CANADIAN CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

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C94-960207 -B5B2.1609711

Cover title.Written by Roberta Parish and Sandra Thomson. Cf.Acknowledgements"Canada-British Columbia Partnership Agreement on Forest Resource Development:FRDA II." Cf. Verso of t.p.Previous' ed. written by Garth Coward. 0.Acknowle~gements.

Co-published by Canadian Forest Service,ISBN 0-7726-2159-4

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r1. Trees -British Columbia -Identification. I. Thomson, S. M. (Sandra Mary),1960- .11. Coward, Garth. Tree Book. III. British Columbia. Ministry of Forests. (IV. Canada-British Columbia Partnership Agreement on Forest Resource Development: (FRDA II. V. Canadian Forest Service. VI. TItle. VII. Title: Learning to recognize trees (of British Columbia.

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Parish, Roberta, 194B-Tree Book: learning to recognize frees of British Columbia

OK4B5.2.B7C6B 1994

Additional copies available from:

Canadian Forest Service506 W. Burnside Rd.Victoria, BCVBZ lM5

Ministry of ForestsPublic Affairs BranchSuite 300 -1675 Douglas Sf.Victoria, BCVBW 3E7

Canada BC;;JPartnership Agreement on Forest Resource Development: FRDA II

Learning to RecognizeTrees of

British Columbia

AcknowledgementsFunding for tlus project was provided by the Canada - BritishColumbia Partnership Agreement on Forest ResourceDevelopment: FRDA II.

Garth Coward wrote the first edition of the Tree Book. Manyindividuals have been involved in rewriting and revising thesecond edition. Emma McMillan and John Horchik completed aninventory and selected photographs. They would like toacknowledge Deb Tarry, Production Resources, Ministry ofForests, Research Branch; Jim Challenger and Dayle Sadler,Public Affairs Branch; Jolm Pinn, B.C. Parks; Nancy Turner,University of Victoria; Don Carson, Cowichan Lake ResearchStation, Ministry of Forests and Blake Dickens for their assistancein locating photographs. Allen Banner, Rich Evans, Les Josa,Andy MacKinnon, Mike Meagher, Meggin Messenger, AlisonNicholson, Ed Oswald, and Rob Scagel reviewed portions of thetext for technical accuracy. Judith A1dritt McDowell edited it.Maryse Chynchuck and Mario Biello from the Canadian ForestService translated the Tree Book into French.

Tree Book Committee:Ruth Eppele Dickens, Public Affairs Branch, Ministry of ForestsPaul Nystedt, Research Branch, Ministry of ForestsRobelta Parish, Research Branch, Ministry of ForestsJill Peterson, Canadian Forest ServiceWendy Stewart, Public Affairs Branch, Ministry of ForestsSandra Thomson, Research Branch, Ministry of Forests

Text: Robelta Parish and Sandra Thomson, Research Branch,Ministry of Forests

Design/ Layout and Production: Susan Fergusson and A.R. Ratsoy

Typesetting: Laser Works

Illustrations: Emma McMillan and A.R. Ratsoy

Distribution Maps: David Izard, Research Branch, Ministry ofForests, and George Clement, Sun Electric Arts Ltd.

Photo Credits: Forest Service (print collection) - p. 16, 17, 18,22a, 25, 44, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58,60,61, 63a + b, 64,65,66,69, 70a + b, 75, 77, 81, 82a, 84, 85, 87b, 88, 89, 94, 96,100, 105,108,109,114,115,116,117, 119a + b, 122, 126, 128,133, 134, 135, 142, 146, 147, 152, 153, 154, 158, 160, 164, 168,169, 171b.

Forest Service (slide collection) - p. 19,20, 22b, 26, 27, 29, 34,38,42,43, SIb, 62a + b, 74, 79a, 87a, 90, 91, 95a, 104, 110,IlIa, 113, 123, 143, 155a + b, 161, 171a, 173, 174.

Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks - B.C. Parks - p. 23,24, 31a, 31b,36,39, 57,67, 71a, 71b, 72, 73, 79b, 92, 98, 101,107, lIz', )25,130,132,138,151,170,172,175.

Ministty of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,Bill McMillan - p. 28, 33, 86, 99b, 156, 157, 159, 164, 165,166a, 166b.

Don Carson (Ministry of Forests, Cowichan Lake ResearchStation) - p. 21, 78.

C. Thomson (Nelson Forest Region) - p. 37, 41.

]. POjar (prince Rupert Forest Region) - p. 40, 93, 95b, 136, 140,144.

T. Lea (MinistlY of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria)- p. 80

E. Campbell (MinistlY of Forests, Research Branch, Victoria)- p. 102

]. Parminter (Ministry of Forests, Research Branch, Victoria)- p. 177

B. Swan - p. 30

Dave Fraser- p. 31c, ll1b.

A. 1nselberg - p.32, 68, 118, 120, 178

E. McMillan - p 45, 46, 47, 82b, 97, 99a, 106b, 124, 127, 139,148, 149, 150.

R.B. Dickens - p. 51a, 59.

R. Norton - p 106

A. Ceska - p. 121,137

F. Boas - p. 141, 145

M. McPhee - p. 167

The photo of the mask was used with permission from the RoyalBritish Coluinbia Museum collections CAT. NO. 9974

IntroductionMany of us who live in British Columbia appreciate its naturalbeauty - scenic landscapes, beautiful parks, and diverseplants and animals. When we visit different parts of ourprovince, we encounter a diversity of climates and landforms. This diversity results in a tremendous variety of forestand plant communities.

British Columbia has about 40 different species of nativetrees, but you won't find all of them everywhere you go.Some trees, like lodgepole pine, grow throughout theprovince, but others only grow in places where they areadapted to the particular climate. For example, westernredcedar grows mostly on the coast and in the wetter palts ofthe Interior, where there is abundant rainfall and tempera­tures are mild. Englemann spruce grows at higher elevations,where winters are very cold and snowfall can be heavy.

The information in tllls book will help you to identify thenative trees in your neighbourhood and understand why theygrow where they do.

We hope that discovering the uniqueness of trees will be thefirst step to opening the door on the natural world, whichalso includes other plants, animals, insects and fungi - allpart of the ecosystems of British Columbia. We hope the TreeBook will be just the beginning of your explorations.

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How to Use the Tree BookThe second edition of the Tree Book has a different look fromthe first. We have included 40 native trees that grow in BritishColumbia.

The first few pages of the Tree Book give you some tips on howto identify trees. Once you are familiar with the identifyingfeatures, turn to the identillcation keys and narrow your choices.To help you locate trees in the book, the colour used in the keyfor grouping trees with sinlilar features is the same as thecoloured background in the upper right corner of the secondpage for each tree description.

For each tree, you will fmd key identifying features such as bark,fruit or cones, and needles or leaves, along with photographsand descriptions. Be sure to check the distribution map to fmdout if the tree grows in your area.

There is also information on the kind of environment in whicheach tree species likes to grow, the other trees and plants thatusually grow with it, and some of the animals that consider itpart of their habitat.

We have provided some information about present and past usesfOf each tree. At the end of the book, you will fmd somenaturalists' notes to help you answer questions such as, \Vhat isan ecosystem? Why do trees grow where they do? and Doecosystems always stay the same?

Caution! Many native groups have used and continue touse parts of trees for medicine. We do not recommendconsumption without full knowledge of possible sideeffects.

This symbol indicates caution. ~

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What are the Parts ofaTree?Trees have three main parts - the leaves, the trunk and the roots.The upper part of the tree with the branches is called the crown.

Needles or leaves are the part of the tree that make sugar from airand water. They do this by a chemical process called photosynthesisin which energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the air, andwater recombine to form sugars and oxygen.

Stomates are tiny holes that control the amount of air thatenters and leaves the tree.

Chlorophyll is a chemical that makes leaves green. It is foundinside the plant's cells where chloroplasts absorb the sun'senergy for photosynthesis.

The trunk has several layers.

The outer bark protects the tree from fire or insects andinsulates it from extreme heat and cold.

The phloem is the layer of cells that forms a pipeline to carrysugars from the leaves to the rest of the tree. As these cellsdie, they become part of the outer bark.

The cambium is the growing part of the hunk. Each year thecambium produces new phloem and sapwood. These cellsgrow more slowly in the winter and tllis slower growthproduces the tree's annual rings. These a1U1Ual rings can helpus find the age of a tree. The oldest part of the tree is alwayson the inside.

The sapwood is the pipeline that carries water and nutrientsfrom the roots up to the leaves. AS new layers develop, theinner layers die and become heartwood.

Heartwood is dead wood in the centre of the tree. It gives thetree its strength.

Roots have two jobs - to anchor the tree to the earth and toabsorb water and nutrients from the soil.

Trees have fungi that live in and on the root cells and help themabsorb water and nutrients. In return, the fungi obtain food fromthe tree.

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Stomates----~

Chlorophyll------.,

Heartwood

Root

Soil

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Phloem

Cambium

Sapwood

Scaly?

What to Look ForMany trees look the same from a distance. Up close, you willstart to recognize differences, especially if you know what tolook for.

What is the shape ofthe leaf!

~.~Needle-like?In bundles? If so, how many in each bundle?

Not in bundles?

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Broad leaves?

Leaves opposite each other on the twig?

Leaves alternating?

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Leaves withoutindentations(not lobed)?

Leaves irregularlyshaped (lobed)?

Where are the seeds?

Berry-like fruit? Catkins? (structureswith many flowers)

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Cones?

Bracts?

