosine triphosphate and CP creatine phosphate; and 2) anaerobic glycolysis.

Analytic teaching method - refers to the procedure whereby the global movement structure is divided into several phases, i.e. elements, each of which is taught and mastered separately. After each phase/element has been mastered, they are integrated, i.e. linked together into one whole.

Annual training cycle - is planned and programmed in one or more training macrocycles. Each macrocycle contains three basic periods: preparatory, competitive and transition.

Cognitive abilities of athletes - Enable reception, processing, retention and utilization of motor information resulting in quick and correct decision making during training and competition activities.

Competition - process of comparing sports condition between individuals and teams according to the defined rules and norms.

Competitive period - period in annual cycle in which competitions are dominant, and peak performance and the highest sports results occur.

Complex sports activities - Characterized by simple and complex movements in terms of cooperation between members of sports teams during the game.

Conative characteristics of athletes – are responsible for athletes' behaviour and their engagement level and drive during training and competition.

Continuous method – training method in which activity continues without interruption. It can be standard (the training load level remains unchanged from the beginning to the end of the training activity) and variable (the load intensity changes during the training activity).

Conventional sports activities - Contain aesthetically designed and choreographed sets of movement structures which are performed under standard conditions. There are obligatory and free competition programmes, with a subjectively assessed value of technical and artistic interest.

Cybernetics - a science of management and regulation of interdependent processes occurring in complex systems.

Cyclic nature of training - means that the process of training is executed through defined units as regards time and contents, which follow and complement each other.

Diagnostics in sport – represents assesing of fitness/preparedness through the measurements in laboratories and in the field.

Doping - is the use of the forbidden chemical and other substances during sports preparation with the sole intention of artificially increasing sports or work performance and improving sports results.

Fitness of athletes – denotes the optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the process of training and competition.

Frontal training – organisational form in which the whole team is involved in performing the set task at the same time.

Functional abilities of athletes - Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic metabolic processes).

Fundamental or basic physical preparation – preparation that utilizes exercises, loads and methods(operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results in the given sport discipline. Also, it utilizes operators for the development of those abilities and characteristics that are insufficiently developed.

General or versatile physical preparation – refers to the process of a harmonious multilateral development of the functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics.

Group training – organizational form for training of groups of athletes that have a similar level of abilities and skills.

Ideomotor method - refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task. It means that the athlete repeats in his/her head what he/she has learned at the training session after the training has finished.

Individual training - organisational form in which only one athlete trains throughout the training session or one of its parts under the supervision of a coach.

Interval method – training method in which exchange of work and rest intervals is present. It can be standard (load variables are maintained on the same level) and variable (the load variables change).

Long-term sports preparation - It refers to the total duration of a sports career and the bi-Olympic cycle.

Methodology of sport training – is an academic discipline that studies the patterns of the methodological structuring of training or modelling of training and means of recovery.

Model characteristics - are test results scores results, achieved by elite athletes in the primary and secondary anthropological variables and indicators of situational efficacy/performance

Monostructural sport activities - Activities in which there are one or more movement structures of a cyclic or acyclic character, which are successively repeated. Standard forms of motion with the lowest variability of biomechanical parameters.

Morphological characteristics – implicate body composition indicators, somatotype characteristics of athletes.

Motor abilities of athletes - are the aspects of intensity and extensity (volume) of any motor activity that can be described with the same parameter system and measured with the identical group of measuring instruments; onset of analoguous physiological, biochemical, morphological and biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them.

Motor mistakes - performance of a motor task which significantly deviates from the ideal performance expected from the athlete based on his or her psychological and physical abilities.

Motor programmes - are sets of data defining the execution of a certain motor activity in standard or variable conditions.

Ordinary (normal) microcycle –is characterised by the classic distribution of training sessions with a higher or lower load. Training sessions with medium and submaximum loads prevail. Its focus is readiness maintenance.

Parameters of situation efficiency of athletes – represent information from each competition/game about types, amount and quality of activities performed by individual players and teams (i.e. in basketball: the number of assists or rebounds).

Periodisation - is a procedure to determine the typical sports preparation cycles. It simply means division of a longer cycle into shorter cycles.

Physical conditioning - is a set of programmes and procedures for the development and maintenance of functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics that correspond to the level of preparedness of an athlete, the characteristics of a sport and the conditions in which it is implemented.

