CHAPTERV

Transboundary Water Resource Management in Ganga­

Brahmaputra Basin: Opportunities and Challenges

The Ganga- Brahmaputra basin region covering India, Bangladesh, Nepal

and Bhutan is one of the largest river basins of the world. The basin

regwn is endowed with vast natural diversity, large alluvial land and

water resources. Yet there is endemic poverty, socio-economic

backwardness and environmental degradation across the riparian t'

countries. The major problems of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin region

are the population explosion, poverty, unemployment, imbalanced

regional development and lack of capital and technological capabilities for

rapid economic growth. There is shortage of infrastructures in terms of

adequate energy production transportation and connectivity.

The region also suffers from natural and manmade hazards like floods,

drought, deforestation, landslides, soil erosion and sedimentation. On the

other hand there are immense possibilities for the development of the

region, based on shared natural resources. Integrated management of

water resources of the region can mitigate the problems. It can meet the

growing needs of food production, energy production, transport

infrastructure etc. that are vital for improving the quality of life of the

people of region. The transboundary water resource of the region, if

efficiently managed can increase the productivity of land, water and other

resources leading to poverty alleviation and sustained socio-economic

development of the region. The transboundary waters establish the

natural inter country linkages and may be harnessed as the resource of

the future. There is natural diversity and complimentarity in the

patterns and potential of the water resources development among the

npanan countries. Thus, there are need-based compulsions for

formulating a framework for regional cooperation for integrated

development of the water resource of the region. The integrated

development and management of Ganga- Brahmaputra basin water can

176

meet the multipurpose requirements for the common benefit of the co­

basin partners.

There are some basic requirements for the integrated management of

transboundary water resources of the basin. Firstly, it should aim at

optimum and sustainable development, effective management and

efficient utilization of the water resources. Secondly, it should be

multisectoral in nature (infrastructure development, natural hazard

management, environmental management, etc). Thirdly, it should be

based on the basin approach to planning, integrated and conjunctive use

of water. The idea of integrated management is multi dimensional. The

facets of integrated management would include integration of approaches

and actions, integration of micro and macro policies and development of

various socio-economic sectors.

The riparian countries should try to co-operate in order to build on the

complementarities and diversities, particularly in case of hydropower

development and exchange, navigation, flood and drought management,

water quality management. Beyond water resource cooperation it should

have long-term planning in other areas such as industry and trade,

energy sector (oil, natural gas), communications and social sectors

(education, training and health). Thus transboundary water resource

based cooperation can arguably become the most potent and dependable

option for the future development of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin.

Cooperation over Hydropower Development in Ganga- Brahmaputra

Basin

Energy IS the critical infrastructure for economic development. The

. energy consumption pattern is used as an index of national or regional

level of development. The Ganga- Brahmaputra basin region has one of

the lowest per capita energy consumption.

177

Country Per Capita Electronic Power Consumption (KWH) •

1990 1992

India 2340 363

Bangladesh 43 76

Nepal 28 39

Bhutan - -

South Asia 228 324

World 1928 2083

Source: World Development Report 2000/2001, Page 30, and Table 18.

The scenario is despite the fact that Ganga- Brahmaputra basin is vastly

endowed with energy resources. India, Bhutan and Nepal have large

hydroelectricity power generation potential. India has large reserves of

coal. Bangladesh has considerable natural gas reserves. Still, the

development of energy resources is abysmally low to raise the people's

living standards. The riparian countries of Ganga- Brahmaputra region

still depend heavily non- commercial energy, which is derived from

biomass (fuel wood, agricultural residues, and animal waste). They not

only have low energy efficiency but fuelwood also cause environmental

degradation (deforestation, soil erosion etc).

The region faces critical situation in the field of energy as; firstly, there is

declining but still high demand for biomass fuels with consequent heavy

pressure on forest resources. Secondly, there is less emphasis on

diversification of energy sources, development of clean energy resources,

conservation and efficient use. Thirdly, there is very low level of energy

trade taking place among the riparian countries as compa-red to the

existing potential. Fourthly, energy demand is increasing in the region

while coal, oil and gas reserves of the region are exhaustible.

In such a scenario the hydroelectric energy is the most critical energy

resource for the future. Hydroelectric power projects can generate vast

amount of energy and they can serve vast areas. There are many benefits

from development of hydropower resources. Its operational and

178

maintenance cost are low as compared to thermal and nuclear power. It

is clean and renewable source of energy. 11t is a major component of the

multipurpose projects besides irrigation, flood control, navigation etc. It

also exhibits a declining unit cost of generation over time, even though

initial capital expenditure is very high. However, the large-scale HEP

generation has also some adverse impacts like submergence,

displacement and threat of seismicity-induced hazards. But benefits

substantially out weighs the negative aspects.

The Eastern Himalayan region of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin has

vast potential for hydropower generation. It can not only produce huge

amount of HEP but also give additional benefits of irrigation and flood

management. 2 The past efforts of HEP development have been within the

boundaries of nation particularly meeting the domestic demand of the

energy. These efforts should be supplemented with cooperative approach

of riparian states of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. Such projects can

develop complementarities among nations as well as help each other

solving problems of flood management, sedimentation and salinity

intrusion, migration and displacement. The early endeavors of

cooperative development of energy (like Kosi and Gandak projects) are too

small as compared to vast potential that exists in the region.

The rivers originating in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan ranges have

steep topographical slopes and are almost perennial. Thus they have

tremendous hydropower generation potential. Although there are varying

estimates, the generally accepted figures are that India has 45,635 MW

(economically exploitable), Nepal has 83,000 MW (estimated) and 42,000

MW (economically exploitable) and Bhutan has 21,000 MW potential for

the HEP generation. As compared to the potential the developed installed

capacities are meager. This may be seen from the figures of installed

capacity in India [3,525 MW], Nepal (244 MW), Bhutan [336 MW] and

M.H. Qureshi, India Resources and Regional Development, NCERT, Saraswati Press, New Delhi, 1990, p.15.

2 C.K. Sharma. Water and Energy Res_ources of the Himalayan Block, Navana Printing Works, Calcutta, 1983, pp. 94-96.

179

Bangladesh [230 MW]. Thus total hydropower installed capacity m the

entire basin region is only 4,335 MW; which is about 5 per cent of

economically exploitable potential. 3

The figure suggests that there 1s tremendous scope for future

development of hydropower generations. Nepal and Bhutan have water

source as the most precious natural resource for economic growth.

These two countries can supply energy to India where large market

exists. Thus entire Ganga - Brahmaputra basin can benefit from

industrial and agricultural development. This vision can be actualized by

regional cooperation.

Indo-Nepal cooperation on Hydro Power Generation and

Transmission

The Kosi and the Gandak are the two projects, which India and Nepal

undertook in 1950's. These projects, had agreement over supply of power

to the border towns and villages in Nepal leading to development of

interconnections between the Nepalese and Indian power systems. After a

long gap Mahakali treaty was signed in 1996. The Treaty proposes to

build a high dam and two underground powerhouses - one on each bank

and share the power generation equally between India and Nepal. The

joint detailed project report is yet to be finalized over the Pancheswar

project. India and Nepal have also signed a Power Trade Agreement

( 1996) under which India has agreed to buy power from Nepal and also

allow transmission access to the third country. The agreement also

facilitates power trading between India and Nepal, by both public and

private sectors. Various other project are also under discussion stage like

(a) Karnali Chisapani (10800MW) multipurpose project (b) Sapta Kosi

high dam multipurpose project (3000MW) (c) Burhi Gandaki

Hydroelectric project (600 MW)[d] West Seti hydro electric project (750

MW). The power exchange facilities between India and Nepal have been

3 R.B Shah, "Ganges Brahmaputra: The Outlook For the Twenty First Century", in Asit K. Biswas and Juha I. Uitto [eds.] Sustainable Development of The Ganga Brahmaputra Meghna Basin, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 2000, p.23.

1RO

enhanced by the proposed Tanakpur [India] and Mahendra Nagar [Nepal]

transmission line.

India and Nepal also have institutional arrangements like India -Nepal

Power Exchange Committee (1992) which has functions like [1]

monitoring the existing arrangements/facilities for power exchanges, [2]

evolving proposals for promoting power exchanges in the future, [3]

recommending principles of tariff for such power exchanges, etc.

Indo -Nepalese cooperation over hydro electricity generation has been

very slow. Political mistrust has been the major cause. Nepal complains

that it didn't get fair deal in Kosi and Gandak agreements. Further, the

issue of sharing the benefits and costs on equitable basis among the

regional partners has been the issue of disagreement. Nepal believes that

most of benefits (such as flood control, Irrigation, navigation) including

the availability of surplus clean energy to fuel industrialisation from the

construction of large dams are bound to accrue to the down stream

countries (India and Bangladesh), whereas the associated costs (loss of

cultivable land, natural flora and fauna, displacement etc.) of such

development projects would be imposed on Nepal. 4 The hydro electricity

projects have been debated hotly in the domestic political as well as

academic circles of Nepal. In Nepal, the general opinion is "no deal is

better than a bad deal".