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Key for Identifying Trees with Needles or ScalesFeature to Look For

Trees with scale-like leavesCones egg-shapedCones roundCones fleshy and berry-like

Tree Spedes

western redcedaryellow-cedarRocky Mountainjuniper

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limber pine

western white pine

Needles in bundles of 5, smallcones, grows at high elevationsNeedles in bundles of 5,large cones, grows at highelevationsNeedles in bundles of 5,large cones, not at highelevations

Trees with needles in bundles of 2, 3or 5Needles in bundles of 2 lodgepole pineNeedles in bundles on ponderosa or

yellow pinewhitebark pine

Trees with bundles of many needlesBundles of 15 to 30 needles,grows in southern B.C.Bundles of 15 to 25 needles,grows in northern B.C.Bundles of 30 to 40 needles,grows in subalpine areas

western larch

tamarack

alpine larch

Feature to Look For Tree Species Page

Trees with needles not in bundles

Needles with four sides and stalksGrows at lower elevations, white spruceneedles sharp and stiff, edgeof cone scales roundGrows ~t higher elevations, Engelmann spruceedge of cone scales raggedGrows in coastal areas, Sitka spruceneedles slightly flattenedGrows in northern areas, black spruceclump of branches on thetop of tree

Needles flat, usually with anotch at the end;cones upright

Needles on upper side of the grand fIrtwig point sidewaysNeedles on upper side of the amabilis flftwig point upwardsAll needles appearing to pOint subalpine flfupwards

Needles flat, with blunt endsNeedles different lengths, western hemlock I"top branch of tree droopsNeedles same length, mountain hemlockcurved upwards, growsat higher elevations

Needles flat with pointed tips

•Cones with a three-forked bract Douglas-flfFruit red and berry-like western yew

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Key for Identif~ng Trees with Broad LeavesFeature to Look For Tree Species Page

Leaves in apposite pairsLeaves no lobes, veins parallel, Pacific dogwoodshowy white flowersLeaves with 5 lobes, very large bigleaf mapleLeaves with 3 to 5 lobes and Douglas maplecoarsely toothed edgesLeaves with 7 to 9 lobes, vine maplealmost 'circular

Leaves alternating

ILeaves evergreen, red bark arbutuspeels in flakesLeaves oval, branches have thorns black hawthornLeaves oblong, veins parallel cascaraLeaves with rounded lobes, Garry oakwith acorns

Trees with fleshy fruit

ISmall red apples, egg-shaped leaves Pacific crab appleLong cluster of dark purple berries choke cherryFlat-topped cluster of bright pin cherryred berriesLoose cluster of dark red berries bitter cherry

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Feature to Look For Tree Species Page

Trees with catkins

Catkins woodyLeaves with rounded teeth red alderand edges rolled underLeaf edges are double-toothed, mountain aldersmall tree or shrub

Catkins foil apart easilyLeaves triangle-shaped, paper birchbark peels readilyLeaves oval-shaped, bark water birchshiny and dark

Catkins bead-likereleasing fluffy balsam poplarwhite seeds black cottonwood

Catkins small trembling aspensmooth white bark, leaves"tremble" in the wind

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Western redcedar

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Western redcedarThuja plicata

A large tree, up to 60 metres tall when mature,with drooping branches; trunk often spreadingout widely at the base.

LeavesScale-like, opposite pairs, in four rows, folded inone pair .but not in the other and overlapping likeshingles. Arranged on the twigs in flat, fan-like sprays.Very strong aroma.

ConesSeed cones are egg-shaped, I

, centimetre long, with several pairsof scales. Pollen cones are small andreddish.

BarkGrey, stringy, tearing off in longstrips on mature trees.

Where to find westernredcedarIt typically occurs at low tomid elevations along thecoast and in the wet belt ofthe Interior, where theclimate is cool, mild, andmoist.

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HabitatWestern redcedar grows best in moist to wet soils, with lotsof nutrients. It is tolerant of shade and long-lived, sometimesover 1,000 years.

Western redcedar frequently grows with western hemlockand Douglas-ftr. On the north coast, it also grows withamabilis fir and spmces. These forests usually have a lush layerof ferns, huckleberries, and Devil's club, with a thick carpet ofmosses'o,n the forest floor.

UsesThe western redcedar has beencalled "the cornerstone ofNorthwest Coast aboriginalculture," and has great spiritualsignificance. Coastal people used

all palts of the tree. They used the wood for dugout canoes,house planks, bentwood boxes, clothing, and many tools suchas arrow shafts, masks, and paddles. The ilmer bark maderope, clothil1g, and baskets. The long arching branches weretwisted into rope and baskets. It was also used for manymedicines.

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The wood is naturally durableand light in weight. It is usedfor house siding and interiorpaneling as well as outdoorfurniture, decking and fencing.Because of its resistance todecay and insect damage, the wood of large, fallen treesremains sound for over 100 years. Even after 100 years, thewood can be salvaged and cut into shakes for roofs.

NotesThe western redcedar is British Columbia's official tree. Thename plicata comes from a Greek word meaning "folded inplaits," in reference to the arrangement of the leaves. It issometimes called arbor-vitae, Latin for "tree oflife."

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Yellow-cedar

Yellow-cedarChamaecyparis nootkatensis

A medium-sized tree, up to 24 metres tall and 90centimetres in diameter; has a broad, groovedtrunk that spreads out widely at the base. Thecrown is sharply cone-shaped, with branches thatspread out and droop, and have small, looselyhanging branchlets.

LeavesScale-like, dark, bluish-green, andslender with sharp points. Unlike

• western redcedar, the leaves of theyellow-cedar are all alike, so thatthe leaf-covered twigs appear four­sided rather than flat.

ConesCones are round, 6 to 12millimetres in diameter, berry-like

in the fIrst year and becoming woody as they mature. Maturecones have 4 to 6 thick umbrella-shaped scales.

BarkOn young trees, the bark isthin, greyish-brown andscaly; on mature trees, ithas narrow intersectingridges. The inside of thebark smells like potato skins.

Where to findyellow-cedarCommon west of the CoastMountains, it rarely occurs insoutheastern British Columbia.

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HabitatYellow-cedar grows well on deep, slightly acidic, moist soils,usually as single trees, or in small clumps. It is common in old­growth stands at low elevations especially in the mid or northcoastal regions, with western redcedar and western hemlockand other plants such as salal and deer fern. It is mostcommom at high elevations, growing with mountain hemlockand amabilis fir.

Youngbal'k

UsesAboriginal people along thecoast used yellow-cedarextensively. They used the woodfor paddles, masks, dishes, and

bows and wove the bark to make clothing and blankets.

The wood is very valuable commercially because of its straightgrain, yellow colour, and resistance to decay. It is usedextensively for boat building.

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NolesCIJa1l1aecypa1'is is derived fromthe Greek word for the groundcypress, an Old World shmb;l100tkatensis refers to NootkaSound on the west side ofVancouver Island where it was first identified by botanists.

Yellow-cedar often has a candelabra-like appearance, becausethe top leader dies, as do the side branches that take over.The reason for this is not really understood, but it may be alack of nutrients caused by growing in wet, acidic soils orperhaps drought stress caused by a shortage of oxygen to theroots, which makes it difficult for the tree to take up water.

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Rocky Mounlainjuniper

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Rocky Mountain juniperJuniperus scopulorum

A shrubby tree with a wide, irregularly roundedcrown and knotty, twisted trunk reaching 13metres in height.

LeavesScale-like, in pairs, barely overlapping but coveringthe twig in four rows. On young, faster growingbranches-the leaves may be longer and more needle-like, scatteredin twos or threes; pale yellowish-green, turning to greyish-green onolder twigs.

ConesSeed cones are rounded, small, andfleshy, located at the ends of thebranches; bright to dark blue with agreyish tinge.

BarkDivided into narrow, flat ridgesthat are broken into thin, shredded,stringy strips; reddish- orgreyish-brown.

Where to find RockyMountain juniperIt occurs most commonly ondry rocky or sandy soils,especially in moist rockycanyon bottoms, along lakeand stream shores, and on dry,rocky, south-facing ridges. Itgenerally occurs throughoutsouthern British Columbia,although it has been seen growingas far north as Telegraph Creek.

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HabitatRocky Mountain juniper often occurs in pure open groups oftrees, but it can occur mixed with ponderosa pine on south­and west-facing slopes, or with Douglas-fu" on north- and east­facing slopes."-

Uses ./Aboriginal people used the woodof Rocky Mountain juniper formaking bows, clubs, and spoons.Because it is durable and has anattractive colour, it is now usedfor carving.

Many First Nations peoples boiled Rocky Mountain juniperboughs and used them as a disinfectant and air freshener. Theyalso used the boughs in sweat houses and for smoking hides.They ate fresh Rocky Mountain juniper berries in smallquantities or made them into a tea for many stomachailments. ~

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Berries from certain species ofjuniper are used to flavour gin.Gin was first made in Hollandin the 17th century as aninvigorating and medicinalalcohol.

NotesYoung branches of Rocky Mountain juniper can sometimes beconfused with common juniper (juniperus communis),which only has needle-like leaves and always grows as a shrub.

The cones ripen in their second season, so two generations ofcones may occur on the same tree. The fleshy covering of thecones is dissolved to allow the seeds to germinate. This isusually accomplished as the cones pass through the digestivetracts of birds or other animals.

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Lodgepole pine

Lodgepole pinePinus contorta VOL latiFalia

A tall, slender, straight tree which growsthroughout most of the Interior.

LeavesNeedles occur in bunches of two and are oftentwisted in a spiral with sharp points; usually darkgreen.

(onesSeed cones vary in shape from shortand cylindrical to egg-shaped; 2 to 4centimetres long without stalks. Theseed scales have sharp prickles attheir tips.

BarkThe bark is thin, orangey-brown togrey, and finely scaled.

Where to find lodgepole pineIt grows throughout the Interior, frommid elevation to subalpinesites.