Planning of training - is a complex control action that determines the goals and theobjectives of the training process, the time cycles for their achievement periodisation) and the necessary technical, material and personnel prerequisites.

Polystructural sport activities - Semi-open and open movement structures that are performed in variable conditions. They are dominated by the complex structure of an acyclic movement character in which there is a direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo), or indirect - kicking, countering the opponent (boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing).

Preparatory period – period in annual cycle in which build-up preparation programmes that will ensure the achievement of a peak performance are utilised.

Programming of training - is a complex control action that determines the procedures containing the information on the means, loads and methods of training, and on the recovery and competition.

Prolonged transformation effects – in sports practice training effects that occur later, i.e. some time after the period in which the training with high and overlaping loads has been applied.

Recovery - implies the application of diverse procedures that can enable the quick regeneration of athletes and the re-establishment of homeostatis which the previous exertion

has disturbed.

Recovery microcycle - It comprises a large number of training days and training units with low or moderate loads.

Shock microcycle - it is characterised by a large number of days of training and training units with high and maximum loads. The proportion of these training sessions is more than 50%.

Situational physical preparation - preparation that brings together physical and tactical training. Situational physical preparation exercises involve a load level that is the same or higher than that at the competition.

Situational teaching method - refers to learning and perfecting techniques and tactics in the conditions that match those at competitions.

Specific abilities of athletes – are manifested within specific movement patterns and game situation patterns of a particular sport. They represent integration of physical fitness and technical (specific) preparedness as well as of physical fitness and tactical preparedness (situational).

Specific physical preparation - preparation that utilizes a set of exercises similar to movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique. It integrates physical and technical training leading to a specific physical preparedness.

Sport - An activity that enables children, needs for movement and play, develop qualities, skills and motor knowledge, sports and creative expression, preservation and promotion of health and sports chievements at all levels of competition.

Sport shape - is the heighest level of sportspecific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at the most important main competitions.

Sport tactics – A set of all forms and modes of action by one or more athletes in a situational training session or competition.

Sport technique - a biomechanically correct and rational movement structure performance.

Sports training - a longterm process of athletic preparation for the greatest and highest sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical, technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and other forms of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice and activity of the highest possible physicial load on organs and organic systems.

Supercompensation - is a basic acute, immediate functional response of the organism on which effects accumulation and the development of sports shape are based.

Synthetic teaching method - refers to learning and mastering a methodical task as a whole. The athlete performs the task as a whole, placing maximum focus on the most important phase of the global motor activity.

The means (contents) of training - are systems of motor (competition and training) exercises and non-motor means implemented in training, competition and recovery in accordance with the desired outcomes of the sports preparation and characteristics of the expected training procedure.

Training effects - fitness level changes induced by the application of certain training operators.

Training methods - are specific forms of work in sport. Training methods fall into two basic groups: a) exercise methods used in developing and maintaining various anthropological dimensions (primarily physical abilities) and b) teaching methods used in acquiring and improving technical-tactical skills.

Training operator - the stimuli that produce quantitative and qualitative fitness level changes in athletes.

Transition period - period in annual cycle in which peak performance is temporarily lost. The number of days of training and training units significantly decrease, as well as the load level.

Training theory - kinesiological, anthropological, Scientific-educational discipline in which the organization and function of a sport system is studied, as well as methodological and methodical principles of planning, programming and control of the process of training, competition and recovery in different cycles of sport preparation.

Undulation of training loads – implies permanent wavy dynamics of loading and unloading in training process. There are periods of enhanced and periods of decreased total load.

THE FOLLOWING LITERATURE TITLES ARE RECOMMENDED:

1. Bompa, T.O. (1999). Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training, 4th edn.

Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

2. Dick, F.W. (2007). Sports Training Principles. A&C Black Publishers, Ltd.

3. Enoka, R.M. (2002). Neuromechanics of Human Movement, 3rd Ed. Chamapaign, IL: Human

Kinetics.

4. Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C. (1991). Growth, maturation and physical activity. Chamapaign, IL:

Human Kinetics.

5. Reilly, T., Williams, A.M. (Eds.) (2003). Science and Soccer (2nd ed.). London: Routledge –

Taylor & Francis Group.

6. Verkhoshansky, Y. , Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining. 6th expanded edition.

7. Wilmore, J.H. (2008). Physiology of sport and exercise. Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Documents

Training Theory Book[1]