Many experts have also questioned the feasibility of huge multipurpose

projects. The water resource experts view that domestic energy needs will

be met by utilising small and medium hydropower schemes. The high

dam projects come with inherent issues like environmental degradation,

silt deposition, seismic activities etc. Purther high dam projects are also

very expensive and large investments made on such schemes are actually

diversion from the other competing sectors like education, health

4 Kamal Rijal, "Role of Nepalese Water Resources for Meeting Energy Needs in South Asia", in Sridhar Khatri (ed.) Energy policy National and Regional ImplicatioTJ.$, Modern Printing Press, Kathmandu, 2002, pp.lOl-102.

181

sanitation etc. At the same time Nepal wants to extract its reasonable

benefits from the proposed high dam projects.

Nepal has developed West Seti hydroelectric project (750 MW) with an

agreement signed with a private developer, the Snowy Mountain

Engineering corporation (SMEC) of Australia with the sole intention of

exporting the substantial power to the Indian market.s The Karnali

project is one of the largest multipurpose projects under consideration

since 1960's. The private developer Enron has shown interest in

developing the Chisapani dam of the Karnali project. Recently after

several discussion and presentation made by Enron, permission was

withheld pending more enquiries. The Kosi High dam, a multipurpose

project has been under discussion between India and Nepal for a long

time.

India Bhutan Cooperation over Hydro Electricity

The Bhutan forms part of Brahmaputra basin. The maJor nvers of

Bhutan are Torsa, Raidak, Sunkosh, Mao, Manas and Dhansiri.The

physiographic characteristic endows Bhutan large potential for

hydroelectric power generation. Yet so far only 1.7 per cent of the total

estimated theoretical potential of 20,000 MW has been harnessed.

Bhutan can generate electricity not only for its own economic

development but can also trade it with India and Bangladesh.

Bhutan at present has 11 hydroelectric stations with an installed

capacity of 341.75MW. The Chukha station alone generates 336MW. The

Chukha hydroelectric project was developed with Indian assistance. The

220 KW lines from Chukha to Birpara provide the link between the

Bhutanese system and Easter regional power grid of India. The operat~on

of the Chukha plant is coordinated with the eastern regional grid of

s Iswer R.Onta, "Harnessing the Himalayan Waters of Nepal; A case for Partnership for the Ganges Basin", in Asit K Biswas and Juha I. Uitto [eds.]Sustainable Development of the Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna Basins, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 2000, P. 119.

182

India. The 1000MW Tala project on the Raidak River (downstream of

Chukha) is the extension of Indo Bhutanese HEP energy cooperation.

The Power Master plan of Bhutan in 1991 listed 89 sites from a desktop

study of topographical maps, with a potential of approximately 12,00MW

of hydroelectricity. Further, the Power Master Plan (PSMP) report of 1992

listed 24 sites, which are economically feasible and have a commutative

identified potential of 10,988 MW. Most of the schemes are run of the

river type with the exception of a few reservoir schemes, mainly along the

southern border. The PSMP figure was revised later, as the envisaged

capacity of quite a few identified projects have been increased. For

example, the Tala project is being constructed with an ultimate capacity

of 1,625MW instead of 265MW as planned earlier. Another project under

consideration Sunkosh project has also undergone an upward revision.

An agreement on the construction of a 1525MW hydel power project on

the Sunkosh was signed on January 4 1993,making a notable advance in

the lndo-Bhutanese water resource cooperation. The Chukha3 project on

the Wangchu River is also under consideration. The experts view that

Bhutan can be major supplier of electricity to its energy starved

neighbour i.e., India. India has also agreed to purchase all the energy

available.6 The harnessed power from water resources can generate the

additional revenue required. Infact, a major portion of Bhutan's revenue

comes from export of power from Chukha.

As much as 45 percent of Bhutan's annual revenue now comes from

Chukha, with upward tariff revisions since its inception. The availability

of electricity has eased the pressure on kerosene imports as well as the

deforestation has been controlled. The per capita income of Bhutan is

growing as energy intensive industries are being developed at the

southern border of Bhutan.

6 Sangeeta Thapliyal,"Water and Conflict: The South A!iian Scenario", Strategic Analysis ,October 1996,p.1048.

183

Bhutan has followed cautious approach towards large-scale

hydroelectricity generation. The environmental degradation, loss of bio­

diversity and displacement of populations are the major concerns of

Bhutan. The needs of socio-economic development for growing population

in Bhutan are bound to rise in the future. Bhutan can opt for HEP based

revenue for it socio economic development. The careful selection of sites

and advanced technology for HEP generation can minimize the associated

damages.

Indo Bangladesh Power Cooperation

Much possibility exists between India and Bangladesh for power systems

interconnection, which have been discussed ever since Bangladesh came

into existence. Many lines have been identified like (1) Durgapur (India)­

Bheramara (Bangladesh), Jeerhat (India) - Jessore (Bangladesh) with an

aim to export power to Bangladesh from India. (2) Sylhet (Bangladesh) to

Kumarghat (India) where Eastern Bangladesh can - export power to

Northeast India. Both countries have recognised importance of inter

connections of their power systems for mutual benefit. The discussion

can include Nepal for long term planning for regional energy

interconnections.

The interconnections of energy systems of the npanan countries of

Ganga- Brahmaputra basin can become crucial agent of economic and

social development of the entire region. The regional collaboration on

energy based on economical and reliable interconnections promises

multiple benefits like savings accrued from load diversity, hydrologic

complimentarity, transfer of periodic surplus of power, economies of scale

in building large HEP projects with sharing of investments, savings on

power generation investments and operation costs etc. The efforts in joint

development activities can facilitate mobilisation of financial resources.7

7 Shanker K. Malia, Energy Cooperation in South Asia, Institute for Integrated Development Studies Publication, Kathmandu, 2002, p. 14.

184

Challenges in cooperation over Interconnections of Energy system

in Ganga- Brahmaputra Region

Various barriers exist at policy level, technical level, institutional level

and financial level in the development of interconnection of energy sector

in the region.

The Institutional Issues: The hitherto prevailing ideology of economic

self-sufficiency hinders the energy cooperation and trade among riparian

countries. The major economic power of the region, India focused in

meeting the demand through inter regional power transfer within the

country. The basin state governments have inward looking energy policy

based on Electricity Acts, Regulations and regulatory mechanisms. While

cross border power trading has been merely a marginal interest. Bhutan

is the only country where cross border power trade is the national

priority. Nepal- India cooperation has been victim of mistrust and

historical baggage. There is a need to gradually build up confidence

among the riparian countries along with the gradual harmonization of

macro policies in the energy sector. The psyche of hydroelectricity being

perceived, as "strategic" commodity should be shed away if the region

aims at collaborative development and management of water resources.

Further, the historical debates of bilateralismjmultilateralism,

augmentation, upper riparian and lower riparian rights should not cast

unnecessary shadow on the vision of regional power trade.s

Technical Issues: The countries have adopted their own norms and

standards in planning and design of their power systems. Differences

exists in their standards. which may act as impediment in their

interconnections. The sizes of the systems, voltages, adopted,

inadequacies in generation and transmission facilities, varying structure

of the electricity supply and operating system poses the technical

challenges in interconnections. Different countries have different mix of

s Santa Bahadur Pun, "Electric Power Trading in the SAARC Region", in Sridhar. K. Khatri (ed.) Energy Policy National and Regional Implications, Modern Printing Press, Kathmandu, 2000, pp. 34-35.

185

public and private sector participation and they are gomg through

decentralisation, unbundling and deregulation in the power sector. Thus

integration on various technical issues will be required.

Institutional Issues: Different institutional regulation and control has

been developed over the period to oversee the implementation of treaties/

negotiations over water resource development for example - Mahakali

Commission, Power Trading Corporation, etc. Their integration and

smooth operation will be required. Further, the individual countries have

their own load dispatch and system operations, monitoring and control

facilities and operations. An institutional mechanism to coordinate the

operation and control of inter connected system will be required to

ensure smooth operations confirming to principles and ethics of

integrated operations.

Financial Issues: The financial barriers in terms of tariff (both

generation and transmission) limit the ability to identify and evaluate the

real delivered cost of power. The riparian countries of the Ganga­

Brahmaputra region are developing countries, which are facing resource ,.. .

crunch. Besides internal resource generation they depend on foreign

direct and indirect investments which many times complicates the issue.

The power trading is often treated on political lines rather than on

commercial considerations. The deal should be left to commercial

decision making specifically to ensure its long-term sustainability and for

ensuring transparency and accountability.

Regional Energy Grid in the Ganga- Brahmaputra Region

Though cooperation on interconnection of power system development in

the Ganga- Brahmaputra region is at present at preliminary level, a long­

term vision of establishing a regional energy grid in the region can be

realised. The riparian countries Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal and India

can take advantage of resource complementarities, demand diversity and

geographic proximity. Three of the four countries have border around a

lRfl

narrow 20 to 40 km wide stretch of India territory.9 This umque

geography provides a viable basis for establishing inter-connection

among all four countries. This unique geography provides a viable basis

for establishing interconnections among all four countries. Many

opportunities and challenges exist for realising the regional grid.