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HabitatLodgepole pine is a highly adaptable tree that can grow in allsorts of environments, from water-logged bogs to dry sandysoils.

Lodgepole pine is one of the fIrst trees to invade after awildfIre. Its cones are protected by a seal of pitch thatrequires fIre or heat to release the seeds. This allows seedsto stay on the tree or on the ground for many years untildisturbal1ce provides suitable growing conditions.

Lodgepole pine can occur as the only tree in dense, very slow­growing groups of trees (so-called "dog-hair" stands).

UsesMany First Nations peoples inBritish Columbia used the woodfrom lodgepole pine for a varietyof purposes, including poles forlodges, homes or buildings. In

the spring, they stripped off long ribbons or "noodles" of thesweet succulent inner bark (cambium layer). It was eatenfresh in the spring, sometimes with sugar, or stored. ~

The pitch was used as a base for many medicines. It wasboiled, mixed with animal fat, and used as a poultice forrheumatic pain and all kinds of aches and soreness in musclesand joints. Pitch was also chewed to relieve sore throats. ~

Lodgepole pine is excellent forlumber, plywood, and paneling.It is used to make doors, windowsand furniture, as well as railwayties, mine props and fence posts.

Shore pine

In the extreme northeasternpart of the province, another two-needled pine grows: jackpine (Pinus banksiana). Its cone scales have no prickles atthe tip.

NotesAnother variety of Pinuscontorta (vaL contorta), calledshore pine, grows in a narrowband along the coast. Itcommonly grows as a short,scrubby, crooked tree. Thistwo-needled pine has thick,deeply grooved, dark reddish­brown bark.

Older lodgepole pine trees are susceptible to mountain pinebeetle. The beetle tunnels under the bark and lays its eggs. Asthe tree dies the colour of the needles changes from green torusty-brown. Lodgepole pine is also susceptible to mistletoe,rusts, and root rot. It provides food for many small mammals(e.g., snowshoe hare, vole, and squirrels) which feed on theinner bark.

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Ponderosa or yellow pine

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Ponderosa or yellow pinePinus ponderosa

A large-crowned tree with a straight trunk, usuallyabout 25 to 30 metres tall, but sometimes reachinga height of 50 metres and a diameter of 2 metres.

LeavesNeedles occur inbunches of three (occasionally bothtwos and threes), 12 to 28centimetres long, slender, withsharp points and sharply toothededges.

ConesSeed cones are narrowly oval whenclosed, 7 to 14 centimetres long,

with no stalk. The scales get thicker towards the tip and have asharp, rigid prickle. Seeds have a 2.5 centimetre wing.

BarkBlackish, rough, and scaly on young trees; onmature trees the bark isvery thick (up to 10centimetres), brightorang'ey-brown, and deeplygrooved into flat, flakyplates.

Where to findponderosa pineIt is the characteristic treeof the southern Interior.

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HabitatPonderosa pine occurs on a variety of soils, from extremelydry to well-drained, relatively deep, moist soils. It grows inpure, open, park-like groups at lower elevations. At higherelevations it grows with Interior Douglas-fir.

Ponderosa pine has a long, deep root that enables it to accessthe deeper, moister soil. The long root also makes it quitewind-fl\"m. These trees can live as long as 400 to 500 years.

Fires are common in ponderosa pine forests and the thickbark protects the trees from the frequent ground fires thatlightly burn fallen needles and dead grass. It is COl11l11on to seefire scars on older trees.

UsesAboriginal people in the Interiorof British Columbia had manyuses for ponderosa pine. Theyate the seeds and inner bark ofboth the ponderosa and thewhitebark pine.

Some Interior groups used the wood for making dugoutcanoes. They used the pitch for waterproofmg moccasins andother items. They also mixed it with bear grease and used it asan ointment for sores and inflamed eyes. ~

The wood is used mainly for doors, windows, and furniture,as well as paneling and shelving.

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NotesFor many, the name ponderosa conjures up romantic imagesof the wide-open spaces of the untamed West. However,David Douglas named the tree because of its ponderous size.The other common name, yellow pine, refers to the clear,even-grained wood that is found in very old, large trees.

On a hot day, the bark of the ponderosa pine smells likevanilla and when you break a young twig it smells somewhatlike oranges.

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Whitebark pine

Whitebark pinePinus albicaulis

A subalpine tree that varies in shape from a smalltree with a rapidly spreading trunk and broadcrown to a slmlb with a wide-spreading crownand twisted, gnarled branches when exposed tostrong winds. It is similar in appearance to linlberpine, but its cones are quite different.

LeavesNeedles occur in bunches of five,ranging from 3 to 9 centimetreslong; they are stiff, slightly curved,usually bluish-green, and tend to beclumped towards the ends ofbranches.

ConesSeed cones are egg-shaped toalmost round, 3 to 8 centimetres

long, and grow at right angles to the branch; the scales grow inroughly 5 spiral rows. The cones are permanently closed and theseeds are released when the cones decay on the ground. Seeds arelarge - about a centimetre long - and wingless.

BarkThin, smooth, and chalky­white on young stems; as thetree gets older, the barkbecomes thicker and formsnarrow, brown, scaly plates.

Where to findwhitebark pineIt occurs at high elevations insouthern British Columbia.

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HabitatWhitebark pine prefers to grow on dry to moderately moistsites in subalpine areas.

The whitebark pine has a special relationship with the Clark'snutcracker. The bird uses its slender, long, curved beak tobreak open the cones and remove the seeds. The nutcrackerthen buries the seeds for winter meals. If thenutcracker forgets where it buries theseeds they are in an ideal environmentfor germination and sprouting.Grizzly bear are known to feed onwhitebark pine seed caches.

UsesThe Thompson people ate theseeds of the whitebark pine(pinenuts) both raw and roasted.They collected the cones in the

fall and dried them to open the scales. They extracted theseeds and ate them fresh or sometimes preserved them forwinter by cooking and crushing them and then mixing themwith dried berries.

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NotesThe scientific name albicaulisliterally means the "pine withwhite stems" in reference to thewhite bark that is especiallynoticeable on younger trees.

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Limber pine

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Limber pinePinus f1exilis

A small, scrubby, twisted tree with short limbs,usually 5 to 10 metres high; the lower brancheson older trees become very long and drooping butwith upturned tips. It looks similar to whitebarkpine, but limber pine has larger cones.

LeavesNeedles occur in bunches of five, 3to 9 centimetres long; bluish-greenand clustered at the ends of twigs.

ConesSeed cones are large andcylindrical, 8 to 20 centimetreslong; they are yellowish-brown, andthe scales are thickened and stickytowards the tip. The seeds are nut-like and almost wingless.

BarkOn young trees, the bark is silvery-grey; as thetree matures, the barkbecomes thicker, veryrough, and nearly black,with wide scaly plates.

Where to findlimber pineIt occurs only at higherelevations on the westernfoothills of the RockyMountains, in the extremesoutheast of British Columbia.

HabitatLimber pine occurs on dry to moderately moist sites insubalpine environments. It occurs as a single tree or in widelyspaced groups of trees on rocky terrain, where its rootspenetrate the spaces between rocks.

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NotesBoth the common name andflexilis refer to the flexiblenature of the wood of this tree.Having flexible wood is anexcellent adaptation for a treethat must deal with heavy snowpack and ice.

Western white pine

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Western white pinePinus monticola

A large tree, up to 60 metres high. It usually growsin closed groups of trees and has a short, opencrown.

LeavesNeedles occur in bunches of five, about 5 to 10centimetres long. Slender, straight, and soft totouch, they are bluish-green in colour with a whitish tinge, andthe edges are very fmely toothed.

ConesSeed cones are cylindrical whenclosed, about 10 to 25 centimetreslong, and they occur on a 2 .centimetre stalk; the scales areoften bent backwards when dry.The seeds have wings about 3centimetres long.

BarkWhen the trees are young,the bark is thin, smooth,and greyish-green. It turnsdarker as it gets older andforms deep, verticalgrooves, with smallrectangular scaly plates.

Where to findwestern white pineIt is commonly found in the drierparts of Vancouver Island, theadjacent mainland coast and in thewetter parts of the southern Interior,particularly at low elevations.

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HabitatWestern white pine thrives in a variety of environments,ranging from peat bogs to dry, sandy, or rocky soil. It doesbest on sites that are rich in nutrients and well drained, inmoist valleys and on gentle northern slopes.

UsesThe Thompson people made amedicine from the boughs ofwestern white pine. ~

The wood is ideal for carvingbecause of its fme grain and uniform texture. It is also prizedfor special construction purposes, pattern making andfurniture.

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NotesWestern white pine issusceptible to white pineblister rust, which causesportions of the tree to turn anorangey-brown colour and die.The rust is difficult to control and prevents the tree frombeing of commercial importance.

The botanist David Douglas first identified western whitepine on the slopes of Mount St. Helens. It gets its conunonname from the light colour of the wood. The Latin name1I1onticola means "inhabiting mountains."

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Western larch

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Western larchLarix accidentalis

Like all larches, it loses its needles in the autumn.This large, handsome tree can grow to 80 metrestall and 850 years of age.

LeavesNew needles are soft green, turning golden yellowin the fall, and broadly triangular in cross section.They are long, clustered in bunches of 15 to 30 on stubby, woodyprojections which remain on the twig after the needles fall.

ConesSeed cones are elongated and red toreddish-brown. The scales havewhite hairs on the lower surface andprominent, long slender bracts.Pollen cones are yellow.

BarkMature trees develop thick, groovedplate-like bark with cinnamon­

coloured scales (similar to ponderosa pine bark).

Where to findwestern larchIt grows in valleys and onthe lower slopes ofmountains in the sOllthernInterior.

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HabitatWestern larch usually grows in mixed forests but canoccasionally be found in pure groups of trees after a severewildfIre. It demands full sunlight and grows well on fIre­blackened soil. Fire releases nutrients which it uses to growfaster than its companion species.

Low temperatures limit the distribution of western larch. It isquite sensitive to frost damage because it continues to growfrom bup-burst in spring through to September; mostevergreen conifers stop growing in mid-July.

UsesAboriginal people seldom usedwestern larch wood; however,they mixed the dried pitch withgrease and used it as a cosmetic.

Dried powdered pitch was also an ingredient of a red paintapplied to wood or buckskin. ~

The wood of western larch is one of the strongest in Canada.It is often used in heavy constmction and for railway ties andpilings.

Tamarack

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TamarackLarix laricina

A small, slender tree which rarely grows morethan 15 metres tall. It has delicate, deciduousfoliage.

LeavesNeedles are three-sided and blue-green, turningbright yellow in autumn. They grow in clusters of15 to 25 on short woody projections which remain on the twigafter the needles fall.

ConesThe small, round seed cones are redat flowering and turn brown withage. Pollen cones are yellow.

BarkRed-brown, thin, and scaly.

Where to find tamarackIt is a northern specieswhich grows mainly east ofthe Rockies and in a fewisolated groups of trees inthe Nechako Valley.

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HabitatTamarack is usually found with black spruce on poorlydrained soils - bogs and swamps - and on cool, moist, north­facing slopes.

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NolesLaricina is Latin for larch-like.Tamarack comes from anAlgonquin word, akemantak,meaning "wood used forsnowshoes. "

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Alpine larch

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Alpine larchLarix Iyallii

A small, often dwarfed or contorted tree thatgrows to 15 metres tall.

Leaveseedles are soft bluish-green and turn golden in

the fall. They are four-sided and grow in clusters of30 to 40 on short, woody projections whichremain on -the twigs after the needles fall. The alpine larch has

woolly hair on its buds and twigs.

ConesThe small, egg-shaped seed conesare reddish-yellow to purple whenyoung. Between each scale of thecone there are prominent bracts.Pollen cones are yellow.

BarkThe bark is thin, deeply grooved,and flakes into reddish- to purplish­brown scales.

Where to findalpine larchIt is found in the subalpinearea of the RockyMountains, the Purcell andsouthern Selkirk ranges, aswell as in Manning Park andadjacent areas in the Cascaderanges.

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HabitatAlpine larch grows in very cold, snowy areas, often on rocky,gravelly soils. It grows with whitebark pine and subalpine fir.Alpine larch can also form pure groups of trees which providea spectacular show of autumn colours.

UsesA soup can be made from theyoung twigs for a survivalfood.~

NotesAlpine larch (Larix lyallit) wasnamed for David Lyall, aScottish surgeon and naturalist,who accompanied several earlyexpeditions and surveys. Thealpine larch's spring andautumn colours are eye-catching.

White spruce

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White sprucePima glauco

A large tree with a narrow crown, it can grow to40 metres tall and 1 metre in diameter whenmature.

LeavesNeedles are four-sided, sharp, and stiff, and arearranged. spirally on the twigs; whitish-green andfoul smelling when young, they become pleasant smellingwith age.

ConesSeed cones are light brown topurplish and hang from the upperbranches. The seed scales have asmooth, rounded outer edge. Pollencones are pale red.

BarkThe bark is loose, scaly, andgreyish-brown.

Where to findwhite spruce\V!lite spruce and itshybrids are found through­out the Interior from valleyfloor to mid elevations. Inthe central Interior, whitespmce interbreeds withEngelmann spruce and isreferred to as interior spruce.The pure species is generallyfound only north of DawsonCreek.

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HabitatWhite spruce grows in a wide range of environments. Itfrequently grows with lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, aspen,birch, and willow. Oak fern, horsetail, and gooseberry oftengrow under white spruce. Lynx, snowshoe hares, wolves, andmoose live in these northern forests.

Young bark

UsesAboriginal people living in theInterior used most parts of thewhite spruce tree. They madespruce saplings into snowshoe

frames and sometimes into bows. They heated the gum tomake a glue to fasten skins onto bows and arrowheads ontoshafts. They used the decayed wood for tanning hides. Sprucebark was also used to make cooking pots and trays forgathering berries.

White spruce is a very important commercial tree species,yielding excellent lumber and pulp.

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Hybrid Cones

Notes\'<Ihite spruce is often shallow­rooted and susceptible to beingblown over, especially on thinor wet soils. Large areas ofblown down spruce are primebreeding sites for the sprucebeetle, which can then spread to mature trees and killthousands of hectares of old-growth spruce.

EngelmaIlll spruce

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Engelmann sprucePiceo engelmonnii

A straight tree with a spire-like crown that canreach 50 metres tall and 1 metre in diameter whenmature. Branches near the ground tend to droop.

LeavesNeedles are four-sided and sharp but notparticularly stiff. They are deep bluish-green withtwo white bands on both the upper and lower surfaces. Theneedles are arranged in all directions on the twigs.

ConesSeed cones are yellow to purplish­brown and hang from the upperbranches. Their papery seed scalesare tapered at both ends and have aragged outer edge. Pollen cones aremost commonly yellow to purplish­brown.

BarkThe bark is loose, scaly, andreddish-brown to grey.

Where to findEngelmann spruceIt occurs at high elevationsthroughout the Interior andalong the east slope of theCoast Range. It has beensuccessfully introduced intohigh-elevation plantations onthe west side of the CoastRange and on Vancouver Island.

HabitatEngelmann spmce commonly occurs with subalpine fir inareas with long, cold winters and short, cool summers. Itgrows best on deep, rich soils with adequate moisture.

In drier areas, Engelmann spmce grows with lodgepole pine.The forest floor is often carpeted with grouseberry andmOlmtain arnica. On wetter sites, huckleberries, white­flowered rhododendron, and Sitka valerian commonly occur.

Mule deer are plentiful and birds such as grouse,woodpeckers, nuthatches, and thrushes breed in thesesubalpine forests.

UsesAboriginal people living in theInterior used peeled, split, andsoaked spruce root to sew theseams of bark baskets. The

Interior Salish and Athapaskan peoples used the split roots tomake tightly woven coiled baskets.

Sheets of spmce bark were made into cooking baskets andcanoes. The bark was used by the Thompson people forroofing and by the Lillooet people for baby carriers.

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Engelmann spruce lumber is used for constmction when greatstrength is not required. Rotary cut spruce veneer is used inmanufacuuing plywood. Specialty items such as violins, pianos,and aircraft parts are produced from Engelmann spruce.

NotesEngelmann spruce interbreedswith white spruce in areaswhere their ranges overlap.

It was named for GeorgeEngelmann (1809-1884), aGerman physician and botanist.

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Sitka spruce

Sitka sprucePicea sitchensis

A large tree that commonly grows up to 70 metrestall and 2 metres across when mature. The largestknown Sitka spmce is 93 metres tall and 5 metresacross.

LeavesNeedles ~re light green to bluish-green, stiff, andsharp. They are four-sided but slightly flattened with two white

bands mnning along the uppersurface and two narrower bandsalong the lower surface. Theneedles are arranged spirally alongthe twig and are attached by smallpegs which remain on the twig afterthe needles fall.

ConesSeed cones are reddish- toyellowish-brown and hang from the

crown. Their seed scales are thin, wavy, and irregularly toothed.Pollen cones are red.

Where to findSitka spruceIt grows along the coast in anarrow band from sea level toabout 700 metres. It is mostcommon along the coastal fog­belt and river and stream floodplains.

BarkThe bark is very thin,brown or purplish grey,and breaks up into smallscales.

~ ,. .

HabitatIn coastal forests, Sitka spruce grows with western hemlock,western.redcedar, and yellow-cedar. The forest floor is oftenthick with mosses, and horsetails, blueberries and deer fernflourish.

Black-tail deer abound, especially in the Queen CharlotteIslands, where they were introduced without their naturalpredator, the gray wolf. The productive floodplains alongcoastal'v~lleys support grizzly and black bears as well as manysmaller manmlals.

Young bark

UsesAboriginal people living on the coast used Sitka spmceextensively. From the roots, they fashioned beautiful water­tight hats and baskets. Roots also provided materials for ropes,fishing lines, and twine to sew boxes and baskets.

Some coastal peoples ate the inner bark or the young shootsraw as a source of vitamin C. Fresh inner bark also acts as alaxative. ~

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The native people used softenedpitch to caulk and waterproofboats, harpoons and fishing gear.The pitch also provided aneffective medicine for burns,boils, and other skin irritants.

Sitka spruce is valued for itswood, which is Light, soft, andrelatively strong and flexible. It isused for general construction,

ship b((iJding and plywood. The wood has excellent acousticproperties and is used to make sounding boards in pianos andother musical instruments such as .olins and guitars.

NotesThe Sitka spruce is frequentlyhost to the spruce weevil. Theweevil lays its eggs in the budat the top of the tree. If it iswarm enough, the eggs hatchand the new growth wilts andeventually dies. Cool oceanbreezes and summer fog deter the weevil and allow Sitkaspruce to grow freely.

Sitka spruce has been introduced into Britain and northernEurope, where it is now widely grown.

Black spruce

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Black sprucePicea mariana

A smaU, slow-growing tree, up to 20 metres taUand 25 centimetres in diameter. It often has acharacteristic cluster of branches at the topforming a club or crow's nest.

LeavesNeedles "re blue-green, short, stiff, and four-sided.The needles are arranged in aU directions along the twig or mostlypointing upwards.

Where to findblack spruceIt grows throughout thenorthern part of theprovince.

ConesSeed cones are smaU and purplish.The old cones hang on the tree forseveral years. Pollen cones are darkred.

BarkThe bark is thin, scaly and darkgreenish-brown.