The following factors will justify the establishment of inter-connections,

which could be located within the corridor:

1. Transmission line originating from Bhutan, Chukha, Anarmani

(Nepal), Thakurgaon (Bangladesh) can provide the linkage. The

implementation of proposed HEP projects for example, Arun, Kosi high

dam project, Sunkosh project, say by year 2015 can create a

hydroelectric power pool (banking) of up to 6,000MW which can be

supplied to the markets of India and Bangladesh.

2. All these generating stations and inter connecting ties will become an

integral part of India's Eastern Regional Power Grid - the prime

beneficiary. The resulting trans-country power grid will substantially

improve the peaking capacity of the Eastern Grid of India and also

help in meeting the demands of the Western Bangladesh.

3. The regional grids of India has already been inter connected. The

Power Grid Corporation of India can play a major role m

transportation and wheeling of the large quantum of electricity and

establishing interconnections.

4. The major challenge lies in the implementation of the projects

although institutions such as Power Grid Corporation of India,

Bangladesh Power Development Board and Nepal Electricity Authority

are enthusiastic. The major initiative needs to be taken by the

respective governments.

9 Regional Energy Grid in the GBM Region, Water Resources Development Series; Institute for Integrated Development Studies Publication, Kathmandu, 2000, pp.28-__ , 30

187

Flood Management

The Ganga- Brahmaputra basin is recurrently affected by natural

disasters like flood since the ancient times. Due to the geographical

factors India and Bangladesh suffer from flood disasters more than

Nepal. Bangladesh being the lowermost riparian country, situated at the

deltaic portion of the basin, acts as the funnel for the enormous run off

generated mostly outside its boundaries faces the brunt of fury of the

floods. About 60 per cent of the country's geographical area is prone to

floods and every year almost one third of the area gets inundated in the

monsoon season. The riparian countries of the Ganga- Brahmaputra

basin belong to low income group where natural disasters like floods

cause huge loss of life, property and infrastructure. The low-income

group of the society is usually the most common victim in the basin area.

In India, the middle riparian country, the floods are usually caused by

excessive precipitation, inadequate river channels, cyclonic storms,

drainage congestions because of the construction of settlements and rail

road infrastructure in the river channels, heavy siltation, erosion of the

river banks, etc. The Brahmaputra River is more prone to flooding

because of heavy rainfall, over bank spilling, landslides, inundation of

braided channels, banks erosion and change of river course.

In Nepal, the mountain rivers Sapt Kosi, Gandaki, Karnali enter the plain

(Terai) area of Nepal. During the monsoon period, the heavy runoff

generated by rivers does not drain out quickly, resulting into floods. The

hill valleys also suffer from floods due to sudden localized cloudbursts

and landslides.

Bangladesh is most affected by flood hazard. The maJor causes of

recurrent floods are huge catchments area, low gradient of the rivers,

sedimentation of channel, pondage effects and frequent meanders in the

channels. 10The other reasons are, peaking of most of interconnected

10 Rob Abdur Khan and Nazem Islam Nurul, "Abundance and Scarcity of Water in Bangladesh: Issues Revisited", BliSS Journal, Vol.9, No.4, 1988, p. 465.

188

rivers in the same time, braided channels swelling, synchronisation with

the tidal effects, cyclonic storms surges etc. The floods of 1988 and 1999

caused colossal damage to life, property, crop and infrastructure.

Flood Management Techniques

The countries of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin have mainly depended

on structural measure for the flood management which includes (a)

construction of reservoirs for storing monsoon flows (b]) construction of

embankments to prevent spill over (c) improving flow conditions in the

channel (d) prevention of bank erosions(e)improving drainage

congestions.

There are geographical opportunities and constrains in the region for

applying the structural measures. Nepal has adequate facilities for

construction of reservoirs for water storage.ll In Bangladesh, on account

of its deltaic location, there is hardly any possibility of constructing any

reservoir. In India and Bangladesh the thrust under the structural

approach has been largely on the construction of embankments

particularly along the vulnerable reaches of the rivers. In India, in the

Ganges- Brahmaputra basin about 10,500 km embankments have

already been constructed. Bangladesh has constructed about 8,300 km

of embankments for protection.

Water resources experts have questioned the long-term efficacy of

embankments for flood management. The embankments are poorly

managed and damage through breaches and overtopping are more

serious. Embankments though provide locational protection; they

adversely affect the natural flow and postpone the flood to downstream

regwn.

India and Bangladesh have emphasized upon the long term planning for

reservoir based flood management, however lack of potential sites have

II Bhekh B. Thapa and Bharat B.Pradhan, Water Resources_ Development Nepalese Perspective, Konark Publishers, Kathmandu, 1995, p. 138.

189

caused the dependence on Nepal. India and Nepal have been negotiating

for Sapt Kosi project for flood mitigation in the Bihar Plains.l2 India

proposed for the Bara Kshetra Dam in Nepal while Nepal has shown little

interest over the issue. Major storage facilities have been planned under

Tipaimukh multi purposes project (on Barak), Dihang and the Subansari

project between India and Bangladesh. While these reservoir based

structural measures remains distant dream, focus needs to be shifted

towards non-structural measures.

The non-structural measures can play the complimentary role to

structural measures. The non-structural measures of flood control and

damage mitigation includes: [ 1] Flood plain management measures like,

flood plain zoning and flood proofing, [2] Flood forecasting and warning

services. [3] Disaster relief and flood fighting etc.

Flood Plain Management: Flood plain management is based on the twin

concepts of flood plain zoning and flood proofing. The concepts recognise

the flood plain of river as a natural region where flow of river should be

given priority. Different zones are demarcated for probable flooding in

different seasons and magnitude and human activities are regulated

accordingly. It minimizes the damage caused by the flood. India and

Bangladesh have planned to discourage unregulated habitation and

constructions in the flood prone areas. However, necessary legislation

and administrative measures are yet to be taken. Flood proofing

measures require settling the villages above pre determined flood levels.

Further, frequency analyses of floods are carried out to identify flood

prone area and priority areas for project implementation are chosen

accordingly. Few projects have been taken up in India in states of Assam

and West Bengal for flood proofing.

The improvement of existing natural drainage_ system is essential in

India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The reclamation and improvement of old

12 Bhim Subba, "Water Nepal and India", Kanak Mani Dixit (ed.) State of Nepal, Himal Books, 2002, Lalitpur, p.245.

190

river channels which functions, as spillway in the rainy season should be

taken up on priority basis. Different countries of the basin can share

experiences, expertise on different aspects of flood plain management.

Flood Forecasting in the Ganga- Brahmaputra Region

Flood forecasting and warning system can play major role in the Ganga -

Brahmaputra region in saving the lives and property by extending

advance intimation, timely evacuation, and other rescue and relief

operations, particularly in the unprotected areas. The major emphasis

lies on the early forecast and information, which requires technological

capabilities and inter country cooperation.

Different countries of the basin have evolved data collection and relay

centers. India has developed large infrastructure for the flood forecasting;

157 stations are operational of which 132 stations are for water stage

forecast and 25 for inflow forecast. 109 out of the 157 stations lie in the

Ganga -Brahmaputra region. Although many of stations require

upgrading and modernization, their track record in the accuracy of the

forecasting has been satisfactory. The large network of river gauging and

rainfall stations also supports the flood forecasting stations. India and

Bangladesh, under a bilateral agreement cooperate on the flood

forecasting. India is transmitting ( 1) actual and forecast river level data to

Bangladesh from five station - Farakka, Goalpara, Dhubri, Domahani,

Silchar (2) Rainfall data from Goalpara, Dhubri, Tura, Coochbihar,

Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Agartala to Bangladesh.

Bangladesh has also set up a network for flood forecasting. The

Bangladesh Water Development Board established a Flood Forecasting

and Warning centre in 1972, which functions for collection of

hydrological data, transmission and subsequent analysis for forecasting

191

purpose. Bangladesh is also modernizing the flood forecasting system by

adopting advanced techniques and equipments. 13

Nepal is yet to establish a flood forecasting and warning system of its own

though it provides data to India on hydrology and meteorology from 34

such stations on real time basis. However, with the occurrence of

catastrophic flood in July 1993 in central region, it is strongly felt that

there should be reliable flood forecasting and warning systems.

Consequently proposal has been drawn upto provide the facility in the

central region. Efforts should be gradually made to cover flood prone

areas on priority basis.

Cooperation over Flood Forecasting

Flood situation is grim in the riparian states of the Ganga-Brahmaputra

basin. The countries share common perception to lay analysis on flood

forecasting as method to control the damage caused by flood. The

geographical characteristics of the basin requires regional cooperation for

developing reliable, modern and efficient flood forecasting system.

The riparian countries have agreed on some existing mechanism for

bilateral cooperation for sharing hydro- meteorological data. In March

1988, India and Nepal launched a project to install real time data

transmission system at 25 rainfall and 20 river gauging and rainfall

stations in Nepal.l4 The transmission system will be used to supply data

for India in real time basis and to receive similar data from two

downstream points from India on a reciprocal basis. The data thus

exchanged will be used to support flood forecasting and warning system

to people in Northern India.

t3 Q.K. Ahmad and K.B.S Rasheed, "Flood Management in Bangladesh: Issues and Prospects - GBM Regional Perspective", in Q.K. Ahmad (ed.) Bangladesh Water Vision, Masro Printers, Dhaka, 2000, pp. 66-67.