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UsesThe Carrier people used blackspruce wood to make fish traps.

Other aboriginal people made snowshoe frames and dryingracks. They also used powdered resin on wounds to speedhealing. ~

The long fibres in black spruce make this a preferred pulpspecies for paper products.

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NotesThe name mariana means "of Maryland." Phillip Miller, whonamed the species, felt that Maryland epitomized NorthAmerica - but the species does not actually grow there!

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Grand fir

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Grand firAbies grandis

A tall, stately tree that can grow up to 80 metreswhen maulre.

LeavesNeedles are flat with rounded and notched ends.They are dark green and grooved on top with twowhite bands underneath. Needles are arranged toform flat' sprays that show both the upper and lower surfaces ofthe twig.

ConesSeed cones are barrel-shaped andyellowish-green, growing upright onthe branches, high in the crown.The cones shed the scales with theseeds dUring autumn.

BarkThe bark is smooth and greyish­brown with white spots and blisters

filled with gummy resin when young. The bark becomesfurrowed and scaly with age.

Where to find grand firIt is found from sea level tomid elevations along thesouthern coast and aroundthe Kootenay and Columbiarivers in the southern Interior.

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HabitatGrand fIr prefers drier climates than the other true ftrs inBritish Columbia. In the Interior, it commonly grows in mixedconiferous forests with Douglas-ftr, western hemlock, andwestern white pine, and with queen's cup, falsebox, andprince's pine on the ground below.

On the coast, western redcedar and flowering dogwood mayalso be present, with salal, Oregon-grape, western trillium andvanilla-le\U' beneath.

These forests are often home to bears and cougars; owls andwoodpeckers; and toads, frogs and salamanders.

Grand fIr, like other true firs, has a thin bark which makes itsusceptible to ftre. It has increased in abundance since forestftre fighting activities began.

UsesThe Okanagan people builtcanoes from grand ftr bark andrubbed its pitch on paddles togive them a good finish. Theyalso applied pitch to the back ofbows to provide a secure grip.

Kwakwaka'wakw shamans wove branches into headdressesand costumes; they also used branches for scrubbing beforerites and rituals. The Hesquiat made branches into incenseand decorative clothing for wolf dancers. They also rubbedthe pitch mixed with oil on their scalps as a perfume and toprevent baldness. ~

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Young bark

NotesThe name Abies is derived from the Latin abeo meaning "torise" and refers to the great height attained by some species.Fir is derived from the Old Englishflwl1 orf)'1'11 or the Danishf)'l'l', meaning "fire", from its use as firewood.

Many of the true firs are incorrectly called balsam. The truebalsam fir (Abies balsamea) is found east of the RockyMountains.

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Amabilis fir

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Amabilis firAbies amabilis

A tall, straight tree with a dense cone-shapedcrown. It can reach 50 metres when mature.

LeavesNeedles have blunt ends and are usually notchedat the tip. They are dark green with a groove onthe upper. surface and have two silvery bands onthe lower surface.

The needles are arranged inflattened, spray-like branches. Thelong needles spread horizontallyfrom the bottom and sides of thetwig while the shorter ones on thetop point forward.

ConesSeed cones are deep purple and areheld upright on branches at the top

of the tree. The cones fall apart while still on the tree, leaving acentral spike that is visible into winter. Pollen cones are reddish.

BarkThe bark is smooth andpale grey with blisters ofpitch. It becomes scalywith age.

Where 10 find amabilis firIt is usually found in coastalforests above 300 metreselevation. In the north, it maygrow at sea level.

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HabitatAmabilis fir thrives in a maritime climate, where it is commonin moist forests on deep, well·drained soils. It is usually foundin mixtures with western and mountain hemlock, yellow­cedar, and western redcedar. It is very tolerant of shade, andsmall trees often grow abundantly with black huckleberry andmountain·heathers.

Amabilis fir tolerates summer drought but depends onadequilt~moisture during the early growing season. Seedlingsdevelop long roots that penetrate compact soil but the rootsystem will grow horizontally on poorly drained soils.

Young bark

UsesBoughs from both amabilis firand grand fir provided floorcoverings and bedding foraboriginal people.

Several coastal peoples used the firs medicinally. They boiledthe bark with stinging nettle for a tonic and for bathing andtreated colds with a tea made from the needles. ~

The Nisga'a occasionally used it for house planks. Many nativegroups used it for firewood.

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Because of its light weight andcolour, its clean appearance andits lack of unpleasant odour, thewood is used for doors andwindows, as well as furnitureparts, mouldings and foodcontainers.

. , ~ '-.:::~:::"'~ ~,~~ ,,,,''''~':

NolesAmabilis fir is also called Pacific silver fir because of thesilvery underside of the needle. The botanical name amabilismeans "lovely," an apt description for this species.

The cones of the amabilis fir are the largest and heaviest of thenative firs.

Subalpine fir

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Subalpine firAbies/osiocarpo

A medium-sized tree usually 20 to 35 metres tall;occasionally grows to 50 metres. Subalpine fIr hasa distinctive long, narrow crown of short stiffbranches.

Leaves '-r l~Needles have blunt ends and are often notched atthe tip. They are blue-green with a single white band on the topand two beneath. Needles all tend to turn upwards, but often afew stick out from the underside of the branch.

ConesSeed cones are deep purple andgrow upright at the top of thecrown. Like the cones of the otherfIrs, they disintegrate on the tree,leaving a central spike. Pollen conesare bluish.

BarkSmooth and grey, withresin blisters when young;bark becomes broken intolarge scales with age.

Where to findsubalpine firIt grows well at highelevations, from 600 to 2,250metres tlu'oughout most of theInterior. It also grows near sealevel on the north coast. Noneof the true fIrs grow in theQueen Charlotte Islands.

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HabitatSubalpine fir is common in many Interior forests and is amajor component of the Interior high elevation forests fromthe Yukon to Arizona. Cool summers, cold winters and a deepsnowpack are important in determining where subalpine firwill grow well. .

In the mountains and plateaus of the Interior, subalpine fir iscommonly found with spmce. Caribou eat the lichens that arefound o·n. the lower branches of these trees.

UsesThe pitch and bark of subalpinefir was a very importantmedicine in the Interior. TheSecwepemc called the tree themedicine plant. They chewed

the pitch to clean their teeth. People also chewed the pitch ofall tlUe firs for enjoyment. ~

Interior groups made large temporary baskets from sheets ofbark that they stitched together with spruce roots. They usedthe baskets for cooking or soaking hides. They also collectedboughs to use for bedding and as flooring in sweat lodges.

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The Carrier people used thewood to make roofIng shinglesand burned the rotten wood tomake a substance for tanninghides.

Subalpine fIr is currently harvested for lumber, plywoodveneers, boxes, and pulp.

NotesSubalpine fIr does not live longbecause of its susceptibility towood-rotting fungi, especially Indian paint fungus andbleeding conk fungus. Between 120 and 140 years of age,many trees become infected and die.

Western hemlock

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Western hemlockTsugo heterophyllo

A large tree, it usually grows 30 to 50 metres tall.It has a rather narrow crown and conspicuouslydrooping new growth at the top of the tree. It hasmostly down-sweeping branches and delicatefeathery foliage.

Leaves.Needles are nearly flat, glossy, and soft; yellow to dark green onthe upper surface and whitish underneath. The needles areunequal in length and produce feathery, flat sprays.

Where to findwestern hemlockIt grows along both the eastand west sides of the CoastRanges, from sea level tomid elevations, as well as inthe Interior wet belt west ofthe Rocky Mountains.

ConesThe small, numerous seed conesare greenish to reddish-purple andturn brown with age.

BarkDark brown to reddish-brown,becoming thick and stronglygrooved with age.

••

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HabitatWestern hemlock usually grows with many different treespecies. Occasionally, it develops in pure groups of trees aftera wind has blown many trees over. Its shallow rooting systemmakes it susceptible to being blown over by wind as well asbeing damaged by fIre.

UsesCoastal people carved hemlockwood, which is fairly easilyworked, into spoons, combs,roasting spits, and other

implements. The Haida carved the wood from bent trunksinto giant feast dishes. Sometin1es hemlock roots were splicedonto bull kelp fIshing lines to strengthen them.

Hemlock bark is rich in a substance useful for tanning hides.The Saanich people made a red dye which not only colouredwool but also added colour to cheeks and removed facialhair. ~

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The Nisga'a and Gitksan peoplesscraped off the inner bark inspring and baked it into cakes. Afavorite way to prepare the driedcambium in winter was to whipit with snow and eulachongrease.

The wood has an even grain and resists scraping, whichmakes it easy to machine. It is widely used for doors,windows, parts of staircases, ladders and other architecturalmillwork items.

).~

NotesHemlock was named after a European weed which has asimilar smell. Western hemlock is not related to poison­hemlock, the weed which killed Socrates.

Tsuga is from the Japanese Tsu-ga, the elements for "tree" and"mother," and beteropbylla is Greek for "different leaves."

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Mountain hemlock

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Mountain hemlockTsugo mertensiono

A subalpine tree with only a slightly droopingleader or top; rarely grows more than 30 metrestall and is often stunted at high elevations.

LeavesNeedles are uniform in size, glossy, and yellow­green to ,deep bluish-green. They cover thebranches densely on all sides or may be mostly upturned.

Where to findmountain hemlockIt grows at mid elevationsto timberline in the coastalmountains and at lowelevations further north. Inthe Interior, it grows in theCariboo, Selkirk andMonashee mountains.

ConesSeed cones are light to deep purple(sometimes green), narrow at eachend and longer than those ofwestern hemlock. Pollen conesare bluish.