14 Flood Forecasting and Warning and Disaster Management, Water Resources Development Phase II Series, Institute of Integrated Development Studies, Kathmandu, 2001, p.l6.

192

In the development of facilities at the stations, Nepal will have to incur

the expenditures on civil work while India is to provide the equipments.

The two countries have also agreed to upgrade and modernise the

network and increase the density and coverage of stations. It will help in

better assessment, utilization and management of water resources.

In Bhutan, a comprehensive scheme of collection and transmission of

real time hydro-meteorological data is being set by on the selected sites

on the tributaries of Brahmaputra. This scheme is being implemented in

association with India. Bhutan and Nepal, the two upper catchments

area of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin are developing hydrological

networks, which would not only benefit these countries but also help the

lower riparian countries namely India and Bangladesh.

Bangladesh is the lower most riparian countries. It has 57 transboundary

rivers, having the major part of their drainage area outside the country.

Since 93 percent of the total catchments area lies outside Bangladesh, it

essentially requires real time water level data of trans boundary rivers and

rainfall data of the key observation stations form upper riparian

countries for effective and accurate flood forecasting. Bilateral agreement

already exists between India and Bangladesh for sharing flood warning

and other relevant data. Both countries are using similar technologies for

data observation and transmission and share the methods for processing

data for the issue of flood forecasts. Both the countries are modernising

their existing infrastructure and network for increasing the accuracy of

flood forecasting.

In view of the recurrent flood problem in the region, flood forecasting

should be taken as priority programme. Major challenge lies in the

confidence building among the riparian countries for free exchange of

data and information. Apprehensions about the misuse of data and

practice of maintaining the secrecy of data hinder the spirit and process

of cooperation. The integrated management of transboundary water

resources development requires generation of data inventory and free

191

exchange of in formations among the npanan countriesls. Mutual

Institutional arrangements should be developed to facilitate frequents

meetings at both technical and political levels. Nepal, Bhutan and

Bangladesh must take advantage of technical expertise available in India,

besides taking international assistance. Flood management 1s a

noncontroversial area of mutual cooperation, which can benefit the large

population in the Ganga- Brahmaputra region.

Need of Storage Capacities

The management of transboundary water resources m the Ganga­

Brahmaputra basin requires large storage of monsoon flows and

snowmelts and redistribute over space and time when and where

required. These storage capacities are necessary for multipurpose

projects for generation of hydroelectricity, flood management, irrigation

facilities etc. The multipurpose development of the water resources can

bring about a socio economic transformation of the region. The

harnessil'lg of the water resources calls for the construction of dams m

the Himalayas. The run of the river projects can produce blocks of

valuable energy but do not store water. Large dams, storing waters within

large catchments, provide for greater insurance against water distress

during periods of dry weather.l6

Various national and international studies have identified 28 potential

reservoir sites in Nepal. Nine of them are classified as large dams (storage

more than 5 BCM each). The feasibility studies of reservoirs need to be

firmly established after adequate investigation, studies and discussions,

with the involvement of different parties. The majors project under

considerations like Pancheshwar, Karnali and Kosi high dams have been

under investigation and study for many years, similarly India has special

IS United Nations, ESCAP Guidelines On Water and Sustainable Development Principles and Policy Options, Water Resource Series No. 77, New York, 1997,p.134.

16 Ramaswamy R.Iyer, "The Debate Regarding Large projects", in B.G. Verghese arid Ramaswamy R. Iyer, Harnessing The Eastern Himalayan Rivers"Konark Publishers, New Delhi, 1993,p.213.

lOLl

interest in construction of reservoirs m Nepal for HEP as well as flood

management.

In 1954 a dam on Kosi River was planned to cope with the devastating

annual floods in north Bihar and Nepal. The Kosi caused recurrent floods

due to heavy siltation and shifting of the courses. Major floods of the

region cause activation of the project intermittently, however, the Kosi

project never went beyond the barrage construction and embankment

stage. The Gandak project later also entailed mere diversion barrages.

The Karnali project is still under discussion stage. Bangladesh in 1978-

84 proposed a series of mega dams in Nepal to augment the dry season

flows of the Ganges.

The Mahakali treaty of 1996 proposed the construction of a large

reservoir under Pancheshwar project.17 The Mahakali River runs in major

stretches along the western boundary of Nepal with India. India and

Nepal will equally share the total energy generated at the twin

powerhouse of similar capacity to be built on the either bank. The costs

will be shared in proportion to the benefits accruing to either side. India

and Nepal are jointly investigating Sapt Kosi high dam project and

detailed project report is to be prepared under the terms of joint Indo

Nepal Memorandum of understanding. Nepal argues that as the saving

cost on power envisaged under the Pancheswar project India should also

consider financial compensations to Nepal in lieu of flood related savings

that big reservoirs in Nepal will generate for the downstream.

The upper catchment of the Brahmaputra has limited scope for storages.

All the future storages identified in India and Bhutan would together

harness a little more than 10 per cent of its annual flows. The

Brahmaputra Master plan has identified 18 storage dams. However, only

five of these are large. Only one large storage has been identified in

Barak/ Meghna sub basin at Tipaimukh. Dihang and Subansiri are the

17 Dr. Hari Bans Jha, Mahakali Treaty Implications for Nepals Development, Foundation for Economic and Social Change Publication, Kathmandu, 1996,p.6.

195

two other potential sites were feasibility studies have been completed.

The Tipaimukh, Dihang and Subansiri projects have been facing

opposition on the account of adverse impacts on the environment.

Concerns Regarding Dams: Large storage capacities are required for

development of water resources of the Ganga Brahmaputra- region but

they are not free from adverse impact on human beings and environment.

Three major issues associated with the dams and multipurpose projects

are (1) Safety of Dams (2) environmental considerations (3) Resettlement

and Rehabilitation.

Dam Safety

The construction of dams in the Himalayan is very complex. The

Himalayas is the seat of an active earthquake belt, which has produced

four great earthquakes in the past ~00 years.1s The Himalayas lies in the

active plate interaction site, which makes the zone prone to seismicity.

Besides the region is characterized by flash floods, landslides and high

level of sedimentation. There is lack of adequate and reliable data in the

hydrology-geology and seismicity of the region in general. Thus there is

utmost need to take care of dam safety in all stages of large-scale water

resource development.

Before the construction of dam various risk assessments should be made

m quantative terms as well as qualitative terms. It requires

considerations of extreme natural events like earthquake, unexpected

floods, landslides or even possible man made hazards. The safety is

directly related to quality of construction material used, design selection

as well the availability of sophisticated tools of analysis.

The basic inventory of data is created during investigation of geological

and hydrological situation of the region. The Himalayas show complex

18 K. N. Khatri, "Seismic Hazards in the Himalaya", in B.G. Verghese and Ramaswamy. R. Iyer (eds.), Harnessing the Eastern Himalayan Rivers Regional Cooperation in South Asia, Konark Publishers, New Delhi, 1993, p.231.

196

geological as well hydrological features, which are unique to the region,

thus the feasibility studies must be carried in various stages as well as

by multiple organizations. Geological and geotechnical investigations are

carried out for site selection and design of dams and appurtances to

collect data for evaluation of various parameters. Data on earthquake

occurrences over a wide region with epicentral locations, fault plane

solutions and isoseismals of damaging earthquakes are collected for

study.l9

Sedimentation 1s the major problem in the safe design and the

functioning of dams. The Himalayan Rivers are perennial and fed by

glaciers; the rivers bring a vast amount of eroded sediments. Weak rock

foundations coupled with high sediment loads can cause dam safety

hazards. The sedimentation is the product of multiple factors like storm

patterns, topographic features, vegetation cover, land use pattern; soil

erosion etc. The soil erosion, landslides and other mass movements can

be checked by watershed management practices. Further the dam

designs are to be selected on the basis potential geological hazards,

topographic features of the valley etc. The dam safety requires regular

monitoring of repair, maintenance and rehabilitation. A constant

checklist is maintained for every defect or deterioration. The dams are

designed for a certain life. Thorough examination needs to be conducted

after the completion of its life. If potential hazards is considered to be

beyond the acceptable limit the dam can be decommissioned to eliminate

the safety hazard and restoration of the environment.

Environmental Concerns: The large-scale water resources projects have

considerable environmental consequences. The construction of dam

involves. regulation of water flow and upstream inundation leading to

degradation of catchment areas, threat of backwater build-ups and

consequent floods and destruction at the upstream of the dam.

19 L.K. Srivastava, 'Seismic Considerations in Design of High Dams", in B. G. Verghese and Ramaswamy R. lyer [eds.], Harnessing the Eastern Himalayan Rivers Regional Cooperation In South Asia ,Konark Publishers ,New Delhi, 1993,pp249-252.

197

Large-scale deforestation takes place during the construction of dam. In

India building a dam means destroying the surrounding forests. Timber

is used to build the dam itself and to supply workers with housing and

firewood. When the dam is completed, water inundates any remaining

forest areas. This accelerated deforestation can lead to increased soil

erosion and landslides in the already fragile mountains surrounding the

reservoir, causing even more sediment to build up behind the dam.2o One

analysis of the Tehri Dam in the Northern India indicates that the useful

life of the dam may be less than the half of its projected life of 100 years

because of the already active erosion on the southern slopes of the

central Himalayas. Rivers draining this region carry large amount of silt

eight months out of the year and many of the hillsides have already been

stripped out of vegetation.