BarkDark reddish·brown, cracked andgrooved into narrow ridges,

, I

,\

\\,

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HabitatMountain hemlock grows with amabilis fir and yellow-cedaron the coast and Engelmann spruce and subalpine ftr in theInterior. It is found in areas that have a deep, insulatingsnowpack that accumulates early in the fall; it probablycannot grow where the soil freezes. It also grows in bogsalong the mid to north coast.

UsesCommercial uses include smalldimension lumber and pulp.

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NotesMertensiana is named forFranz Karl Mertens, a Germanbotanist.

Lewis' 1I1onkey-flower

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Douglas-fIT

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Douglas-firPseudotsuga menziesii

A large tree, reaching heights of 85 metres on thecoast and 42 metres in the Interior. Older treeshave a long, branch-free trunk and a shortcylindrical crown with a flattened top. There aretwo varieties of Douglas-ftr - coastal and Interior.

LeavesNeedles are flat with a pointed tip.The upper surface is brightyellowish-green with a singlegroove down the centre; the lowersurface is paler. The needles appearto stand out around the twig.

ConesCones are 5 to 11 centinletres long,

turning from green to grey as they mature. Between each scale,long three-pronged bracts are easily seen. Seeds are winged atthe tip.

BarkSmooth, grey-brown, withgummy resin-filled blisterswhen young, the barkbecomes very thick with ageand deeply grooved, with darkreddish-brown ridges.

Where to find Douglas·firThe coastal variety ofDouglas-ftf occurs along thesouthern mainland coast andacross Vancouver Island, except forthe very northern tip. The Interiorvariety occurs throughout southernBritish Columbia and north toTakla Lake.

HabitatThe two varieties of Douglas-fir occur in quite differentecosystems. The Interior variety grows in a variety of habitatsincluding open forests with pinegrass and mosses beneath. Onthe coast, the forests are much more productive. Douglas-fircan grow with western redcedar, hemlock, and grand fir, witha lush layer of salal, huckleberries, Oregon-grape, and swordfern beneath.

Many animals eat Douglas-fir seeds, including squirrels,chipmunks, mice, shrews, winter wrens, and crossbills. Bearsoften scrape off the bark on young trees and eat the sap layerbeneath.

UsesAboriginal people in the southpart of the province had manyuses for Douglas-ftf. They usedthe wood and the boughs as fuel

for pit cooking. They also used it for fishing hooks and forhandles. Douglas-fir boughs were frequently used for coveringthe floors of lodges and sweat lodges.

Douglas-ftf wood has been highly valued since the ftfstEuropeans exported lumber in the 18th century. This densewood is exceptionally hard, stiff and durable. Its strength andavailability in large dimensions make it outstanding for heavy­duty construction such as wharves, trestles, bridge parts andcommercial buildings.

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t. ..'. /- r./ ", //; /1; JI:

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NotesBecause the Douglas-fIr is not atrue fIr, the common name ishyphenated. It was named afterDavid Douglas, the Scottishbotanist who introduced manyof British Columbia's nativeconifers to Europe.

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Western yew

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Western yewTaxus brevifalia

A low spreading shrub to a small tree,S to 15 . ,,-~ •.metres tall; young trees are often square in profile, ,;rbecoming more cone-shaped with age. The trunkis twisted and becomes very wide near the base,with horizontally spreading branches.

LeavesNeedles'are flat, about 2 centimetres long, with a distinctivepointed tip; dark yellowish-green, arranged spirally on twigs buttwisted so that they appear to grow in two rows.

Cones and FruitSeed and pollen cones usuallyappear on separate trees, The fmitconsists of a coral-red fleshy cupthat is open at one end and containsa single seed.

BarkThin, dark reddish or purplishscales shed off the tmnk and exposea rose-coloured underbark.

Where to findwestern yewIt occurs scatteredthroughout the wetter forestsof the coast and the Interiorwet belt, prinlarily at low tomid elevations.

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HabitatWestern yew occurs on a wide variety of sites, from dry androcky to moist depressions and ravines; it generally occurs onsites that have abundant soil nutrients. It often occurstogether with Douglas-fir, western redcedar, and westernhemlock, as well as plants such as salal, Oregon-grape, orskunk cabbage.

Where it does occur, it is important food for black-tailed deer,elk, moOse, and caribou. Several birds - including blackbirds,waxwings and nuthatches - and various small rodents eat thefruit. In so doing, they scatter the seed away from the tree.

UsesAlthough the fruit of westernyew is considered toxic, somecoastal native groupsoccasionally ate it in smallamounts. ~

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The native peopleused the strong,stiff wood formaking items suchas bows, tools,paddles, andprying sticks.It is still used formaking bowsand paddles.

/; .•......./ .:,. Ii'· .....~. ",.... . '" .i ..''11.1 !\~ ,,--?!..~...~..'i.~..~•.~~...:.:.•.•..i,.. ,,

a,,~~~.~.

Interior peoples sometimes used the branches to makesnowshoe frames.

The bark of western yew contains a compound called taxol,which shows promise in treating some forms of cancer. ~

NotesTa:xus is a Latin word for "bow." Some historians believe thatRobin Hood's bow was made from English yew.

Pacific dogwood

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Pacific dogwoodComus nuttollii

A small tree or shrub, up to 15 metres tall, withbranches arranged in a circular pattern aroundthe tree.

LeavesOpposite, oval leaves have pointed tips and aslightly toothed edge. Pacific dogwood leaves aredark green and turn orange in fall.

FlowersThe showy, white flowers areactually four to six modified leavesthat surround a cluster of 30 to 40small, green flowers. Dogwoodsusually flower in spring and againin fall.

FruitThe dark red berries areedible but bitter.

BarkSmooth and grey.

Where to findPacific dogwoodIt grows on the southerncoast and on Vancouver Islandsouth of Port Hardy.

HabitatPacific dogwood grows best on deep, coarse, well-drainedsoils, often underneath Douglas-fIT, grand fir, and westernhemlock.

The fmit is part of the diet of pigeons, quail, grosbeaks,hermit tlu'ushes, and waxwings. Bears and beavers enjoy thefmit and foliage, and deer eat the twigs.

UsesSome aboriginal people used thewood, which is fme-grained,hard and heavy, for bows andarrows. More recently, the

Cowichan people on Vancouver Island made knittingneedles from it.

The Straits Salish made a tanning agent from the bark. TheThompson people made dyes - deep brown from the bark,black when mixed with grand fir, and red from the roots.

The wood has been used for piano keys. Pacific dogwoodvarieties are attractive ornamentals in coastal gardens.

NotesPacific dogwood is susceptibleto a fungus, the dogwood leafblotch, which disfigures leavesand causes shoots to die back.Clearing away fallen leaves andspraying with lime sulphur inthe winter reduces the chance of infection.

The name dogwood most probably comes from the Sanskritword dag, meaning skewers.

The botanical name nuttallii is for Thomas Nuttall (1798­1859), a British-born botanist and ornithologist. Comusmeans horn and may refer to the hard wood.

Legislation protects the Pacific dogwood from being dug upor cut down. The Pacific dogwood blossom is the floralemblem of British Columbia.

Bigleafmaple

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BigleafmapleAcer macraphyllum

The largest maple in Canada, reaching heights of36 metres. When it grows in the forest, it developsa narrow crown that is supported by a stem freeof branches for half its length. Those growing inthe open have a broad crown which is supported

by a few large,spreading limbs.

:;: LeavesLeaves are deeply five-lobed and arethe largest of any maple in Canada,measuring 15 to 30 centimetresacross. They have only a fewbluntish, wavy teeth; are shiny,dark green on top and palerunderneath; and turn yellow in the

fall. The leaf stalk sometimes oozes a milky substance when it isbroken. Twigs and leaves emerge as pairs.

FlowersSmall greenish-yellow flowers, about 3 millimetres across,appear early in spring, hanging in clusters at the ends of twigs.

FruitThe fruit consists of twoWinged seeds joined at thebase. Seeds are hairy, 3 to 6centimetres long.

BarkGreyish-brown, shallowlygrooved when older.

Where to find bigleaf maple ~It is restricted to the southwest corner ~~of British Columbia at low to mid "elevations.

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HabitatBigleaf maple generally grows on coarse, gravelly, moist soils,such as those found near river, lake, or stream edges, but itcan occur on other moist soils such as seepage areas. Itcommonly occurs in mixed groups of trees with red alder,black cottonwood, Douglas-flf, western redcedar, and westernhemlock.

Squirrels, grosbeaks, and mice eat the seeds of bigleaf maples,and deer, and elk eat the twigs.

UsesCoastal peoples used bigleafmaple wood to make dishes,pipes and hooks for clothing.Many groups who made paddles

out of the wood called it the paddle tree. They used the innerbark to make baskets, rope and whisks for whippingsoopolalie berries.

In the Interior, aboriginal people ate the young shoots raw inthe spring. They also made a type of maple symp, but becausethe sap has a low sugar content, it takes a large quantity of sapto make a small amount of symp.

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Because of its close grain andmoderate hardness, maple woodis used commercially forfurniture, interior finishing, andmusical instmments.

NotesMaple flowers are quite sweetand edible and can be usedin salads.

Bigleaf maple trees are oftendraped in mosses, because the bark is rich in calciumand moisture, adding to the attractive wet rainforestplant community.

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Douglas maple

Douglas mapleAcer glabrum

A shrub to small tree, I to 7 metres in height; thetrunk may be divided into a few slender limbs; .these are further divided into many small branches'to form an irregular and even-topped crown.

LeavesLeaves are 7 to 10 centimetres wide, divided into3 to 5 lobe.s, and have a typical maple-leaf shape. They arecoarsely toothed, dark green on top and greyish-greenunderneath, turning bright red-orange in autumn.

FruitThe fruit consists of a cluster ofwinged seeds, joined in pairs at asharp angle in a V-shape. The seedwings are about 2.5 centimetreslong, and the seeds are stronglywrinkled and indented.

BarkGenerally thin, smooth,and dark reddish-brown;roughened on largerbranches and old trunks.

Where to findDouglas mapleIt is widespread at low to midelevations throughout most ofBritish Columbia, except in theQueen Charlotte Islands andnorthern British Columbia.

HabitatDouglas maple occurs on well-drained wet sites andsometimes in avalanche areas. It inhabits clearings andopen forests.

Uses .-/Aboriginal people in the Interior had many uses for Douglasmaple. The wood is tough and pliable, and they used it forsuch items as snowshoe frames, saddle frames, spoons, dipnetor fishing hoops, bows, rattles, masks, and headdresses. Theysoaked the green wood and heated it, then molded it into thedesired shape.

The Thompson people used the stringy inner bark to maketwine, the Shuswap people used it for rope, and the Nisga'afor mats.

Douglas maple is suitable as an ornamental and is particularlyattractive in the autumn.

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NolesGlabrum means "smooth,"perhaps referring to the leavesor fruit, which have no hairs.

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Vine maple

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Vine mapleAcer circinatum

A deciduous shrub or small tree, sometimesreaching a height of 20 metres; it has a short,crooked trunk, with twisted, spreading limbs and alow, irregularly shaped crown. The trunksometimes grows almost horizontally and may rootif it touches the ground. Vine maple can become asprawling shrub that grows into dense thickets.

LeavesLeaves are almost circular, 6 to 11centimetres in diameter, with 7 to 9lobes; the lobes are triangular, withsharp single or double teeth; brightyellowish-green on top, pale greenand downy underneath, turning redor yellow in autumn.

FruitThe fruit consists of Winged seeds, 2 to 4 centimetres long,joined in pairs and borne in a duster; the wings of the seedsare spread widely.

BarkThin and greenish,becoming reddish-brown;smooth, or sometimes withshallow cracks.

Where to find vine mapleIt is mostly restricted tosouthwestern British Columbia,particularly at low to midelevations. It occurs in a few placeson southern Vancouver Island and inWells Gray Provincial Park.

HabitatVine maple occurs most frequently on moist soils, rich innitrogen, particularly along the banks of streams and wet sites.It can live in the shade but also occurs in openings in theforest. Vine maple and alder are often the fIrst trees toestablish after landslides. Vine maple commonly occurs withbigleaf maple, Douglas-fIr, western hemlock, grand fIr, andPacillc dogwood, and sword fern underneath.

UsesThe Coast Salish people usedvine maple occasionally for bowsand frames for fIshing nets. Thelower Thompson people usedthe wood for making snowshoesand cradle frames.

On the coast, the aboriginal people boiled the bark of theroots to make a tea for colds. They burned the wood tocharcoal, mixed it with water, and drank it to combatdysentery and polio. They always collected the bark and woodearly in the morning from the sunrise side of the tree. ~

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-NolesThe common name probablycomes from the gnarled andcrooked appearance of thetree.

On the coast, vine maple is abeautiful garden shrub that lookssinlilar to Japanese maple.

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Arbutus

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ArbutusArbutus menziesii

A broadleaf evergreen tree, up to 30 metres taU,usuaUy with a crooked or leaning trunk thatdivides into several twisting upright branches andan irregularly rounded crown.

LeavesDark and glossy but pale underneath, 7 to 12centimetres long, thick, with a leathery texture.

Flowers• Dense clusters of urn-shaped white,

waxy flowers drooping at the endsof twigs in April or May.

FruitThe fruit is berry-like, 7 millimetresacross, and bright reddish-orange,with a peel-like surface texture.

BarkThe bark is thin, smooth,and reddish-brown, peelingin thin flakes or strips toexpose younger, smooth,greenish to cinnamon-redbark underneath.

Where to find arbutusArbutus is restricted to anarrow band along the southcoast and generally occurswithin 8 kilometres of theocean. It is often found onexposed rocky bluffsoverlooking the ocean.

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HabitatArbutus is found on sites that lack moisture, such as thosewith rocky or rapidly drained soils. Because it does not likeshade, it generally occurs in clearings or on open rocky bluffswith other species such as Garry oak or Douglas-fir,oceanspray, Oregon-grape, baldhip rose, and several herbsand grasses.

The flowers have a strong honey smell and are very attractiveto bees.. Fruit-eating birds such as waxwings and robinsfrequently eat the berries.

UsesArbutus bark is very rich in asubstance used for tanning hides.The wood is heavy and hard,

tends to be brittle, and cracks when drying. It is used only forwoodworking in British Columbia.

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NotesArbutus is the only nativebroadleaf evergreen tree inCanada. Another commonname is madrone, a Spanishword for the strawberry tree, ofwhich arbutus is a close relative. The Scottish botanistArchibald Menzies first collected specimens in 1792 anddescribed it as the oriental strawberry tree.

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Black hawthorn

Black hawthornCratoegus doug/asH

A large shrub to small tree that grows up to 8metres tall, armed with stout, straight thorns 1 to 2centimetres long and bearing showy, white b~oIo"J~

flowers during May and June.

LeavesOval leaves are 3 to 6 centimetres long, with 5 to 9small lobe~ at the top.

FlowersWhite, saucer-shaped flowers inflat-topped clusters.

FruitClusters of small, blackish "apples"(haws) that wither quicklywhen ripe.

Where to find black hawthornIt is found from sea level to mid elevations south of Fort St. John,along water courses and meadowland thickets.

The Columbian or redhawthorn (Cmtaeguscolumbiana) is a smallertree or shrub with longslender thorns and red fruit. Italso grows along watercourses and on dry hillsides inthe southern Interior. The "English hawthorn (Cmtaegus '-o:>.:ycantba), an ornamental garden .tree, is naturalized on the southerncoast.Its leaves are deeply lobed, and thefruit is red.

HabitatBlack hawthorns like lots of sunlight to grow to tree size.The apple-like fruit provides food for birds in the winter.Impenetrable hawthorn thickets are good nesting anddenning or resting and sleeping sites for small birds andmanmlals.

UsesThe Thompson and Okanagan

.1 peoples used the thorns topierce ears and to probe boilsand skin ulcers. The Lillooet andGitksan people made fish hooksfrom them. ~

The strong, hard wood made durable digging sticks andhandles for implements.

The Cowichan people burned the leaves, inner bark, and newshoots and mixed the ashes with grease for a black face paintused in winter dances.

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NotesThe name Crataegus is fromthe Greek word kratos,meaning "strength," because ofthe great strength of the wood.The common name, hawthorn,comes from its early use as ahedge. The Anglo-Saxon haguthorn is "a fence with thorns."

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CascaraRhamnus purshiana

A small tree or shrub with greyish-black bark thatgrows to 10 metres tall.

LeavesAlternate, oblong leaves have fme teeth alongtheir edges and prominent veins running parallelto the siqes. It is the only deciduous tree in theprovince whose buds are not covered by bud scales in thewinter.

FlowersNondescript, greenish flowers,clustered near ends of branches.

FruitPurplish-black berries.

BarkThin, dark greyish-brown; smoothwhen young, becomes scaly with

age. A cut in the bark reveals a bright yellowirmer bark that turns darkbrown on exposure to airand light.

Where to find cascaraIt is found on the southernpart of the coast andVancouver Island and inscattered locations in theColumbia Valley in theInterior.

HabitatCascara grows under conifers on rich, well-drained soils withplentiful summer moisture. Streamsides and wet areas arefavourite locations.

UsesThe Nuu-chah-nulth people usedthe wood to make chiselhandles, and the Skagit people

produced a green dye from the bark. Coastal people alsoknew it as a tonic and as a laxative. ~

Cascara was harvested throughout its range for use as alaxative. Bitter cascara extract has been used in liquors and adebittered extract as a flavouring for drinks and ice cream.Honey from cascara flowers is also reported to have a mildlaxative effect. ~

Originally, people collected only the fresh bark, but soon thewood was discovered to contain 50 percent of the activecompouhd. Legislation regulated cutting to prevent over­harvesting. The legislation was rescinded after a syntheticsource was developed.

NotesSpanish priests in Californianamed the tree Cascarasagrada, meaning "sacredbark." This name has twopossible origins. The flfst isfrom the medicinal properties of the bark and the secondfrom its resemblance to wood used for the ark ofthecovenant. Rhamnus is the ancient Greek name for the genus.

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Garry oak

Garry oakQuercus garryana

An attractive tree with thick, grooved, scaly,greyish-black bark and a round spreading crown;grows up to 20 metres tall.

LeavesDeeply lobed leaves are bright green and glossyabove aI,ld paler with red to yellow hairsunderneath. The leaves turn brown in the fall. Leaves often havebumps caused by gall wasps.

FruitAcorns are small in size with ashallow scaly cup on one end.

BarkGreyish-black bark with thickgrooves and scales.

Where to findGarry oakIt grows in southeasternVancouver Island and theGulf Islands, with someisolated groups of trees inthe lower Fraser Valley.

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HabitatGarry oak forms open parkland and meadows that arescattered with Douglas-fir and a lush spring display of herbs ­camas, Easter lilies, western buttercups, and shootingstars.These meadows are threatened by urban development.

A diverse bird community makes its home in Garry oakmeadows, as well as numerous mammals and insects. Gartersnakes and alligator lizards can be seen basking on sun­warmed rocks.

....:-~ ...~.

-u-Jil'~~~~~'~< ~-.Garry oak wood was used bycoastal peoples for combs anddigging sticks as well as for fuel.They also ate the acorns either

roasted or steamed. They managed the Garry oak ecosystemby underburning in order to cultivate a supply of camas bulbs.Camas was an important food source for many Coastal groups.