The water resource projects alters the natural flow of water affecting the

upstream because of the impoundment of water and other project related

activities and the downstream because of changes in water flows. In both

the causes there is adverse impact on the aquatic ecosystem and bio­

diversity. The dam creates the barriers in the natural flow, thus some of

the aquatic life like fish ecology is seriously disturbed, as the migration of

certain fish species will be inhibited. The study reveals that construction

of fish ladders will not be possible in the high dams constructed in

Nepal. 21

In the upstream reg10n, the creation of reservoir causes ground water

level to rise in the reservoir fringe areas. Though the downstream will be

free from flooding the reduced supply of freshwater can directly affect the

fish population and other aquatic flora and fauna. The storage of large

volume of stagnant water behind a dam may become a good source for

mosquito breeding. The groundwater levels and recharge may be affected

20 Ravi Chopra, "The Social and Environmental Impact of Big Dams", in Walter Fernandez [ed.) Forests, Environment and People, Indian Social Institute Publications, New Delhi, 1983.pp.57-58.

21 United Nations, ESCAP, Towards an Environmentally Sound and Sustainable Development of Water Resources in AsiGl and the Pacific, Water Resources Series 71, New York, 1992, p. 159.

198

both upstream and down river. The canal networks could have similar

impacts on the command area.

Water resource management projects now require study of impact on the

environment. The riparian countries have guidelines and manuals for

conducting Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) studies with detailed

guidelines. EIA studies are increasingly becoming mandatory in the

funding and the execution of all major projects. Water resource

development experiences from different parts of the world have been

included to formulate the guidelines to ensure that environmental

consequences are not ignored. EIA studies are multidisciplinary and

numerous agencies are involved in it. EIA is major integral part of the

project itself with its own demand of funding, specialists and interfaces.

The EIA studies regarding Narmada Valley projects, Tehri Dam project in

India and Flood Action plan in Bangladesh have been the subject matter

of national and international debate.

The Environment Impact Assessment refer to the studies and statement

which firstly attempt to produce future environmental changes

attributable to proposed action, and secondly attempt to suggest the

likely impact of these changes on man's future well being.22 It is a

method of evaluating environmental consequences, which are likely to

cause by the proposed land use changes like - construction of dams,

reservoirs, railroad bridges, etc. The major steps in the EIA are (1)

Describe the present environment (the baseline conditions) (2) Describe

the project including purposes and needs (3) Describe the effects (4)

Describe the impacts, both short term and long term (5) Suggest and

compare alternatives (6) Provide a projection of the future of the site with

and without the p~oject (7) Suggest remedial measures.

The development projects are required to be developed in harmony with

the nature. The countries of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin should

22 • Savindra Singh, Environmental Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad, 1991,p491.

199

develop effective and efficient policy frameworks to ensure sound

utilization of water resources and mitigating negative environmental

impacts of water resource management projects. The environment related

laws and regulations regarding safeguarding critically fragile ecological

zones, national heritage sites, pollution control are extremely necessary.

The consultation of the all the stakeholders and project affected peoples

should become mandatory for all the water resource development related

projects.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation[R & R] of the Project Affected

Peoples

Large water resource project have adverse social impact also. The

construction of dams inundates the lands and villages in the reservoir

area that often creates a social problem with the loss of homes and social

life in these areas. The people who lived there are normally relocated to

new social and physical environment, which they often have difficulty ~

adjusting to. 23 The involuntary displacement of the population is not only

a physical phenomenon but also entails economic, social, moral, and

psychological and community dislocation. The local people are uprooted

from the ecology and livelihood resources to which they have adjusted for

many generations. This IS always traumatic. Resettlement and

Rehabilitation (R&R) of these people not only is an economic task but

also requires social-ecological and psychological understanding while

transferring them to new environment. The large water resources should

not only be seen as economic benefits to downstream people but also

from the view point of local project affected people.

The displacement caused by water resource related development projects

in the last few decades has caught the central attention particularly due

to the moral and legal issues involved. In early projects scant attention

has been paid to the R&R, which can be attributed to the sheer

callousness of the state. The major victims of the project were low-income

23 n. 21,p.l72.

200

group people belonging to the marginal section of the society, mostly

tribes. Growing awareness, about social and political rights of project­

affected people have made the issue central one. Resettlement and

rehabilitation of project affected people had have been the most

contentious issue in the recent past, which was vehemently argued and

defended, discussed and deliberated at many forum. This issue though

had caused deferment of some projects, slowed down progress of some

ongoing projects or even caused relegation of some projects; it had

brought forth many issues to the attention of policy makers and planners

causing attitudinal changes in their outlook towards this problem.24 The

Sardar Sarovar project in India has been seriously hampered due to

issues of rehabilitation by the environmentalists. In Nepal the Arun III

was stopped altogether in the wake of agitation backed by some social

workers, environmentalists and local people. The international donor

agencies have become particular about project linked R&R programme.

The domestic opinion has become greatly volatile over the displacements,

which is increasingly being seen as major human right violation issue.

Project Related Displacements in India: India since independence

carried out large-scale water resource development projects for expansion

of agriculture and energy production.2s These hydroelectricity and

irrigation projects are the largest source of displacement and destruction

of the habitat. In the scenario of development and displacement the

majority of the affected are the tribal people who have historically been

dependent on the natural resources base for their subsistence and lived

in relatively isolated areas. A significant point to be noted is that the

tribal communities are roughly 8 per cent of the total population of the

country yet over 50 per cent of those displacement belong to this section

of India's population. The implication is obvious the tribal people are

disproportionately affected by the development policies and the resultant

2 4 M.A.Chitale, Water for 2Jst Century, Global Water Partnership, South Asia Publication, New Delhi, 2001, p.12.

25 Ohlsson Leif, Hydropolitics Conflicts Over Water as a Development Constraint, University Press Limited, Dhaka, 1996,p.124.

displacement.26 The social activists are raising the question why tribes

should be involuntarily displaced at all, especially when costs are born by

them whereas the benefits goes to the others downstream.

Displacements in Nepal

Most of the projects in Nepal have been the run of the river schemes with

limited storages, which has caused limited displacements. However, the

proposed Karnali project in Nepal, which proposes the construction of

270-metre high dam at Chisapani, will cause displacement. The water

will spread over 339 square kilometers within the Karnali and Bheri

Valleys. The reservoir is likely to displace 40,000 to 60,000 people, the

upper limit being reached by the end of a gestation period of about 10

years when the dam in closed and the lake begins to fill. About 7, 730

hectare of agricultural land will be inundated on the valley floor.27 Most

of the displaced people are proposed to be rehabilitated on the degraded

forestland in the lower Karnali basin of the Terai region. The resettlement

area in sparsely populated and the introduction of irrigated agriculture is

expected to improve the living standards of those being relocated. The

capital cost of the resettlement programme is placed around 108 million

US dollar inclusive of infrastructure, housing and · irrigation farm

development at a rough per capita outlay of 1,800 US dollar.

The resettlement policy has not been uniform in the region. The cash

compensation approach followed earlier was not effective. The simple

tribes or peasants folks squandered away the cash quickly. Later land for

land policy was adopted. Usually the land allotted was of poor quality

and uneconomic size. The project-affected people faced many other socio­

cultural problems. The existing inhabitants of the area of resettlement

may be hostile to the new inmigrants. In Sardar Sarovar project of India

well-defined guidelines were formulated for the first time to rehabilitate

28 Dewan Ashraf Mahmood and N. Nizammuddin "Impact of Ganges Water Diversion on the Southeastern part of Bangladesh: A Perception study" BIIS Journal, Vol. 20, No.2, 1999,p. 174.

202

the project-affected people. The principle was laid down that water

resource development project should be utilized for the amelioration and

betterment of life of the affected people. They should get jobs in the

project area and planned efforts are to be made to provide them basic

amenities of health, education drinking water facilities besides the

economic assets. Thus rehabilitation and resettlement policy has to be a

linked to another concept of community and area development. Besides

family welfare approach has been adopted in place of compensating the

victims individually.

The Mahakali project region provides an opportunity on both sides of

border of India and Nepal to implement Area Development Approach. The

region lies in the remote inaccessible and backward are of the Himalayas.

Water resource development project will require infrastructural

development which can act as nucleus for community development.

Social and economic public goods can be provided to the local people in

different stages of project development, which can include education,

health, vocational training, institutionalized credit, besides the facilities

for improved agricultural pl-actices. Local people should be involved in

the economic ventures of fisheries in the reservoir, tourism and market

gardening. The fund can be created from the project as well as small

surcharge or cess on the energy or irrigation facilities availed

downstream.

The legislative and legal provision should be formulated as soon as

possible in different riparian countries to give fair treatment to the

victims of water resource development projects. The legal provision

should cover land acquisition policy, adequacy of compensation,

employment opportunities to the local people and area development

programmes that can envisage the projects as the opportunity to improve

the quality of life of the affected people.

203

Inland Water Transport in the Ganga - Brahmaputra Region

Inland water transport [IWT] is an efficient mode of transportation. It

plays major role in trade and commerce. The unique advantages of inland

water transport are energy efficiency, cost effectiveness and environment

friendliness. Besides being a very cheap mode of transportation IWT has

the advantage of moving goods and equipments that are bulky and

oversized. They play complimentary role to other means of transport

namely roads and railways.

Inland water transport has been maJor means of transport for many

centuries in the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin region. In the last century,

with the growth of roadways and railways, inland water transport was

neglected. Emphasis on roads and railways, faulty alignments of rail lines

led to the decline of inland water transport. The rivers can play major role

in transportation in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin if they are developed

in the integrated and coordinated manner with other means of transport.

Inland Water Transport in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is situated at the deltaic part of the Ganga- Brahmaputra

basin, thus, is criss crossed by river streams, distributaries etc.

Bangladesh dense network of river, canals, creeks have traditionally

provided a vital means of transportation to large part of the country.

Water transport carries about 50 per cent of the arterial freight traffic

and around the fourth of the passenger traffic. It is the only feasible

means of transport in some areas of the Bangladesh, especially

southwestern part of the country. 28Inland water is the dependable

source of transport particularly in remote area of the country where

roads are non-existent or in extremely poor condition and in many other

28 Dewan Ashraf Mahmood and N. Nizammuddin "Impact of Ganges Water Diversion on the Southeastern part of Bangladesh: A Perception study" BIIS Journal, Vol. 20, No.2, 1999, p. 174.

204

areas during the monsoon period when alternative transportation

network becomes unusable due to floods.

Bangladesh has got about 5222 kilometers of perennial waterways and

with additional 3211 kilometers of seasonal waterways, the total come to

about 8433 kilometers. Thus, Inland water transport offers wide

connectivity to rural and urban centers. Both public and private sectors

provide inland water transport. Although Bangladesh Inland Water

Transport Corporation (BIWTC) was formed in 1972 in the public sector;

its role has declined over the years as result of the government's decision

to accelerate privatization of inland water transport. Out of 5391

registered vessels operating during 1984-85, 90 per cent belonged to the

private sector. Inland water transport services are now dominated by the

private sector and within that by non-mechanized country boats and

small-mechanized vessel operators. The country boats provide nearly 60

percent of all employment in the transport sector as a whole. The country

boats play the most important part of the private sector inland water

transport. Non-mechanized water transport 1s the backbone of

Bangladesh water transport system, although mechanized vessels (both

passenger and cargo) are fast increasing in importance. In the non­

mechanized sector the country boats accounts for over 60 percent of all

employment in transport.

The inland water transport remams maJor means of transport as the

Bangladesh Railways are in decline and losing heavily. The arterial roads

construction cost is high and they are expensive to maintain. The stone

is not easily available for metalling. IWT is very competitive but despite

its salience it has not received financial allocations consummarate with

its potential and cost advantages.

The waterways link the country's two main ports at Chittagong (Mongla)

with five major inland ports at Dhaka, Narayanganj, Chandpur, Barisal

and Khulna and also serve the rural hinterland. The ports suffer from

physical constraints as well as management and operational problems.

205

The up gradation and development of these two seaports will complement

the growth of the IWT sector and the river ports of the country.

The inland water transport has vast potential in Bangladesh smce the

Ganga-Brahmaputra basin rivers enter the country from three directions

and merge into single outlet within the country. A bilateral agreement

between Bangladesh and India already exists for cross-national and

transit water borne traffic though the Ganga-Brahmaputra system. These

routes are (a) Calcutta-Mangla-Chandpur-Chilmari-Dhubri (b) Calcutta -

Chandpur- Bhairab- Zaluganj. The volume of traffic along these water

routes is extremely low, due to heavy siltation and lack of channel depth,

bank erosion and shifting channels. Still, the development potential is

enormous, specially, if viewed form the perspective of an integrated

intermodal network encompassing the system of India, Nepal, Bhutan,

with Chittagong and Mongla envisioned as entry j exit ports for maritime

trade.29

Bangladesh Government is trying to upgrade the capacities of maJor

ports by constructing container ports, renovation and maintenance,

developing complimentary over land transport such as Rupsa Bridge near

Khulna and Paksey Bridge on the Ganges.

Bangladesh can become the hub of sub regional trade for Nepal, Bhutan

as well as the North Eastern part of India by developing deep-water ports

at the coastal region. The potential locations for deep water, under

consideration are (a) St. Martin Island (b) Mahesh Khali Island (c)

Sonadia Island (d) North patches. The proposed deep water can serve

upto Calcutta, coastal parts of Orissa in India, besides serving

Chittagong, Mongla and Dhaka.

29 K.D.Adhikary et. al. [eds.J Cooperation. On The Eastern Himalayan rivers Opportunities and Challenges, Konark Publishers,New Delhi,2000,pp 140-143.

206

Inland Water Transport in Nepal

Inland water transport has not developed in Nepal despite the apparent

potential. Few hundred country boasts, ranging from the dug out canoes

to the bigger boats of 20 to 25 tonnes capacity ply in the lower areas of

three major river systems of Kosi, Gandak and Kankai. IWT has vast

possibility in Nepal by interlinking the inland waterway with India

waterway extending to the seaport. The major river basins and their

potential for navigation are discussed here. In the Gandak River system

navigation is possible only at the upper reaches. This water way is

important for central Nepal as well as for the western part of the Indian

states of Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh for linking it with India's

National Waterway No. 1 [extending from Allahabad to Haldia]. Due care

should be taken for possible navigation while increasing the use of

Gandak for irrigation in dry seasons.

The Karnali (called the Ghaghra in India) is identified as the best river

among the three major rivers originating in Nepal for navigation, right

from Terai region till it confluence with the Ganga.

The Kosi has a multipurpose potential including navigation. The Kosi,

except for the upper reaches, where the riverbed is too steep, could easily

be trained to develop a waterway suitable for the operation of shallow

draft barges system.

River Possible waterway Population to be served

Gandak 465 kms. 19,25,000

Kosi 435 kms. 17,00,000

Karnali 435 kms. 20,00,000

Source: Thapa and Pradhan [1995].30

30 n.ll,p.192.

207

In Nepal, river transport development programme was first incorporated

in the sixth plan ( 1980-85). Apart from the studies of navigation in Kosi,

Karnali and Narayani River, a number of test trial runs by jet barges were

carried out along certain stretches on the Karnali and Arun rivers under

the technical assistance from the UNDP and World Bank.

The Narayani River in the Narayanghat- Tribeni sector is attractive for

developing inland water transport. The stretch from the Tribeni to the

Nepal-India border is navigable by development of modified long tail

boasts. A stretch of 30 Km upstream of the Narayani River from the

border is navigable during the low water seasons by boasts. The Karnali

River, at a stretch from Chisapani to Seti confluence, is reported to be

technically feasible but requires further survey to confirm the findings.

The Inland navigation can play supplementary role to surface transport

in Nepal external trade traffic at different Indo-Nepal land border

checkpoints. Biratnagar, Birgunj, Bhairwa are the major entry- exist

points in respect of the trade volume. The Narayani River seems to be

attractive for water transportation as both Birgunj and Bhairwa are close

to the Narayani. It is suggested that from a long term perspective the

development of the Kosi for navigation may be much more economically

beneficial. This is because the distance of Calcutta port from the Indo­

Nepal border of the Kosi is much less than from the Narayani and the

Karnali.31

The development of inland waterway in Nepal to facilitate navigation

requires planned efforts for (1) rehabilitation of the river courses like

breaking the stones, widening and deepening of river channels,

provisions of spurs, (2) river bank protection to prevent the erosion of the

weak portion of the bank, (3) provision of special types of boats, ships

and barges which can safely operate in the turbulent condition of the

river (rapids, falls and high water) and (4) navigational facilities like

loading, unloading and handling facility. The development of navigation

3 1 S.K Malia, S.K. Shrestha and M.M Sainju, "Nepal Water Vision and the GBM Basin Framework", in Q.K.Ahmed et. al. [eds.] Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna Region A Framework for Sustainable Development, University Press Limited, Dhaka, 2001,pp183-184.

208

hinges upon careful planning, modifications, dredging or mega storage

projects upstream.

Nepal has prepared plans for (1) the development of waterways inside the

borders wherever technically feasible like- Ramdighat, Narayani,

Bhaisalotan section, Narayanghat - Balmikinagar section (Gandak),

stretches of Arun, Sunkosi, Seti, Sheri rivers (2)the interlinking the

internal waterways with Indian water ways.

Nepal Access to the Sea

The real value of the inland navigation to the land locked Nepal is the

access to the sea through the inland waterway in India and

Bangladesh.32 Nepal is vitally interested in the transit to third countries

and the sea. It has trade and transit treaties with India for access to the

Calcutta port, which is the entreport for not merely all of eastern,

northeastern, and east central India but Nepal and Bhutan as well. Nepal

has concluded a separate treaty with Bangladesh, however, it overseas

trade is channelised mainly through the port of Calcutta in India. The

port of Calcutta is a lifeline for Nepalese overseas traffic.

India and Nepal signed the Kosi Study Agreement 1997 to study

feasibility to construct 165 km long navigation canal out of which 120

km long section would be in India territory. The proposed navigation

canal should be linking Nepal with the sea port though the Ganges,

Bhagirathi and Hooghly rivers. The government of India has decided to

bear the entire cost of feasibility studies of the Kosi navigational canal.33

The proposed canal will be linked with the National Waterway No. 1 of

India (Allahabad-Haldia). As conceived under the plan the 165 km long

navigational canal will take off from Chatra and out falling near Kursella,

and a river port at Sunsari, located near the East West highway would be

developed. There are two stretches first 45 km upper reach between the

Chatra and Birpur (near Indo-Nepal border) and second the 120 km long

lower reach between the Birpur and the Ganges. The upper reach will

32 Dipak Gyawali, Water in Nepal, Himal Books, Kathmandu, 2001, p. 232. 33 A.B.Thapa, "Kosi Navigational Canal and the Hoogly River", Spotlight, January 9,

2004, p. 9.

209

entirely be in Nepalese territory.34 The lower reach Kosi canal, lying in

India territory, will have a drop of about 40 meters in north- south

distance of 120 kms. It might be necessary to provide three to four locks

to negotiate this drop. These drops could also be used for power

generation. Similarly the navigation channel running to the Ganges could

also be used for delivering water for irrigation.

Inland Water Transport in India

India has about 14,352 km of navigable waterways of which 5,200 km

are navigable by mechanized draft. Of these only 1, 700 km and 331 km

of rivers and canals are actually used for the purpose. The most

important waterways in the country are Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers

and their tributaries. Before the advent of railway, most of the country's

trade particularly in northern India was carried over by the rivers. A great

bulk of traffic was carried in country boats plying from India and Nepal

Border upto Assam. At its peak in 1876-77 Calcutta registered 1, 78,627

boats and Patna 1,24,354 boats.35 The decline of water transport began

with construction of the railways during the middle of 19th century. The

nature of layout of railways as well as withdrawal of water for irrigation

in numerous canals (which was responsible for of decline of water m

rivers like Ganga) led to decline of Inland waterway transport.

The Ganga holds a great potential for inland navigation as it is perennial

and traverses some of the most densely populated parts of India. Its main

channel still has a depth of more than 10 meters from Patna

downstream. Steamers ply regularly on the river upto Buxar near Patna.

River Hoogly, an important distributary of the Ganga in its delta course is

one of the most intensively navigated waterways in India. The

Brahmaputra is another important waterway in India, many leading

towns and cities of Assam are situated along this river[ Pandu,

34 A.B.Thapa, "China India Trade and Kosi Waterway", Spotlight, February 13, 2004, p.9.

35 0. Coutinho and T.C. Sharma, Economic and Commercial Geography of India, Vikash Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1992, p.350.

210

Jogighopa, Diksugarh are the leading port towns]. The river continued to

serve as a major artery of trade between Calcutta and Assam even after

194 7 (for tea, jute and oil). The services were discontinued in 1965 and

1970 on account of hostility between India and Pakistan. It was resumed

after 1972 after a transit trade agreement was signed between India and

Bangladesh.

The river is navigable by steamers throughout the year upto Dibrugarh,

1,280 km inland. However, large number of islands in the riverbed and

strong current in its channel during the monsoon season, hinder

navigation to a certain extent.

Realising the importance of inland waterway the Inland Water Transport

Corporation was set up as public undertaking in May 1967. It is mainly

engaged in the transportation of goods by Inland waterways in Ganga,

Bhagirathi, Hoogly, Sunderban and the Brahmaputra River. It is

operating regular cargo services between Calcutta and Karimganj

(Assam), Calcutta and Bangladesh and between Haldia and Patna. 36

The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) has been constituted on

27th October 1986 as a statuary body. It is entrusted with responsibility

of development, maintenance and regulation of national waterways. IWAI

has identified ten important waterways to declare them as national

waterways to promote the development of inland navigation in the

country. The Ganga-Bhagirathi Hooghly river system from Haldia to

Allahabad (1,620 km) has been declared as National Waterway No. 1 and

Brahmaputra river between Dhubri and Sadiya (891 km) as National

Waterway No.2.

Inland water transport in India particularly in the Ganga -Brahmaputra

basin region is constrained by insufficient water depths, non-availability

of adequate navigational aids, inadequate and shifting channels.

36 R.C.Tiwary, Geography of India, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad, 2003, p.179.

211

Cooperative Development of Inland Waterway Transport in the

Ganga -Brahmaputra Basin region

The transboundary rivers of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin regwn are

the natural assets, which can play a significant role towards the

expansion of trade and transportation, provided the three countries plan

an integrated and coordinated scheme for the development and

utilisation of the water resources.

India and Bangladesh are cooperating over navigation, which can further

be expanded. The river services to North -East have to ply through

Bangladesh waterways. The Central Inland Water Transport Corporation

of India, operating services from Calcutta to Guwahati and Calcutta to

Karimganj, has plans to extend the services on the Brahmaputra up to

Dibrugarh and Tezpur. The Brahmaputra River has sufficient draft year

around in Bangladesh though some conservancy works may be necessary

to canalise the lean season flow. The Kushiriya and Barak will have vast

navigational possibilities after the completion of proposed Tipaimukh

project. Tipaimukh dam is to be constructed on the Barak about 250 km.

upstream of Karimganj.

India and Bangladesh reviewed the protocol on transit and trade between

in 1997. Both sides recognized the need to include more ports of call and

transshipment stations. The early existing port of call Narayanganj ghat

is facing the problem of congestion and bunching, restricting the growth

inter country traffic movement. There is need to develop other riverine

stations namely Khulna, Mongla, Ashuganj, Sirajganj as the ports of call.

The existing embargo prohibiting movements of inter country traffic from

the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys to Bangladesh needs to be reviewed.

Vast possibilities remains unutilised between India and Nepal inland

water transport. The proposed Karnali, Kosi and Pancheswar high dams

can be boon for the development of deep waterways connecting Nepal

with the Ganges. The proposed Kosi navigation channel canal promises

to be very attractive because it can provide the shortest waterway access

212

to the seaports. IWT vessels inside Hooghly-Bhagirathi-Ganga stretch

may very conveniently carry a part of cargo that Nepal transports from

Haldia/Calcutta port by rail/road regularly. From Patna, the cargo may

be transported by road to Nepal via Raxaul - Birgunj border. The

governments of India, Nepal Bangladesh must develop an understanding

on the IWT mode based on the successful international models.

The Ganga- Brahmaputra basin waterways require on coordinated plan

for better linkages of waterway with rail, road, air, coastal shipping for

the multimodal approach for the movement of goods. The complimentary

and coordinated transport means can contribute in reduction of

transport costs. The models of multimodal transport with

containerisations [container services with strategically located container

depots) from developed countries can be implemented in Ganga­

Brahmaputra basin for the transnational transportation. The typical river

regimes of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin require specific fleet design,

cargo facilities, along with modernisation and upgradation of existing

craft's propulsion system.

The coordinated development of Inland waterway in Ganga- Brahmaputra

basin should be planned and implemented by a transnational institution.

This institution constituted by experts of riparian countries, will function

as an apex body for coordination and promotion of water transport in the

region. It may perform functions regarding (1) preparing the Master Plan

with specific schemes and recommendation for various governments, (2)

research and development for suitable vessels for different waterways, (3)

creation of regional data inventory on hydrography, etc, (4) channel

improvement and bank stabilization, (5) development of Inland ports and

container depots, (6) infrastructure development and training facilities,

(7) navigational aids, (8) harmonisation of legal frameworks concerning

the transnational transportation etc.

213

Water Quality in the Ganga- Brahmaputra Basin

Water is the lifeline of the people of Gaga- Brahmaputra basin region. It

has extensively been utilised for drinking, agricultural and industrial

purposes. Over the years, the quality of both surface and ground water

has deteriorated to such an extent that it has become matter of serious

concern in all the countries of the region. The surface and ground water

interact, the quality of water in one region has implications for the other.

Since, the rivers of the basin are transboundary in nature, deterioration

in quality of water affects the human life and environment across the

international boundary. The major causes of deterioration of quality of

water have been intense and unsustainable use of water resources for

agricultural purposes, rapid urbanisation and industrial pollution, poor

civic amenities, lack of awareness etc.

Water Pollution in Bangladesh

Bangladesh 1s facing water pollution due to urbanization,

industrialization and agricultural development. Though Bangladesh is

characterized by low urbanization, population pressure in gradually

increasing in urban centers, compounded by unplanned growth and

inadequate civic and physical facilities. The Dhaka city stands on the

bank of river Buriganga .The River has been heavily polluted due to rapid

urbanisation. The population of Dhaka city was 0.43 million in 1950,

which increased to 7 million in 1991. Buriganga receives huge amount of

waste discharges through a number of drains. The contamination load

has reached unsustainable situation.

The industrial pollution mainly occurs in the three main industrial zones

concentrated around the three principal urban centres of Dhaka,

Chittagong and Khulna.37 Other important industrial areas such as

Pabna, Tangail and Camilla also contribute to an extent to this process.

Most industrial units discharge liquid effluents into flowing rivers, canals

37 Q.K.Ahmed, et. al. (eds.) Resources, Environment and Development in Bangladesh, Academic Publishers, Dhaka; 1994, p.lOS.

214

and lagoons. These effluents contain ammonia, chromium and other

heavy metals from fertilizer and tanneries, mercury from chloralkali

units, and phenols from pulp and paper refinery, plastic,

pharmaceuticals and part industries. Unfortunately, very few industries

take any steps to alleviate the pollution they cause. Water quality tests of

four major river systems, namely, the Karnaphully, Buriganga, Sitalkhya

and Bhairab have shown that waters of these rivers are highly polluted.

There have been localised fish deaths, spread of skin diseases due to

untreated discharge from urea fertilizer units, distilleries and tanneries.

The agro chemical pollution has been caused by excessive use of

chemical fertilizes to boost up crop production as well as use of

pesticides. River water is a sink for these agrochemicals. However, no

institutional data are available on the extent of pollution from these

sources.

The pollution caused by industrial effluents, agrochemicals and domestic

wastes get diluted in the monsoon, but often rise to alarming proportion

in the low flow season.

In Bangladesh there is an additional problem of arsenic content in the

groundwater. For drinking purposes, over 97 per cent of households in

Bangladesh use ground water, most of which is abstracted by hand

tubewells from shallow layer. In recent times, it has been reported that

the ground water thus abstracted contains arsenic concentrations above

the safe limit of 0.05mg/litre in as many as 59 districts of 64 districts of

Bangladesh. In many areas, especially in the South-Western parts of the

country, tube well water samples have been found to contain iron and

other metals ions at concentration higher than the limits set by

Bangladesh standard for drinking water quality.38 This has serious

implications for domestic water supply as well as for the agriculture

sector because of possible transfer of arsenic into the food chain though

irrigated crops. The Bangladesh government has launched a four year

38 Ahmed U. Ahsan, "Bangladesh Towards 2025: Environmental Issues in Water Management", in Q.K. Ahmad (ed.) Bangladesh Water Vision 2025 Towards A Sustainable Water World, Masro Printing, Dhaka, 2000, p.49.

215

Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project with a v1ew to

providing arsenic free water supply to rural and urban communities.

Experts from Bangladesh claim that due to decrease in water volume in

major rivers during the dry season, the salinity increases substantially in

the rivers like Passur.

Water Pollution in Nepal

The water pollution in Nepal 1s confined near the urban industrial

centres. Rapidly growing population, unplanned settlement, lack of

awareness, lack of waste disposal facilities and poor sanitation

management in the Kathmandu have increased the rate of pollution of

the Bagmati River over the past few years. Not only is the river highly

polluted with sewage effluent, it is also contaminated near the source by

washing clothes and utensils and by being used as a latrine.39

The water pollution caused by industries has also reached significant

level. Industries usually dispose the effluents untreated in the rivers. Out

of the total 125 industries surveyed in Nepal 50,35,30 and 2 industries

were found to have low, medium, high and very high levels of pollution

respectively. The findings imply that even with Nepal's relatively little

industrialization the magnitude of industrial pollution has already

reached a significant level. The volume of effluent generated by most

industries is not large, but the concentration of pollutants is remarkably

high.

Outside the Kathmandu valley other river stretches have shown

significant level of pollution like Narayani in Chitwan area, Karra river in

Hetauda, Sirsiya in Birgunj, Kesliya in Biratnagar; where polluted rivers

cause gastro-intestinal diseases and they are unfit for use by livestock

and irrigation purpose.

39 Quality of Water in the GBM Region, Water Resources Development Phas.e-II Series, Institute of Integrated Development Studies, Kathmandu, 2001, p.26.

216

Water Pollution in India

The river Ganga in India has been badly polluted particularly due to

sewer drains from urban areas located on the river banks, industrial

effluents carrying waste water, suspended and dissolved materials, toxic

chemicals from various industries, human excreta, chemical fertilizers

pesticides, insecticides and herbicides etc. It may be pointed out that

point pollution in responsible for most of pollution of the Ganga because

many sewage drains from riverine cities and industries drain into the

river at specific points and these pollute the water beyond the permissible

limit. Such point pollution is done by many big cities and industrial

towns located on either banks of the river such as Kanpur, Allahabad,

Varanasi, Patna, Barauni, Calcutta, and Mokama. The water quality of

the Ganga in many segments of the river is found to be rather poor for

bathing. There is lack of adequate information on the state of pollution in

the Brahmaputra River.

The Ganga Action Plan was launched in 1985 to control the pollution of

the river and improve the quality of water.40 The major aim of the project

was to intercept and treat the raw sewage flowing directly into the river

causing gross pollution, to ensure and enforce proper effluent treatment

of industrial wastes, providing facilities for bathing sanitation, relocation

of dhobi ghats, construction of electric crematoria etc. Another important

task is the monitoring the river for water quality throughout its length.

There is an improving trend in the overall water quality. Desired

standards of Biological Oxygen Demand are observed upstream of

Kanpur since June 1987 and at Allahabad since May 1988.

Various legislative provisions have been enacted to safeguard water from

pollution like Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974; Water Cost

Act, 1977; The Environment Protection Act; 1986 etc.

40 India 2002 A Reference Manual, Publication Division, Government of India, New Delhi, 2002,p.l97.

217

Generally speaking, the quality of water in all the three countries of the

Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is unsatisfactory, particularly in terms of

their microbiological parameters. This industrial effluents, and run off

from agricultural fields, domestic waste, have seriously affected the water

quality locally in the region. The laws regarding pollution are inadequate

and their enforcement is poor. The monitoring of the water quality is not

extensive except for the Bagmati in Kathmandu valley, Buriganga in

Bangladesh and Ganga in India.

The riparian countries of the basin need to set uniform standards of

water quality parameters giving due consideration to the international

standards. There is a need to review their own water quality and

pollution laws with a view to removing the inadequacies and making

them enforceable.

Transboundary water resource management based on regional

cooperation can contribute substantially towards the betterment of

quality of life of the people in the basin area. Integrated resource

development, efficient utilisation, comprehensive and multi sectoral use

of resource and environmental sustainability should be the basic tenets

of the management of transboundary water resources.

Till now riparian countries have followed fragmented, issue based, site

specific approach of water resource management, which were mostly

based on bilateral agreement and negotiations m sectors like

hydroelectricity generation, storage, flood control, sedimentation, inland

water transport etc. There is no bilateral or multi lateral agreement on

water quality or environmental health of water bodies. These facts reflect

an ad hoc approach and shortsightedness in the water resource

management. The river systems integrate the multiple users in an

interdependent system. Thus, optimum and sustainable benefits can only

be accrued if these rivers are managed and developed within an

integrated regional framework. The countries need to play complimentary

role in management of water resources.

218

Transboundary water resource management in Ganga- Brahmaputra

basin poses many challenges at political, technical, policy operational

and institutional level. The countries of the basin require greater and

sincere political will to overcome challenges of cooperative water

management. They need to share the common vision of the shared

development. The atmosphere of trust, positive outlook and willingness to

cooperate are the motivating forces for the management.

Most of projects that have been taken up till now are based on the

bilateral framework. The bilateral linkages provide the necessary

groundwork to build upon the regional networks. The riparian now need

to move towards multilateral approach, shared institutional

organisations, integrated planning and regional framework.

There is need to strengthen the infrastructure for creating data inventory

for hydrological, climatological, geological, environmental status, land

use, pollution etc. India can support technical and infrastructural

facilities of data creation in other basin countries. Besides, there should

be free exchange of data among the countries of Ganga -Brahmaputra

basin in transparent manner. There is a need to establish a regional

network and database for hydrometeorology using uniform methods and

tools.

The countries of the basin need to create an appropriate institutional

structure for initiating and carrying forward both conceptual and

practical aspects of the cooperative management of the transboundary

water resources. The functions may entail developing concrete priorities,

facilitating cooperation and coordination among the user agencies, policy

formulation, harmonisation of legal provisions and speedy

implementation of the projects.

The different countries need to develop water resource policy based on

multi level planning (local, state/province, national) regarding use,

management and conservation of the water resources. The plans and

policies will include improving the efficiency of water use, allocation of

219

water among different sector, cropping and land use patterns, health and

sanitation, maintenance and modernisation of the technologies.

Appropriate measures needs to be taken for formulating policies and

strengthening existing laws regarding conservation of environment. The

riparian countries should develop proper legislative framework in their

country with an aim of holistic management of water at basin level as

effects of water scarcity and pollution are carried across the boundary.

The basin countries should develop ways and means of sharing the cost

and benefits of operational aspects of the water resources management.

India has greater role to play in the basin region due to its relatively

stronger economical, technological and institutional capacities. Detailed

study should be done on possible long-term effects of the operational

structures on the different sections of the basin. Prior information and

consultation will remove the atmosphere of mistrust and enhance

credibility. A monitoring and evaluation programme should be followed

for assessing social and environmental impact of the planned

development. The monitoring and analysis method should be harmonised

nationally and internationally.

The participation and interaction of stake holders, activists, civil society

and the governments could serve as trust enhancing mechanisms to

create a climate for garnering resources and finding areas of cooperation

on water resource sharing, development and management.