NotesOaks were considered sacredto the god of thunder andcarrying an acorn preserved ayouthful appearance.

Garry oak was named bybotanist and explorer David Douglas for Nicholas Garry of theHudson's Bay Company, who helped him during his travels. InOregon, where it is quite common, tllis species is calledOregon white oak. Quercus is the Latin name for "oak."

Pacific crab apple

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Pacific crab appleMalus Fusca

~A small tree or multi-stemmed shrub that grows to~12 metres tall, armed with sharp thorn-like shoots ::;'''B:~''''''''''III

and bearing showy white flowers from mid April v' -~>-r........to early June.

LeavesAlternate., deep-green, egg-shaped leaves grow upto 10 centimetres long. The edges are toothed along theirregular lobes.

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FlowersWhite to pink, fragrant appleblossoms in a flat-topped cluster.

FruitThe yellow to purplish-red apples,2 centimetres across, are tart butedible. After a frost, they turnbrown and soft.

Where to find Pacificcrab appleIt is found on lakesides andstreambanks along the coast,from sea level to midelevations. Pacific crab applegrows on Vancouver Islandbut not on the QueenCharlotte Islands.

HabitatPacific crab apple grows in moist, open woodlands. Itpresents a delightful spring sight when in bloom along theedges of river mouths and streambanks.

UsesThe apples were an impol1antfruit for all coastal people, whoharvested them in the late

summer and early fall and either ate them fresh or stored themunder water. Because of their acidity, the apples did notrequire fm1her preservation.

The deeply coloured wood is hard and somewhat flexible.Coastal people used it to make tool handles, bows, wedges,and digging sticks.

NotesThis is the only native appletree in the province, but it maybe mistaken for cultivated pearand apple trees that haveovergrown or been abandoned.

Malus is often used for apples and Pyrus for pears. Sometaxonomists group the two genera into Pyrus.

Choke cherry

Choke cherryPrunus virginiana

Commonly a shrub, and occasionally a small tree,1 to 4 metres tall; sometimes with a twisted orcrooked tnmk and a narrow, irregular crown.

LeavesBroadly oval-shaped leaves, sometimes broadestabove th~ middle, tapering at both ends, 8 to 10centimetres long; thin, with rme, sharply toothed edges; dullgreen on top, greenish underneath.

FlowersMany small, white flowers in acluster at the end of the twig, whichresembles a bottle brush.

FruitShiny, round, crimson to blackcherries, 15 millimetres in diameter;bitter but edible.

BarkSmooth, dark reddish­brown to greyish-brown.

Where to findchoke cherryIt is common throughoutsouthern British Columbia,especially east of the Coastand Cascade mountains, atlow to mid elevations. It isalso found in the Peace andStikine river valleys.

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HabitatChoke cherry commonly occurs on the edge of woodlandsand thickets, often on dry, exposed sites, along streams andin clearings.

UsesAboriginal people in thesouthern and northern Interiorate the choke cherry fruit. Theycollected the cherries in the fall

and dried them, often with the stones left in. They used thechoke cherry wood for handles, and shredded the bark andused it for decorating basket rims. They made a tonic from thebark for regaining strength after childbirth. ~

Many people use choke cherries for wine, juice, syrup, and jelly.

NolesThe Gitksan name for choke cherry means "it makes yourmouth and throat so that nothing will slip on it."

Vit'giniana, like pensylvanica (see pin cherry), refers to thedistribution of these plants. They were first collected anddescribed in the east by early North American botanists.

Pin cherry

Pin cherryPrunus pensylvaniw

A shrub to small tree, usually 1 to 5 metres tall, but ~

can reach 12 metres in height. The trunk is straight, '*'with a narrow, rounded crown; when it grows in theopen, it has a short trunk with a flat-topped crown;the crown is much reduced when it grows in theshade of a forest.

LeavesOval- to narrow-shaped, graduallytapering to a sharp tip, 8 to 10centimetres long; thin, with round­toothed edges, shiny yellowish­green on both surfaces; two smallglands on the leaf stalk at the base ofthe leaf.

FlowersSmall and white in flat-topped clusters of 5 to 7.

FruitSmall, round, bright redcherries, with a sour-tastingflesh, 5 millimetres indiameter.

BarkDark reddish-brown, withlarge, widely-spaced, orangehorizontal slits (lenticels); peelsin horizontal strips.

Where to find pin cherryIt is common east of the Coastand Cascade mountains at lowelevations, south of Fort St. John.

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HabitatPin cherry occurs in dry to moist open forests and clearings; itcommonly occurs after fire or other disturbances,

Because the berries are a favourite of many birds, it is oftendifficult to fmd ripe fmit on the trees,

Pin cherries make good jelly,

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U~es \f '~~,Pin cherries were eaten byseveral First Nations peoples,depending on their localabundance, but the cherries didnot dry well, They also used thebark for decorating baskets,

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!/;~. \J'Notes' . /Pin cherry probably inttrbreedswith bitter cherry in areas incentral British Columbia wheretheir ranges overlap,

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Bitter cherry

Bitter cherryPrunus emarginata

A shmb or small tree, up to 9 metres tall; straight,slender tmnk, extending up to the narrow crown.

LeavesSmall, oval-shaped leaves, tapered towards the tip;2 to 8 centimetres long, yellowish-green, thin,with une.ven-sized teeth on the edges.

FlowersSmall, white flowers in looseclusters of 5 to 12.

FruitDark red, with a juicy but bitterflesh, 5 to 12 millirnetres across.

BarkGreyish or reddish, peeling

horizontally like paper birch; large, widely spaced, orangehorizontal slits (called lenticels); bitter tasting.

Where to findbitter cherryIt occurs throughoutsouthern British Columbia,except for the dry Interiorportions.

HabitatBitter cherry is common in moist deciduous forests and openwoods, along streams and on recently disturbed areas. Itprefers moist, nutrient-rich sites.

UsesAboriginal people ate the fruitof the bitter cherry onIyoccasionally because of itsunpleasant taste. Because the

bark is tough and waterproof, they peeled it off in longhorizontal or spiral strips and used it for basket-making. Theyalso softened it by pounding to make twine for baskets andmats and for tying together joints in house-building.

NotesPrunus is Latin for plum.

Red alder

BarkThin, greenish on youngtrees, turning grey to whitishwith age. The inner bark andfresh wounds tend to turndeep reddish-orangewhen exposed to air.

Red alderAlnus rubra

A medium-sized broad-leaf tree, up to 24 metrestall. Trees growing in the forest develop a slightlytapered tnmk extending up to a narrow, roundedcrown. Trees in the open have crowns that startnear the ground giving it a broad cone shape.

LeavesBright green above and greyishunderneath. They are oval-shaped,with pointed tips, and coarselytoothed edges that tend to curlunder. The hair-covered veins forma ladder-like pattern. Leaves staygreen until they drop off.

FlowersThe flowers occur as either male or

female clusters. Male flowers are in long, drooping, reddishcatkins, and female flowers are in short, woody, brown cones.

FruitThe female cones are oval-shaped, 2 centimetres long. The seed isa narrow winged nutlet.

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Where to find red alder 1~It occurs along the entire coast of ~-' ..British Columbia. . "",

HabitatRed alder does not tolerate shade and occupies a site quicklyafter disturbance. It grows rapidly, often shading out coniferssuch as Douglas-ftr. It tends to occur on sites rich in nutrients,including floodplains and streambanks.

Red alder occurs with aU of the low elevation coastal treespecies, including black cottonwood, grand ftr, Douglas-ftr,and the cedars. It tends to be associated with a dense layerof shrub~ and herbs, including salmonberry, red elderberry,and several ferns.

UsesAboriginal people used the barkfor dyeing basket material, wood,wool, feathers, human hair, andskin. Depending on the

teclmique used, the colours ranged from black to brown toorangey-red. Some coastal groups used the tree's innercambium layer for food. The wood is low in pitch, whichmakes it a good wood for smoking meat. The wood was alsoused for carving items such as bowls. ~

Red alder is used for furniture, flooring, and ftrewood.

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Male catkins

NotesRed alder is short-lived, withan average life span of 40 to60 years.

It is a nitrogen-ftxer, meaning Female catkinsthat it puts nitrogen back intothe soil, unlike most plants. Small bumps, called nodules, onthe roots house an organism that can convert the nitrogen inthe soil into a form that plants can absorb. When the nitrogen­rich leaves fall, they provide a nutritious compost on theforest floor.

Mountain alder

Mountain alderAlnus tenuifolio

,­A coarse shrub or small deciduous tree, 2 to 10 !~.~~~~Jij~1'~metres tall; often occurs in clumps. .~~~L.

LeavesLeaves are thin, oval-shaped, and rounded tosomewhat heart-shaped towards the base. The tipsare rouncjed to blunt shaped and the margins areshallowly lobed and double toothed. The upper surfaces aregreen, the lower surfaces hairy and pale.

FlowersMale flowers are long, droopingcatkins, 3 to 4 centimetres inlength. Female flowers are in short,woody, brown cones. They areproduced on the previous season'stwigs before the leaves appear.

FruitSeed cones have very short stalks.

The seeds are nutlets with a very narrow wing.

BarkYellowish-brown withdistinct oval-shapedruptures or tears on thebark (lenticels).

Where to findmountain alderIt is common throughoutBritish Columbia east of theCoast and Cascade mountains,at mid to subalpine elevations.

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HabitatMountain alder occurs in moist, nutrient-rich forests alongstreamsides and bogs. It often occurs as dense clumps withwillows, twinbeny, red elderberry, and horsetails.

Deer and hares sometimes eat parts of the stem.

UsesBecause of its hardness, someInterior aboriginal people usedmountain alder wood for makingbows and snowshoes. Because itdoesn't flavour the food, they

also used it for smoking and drying salmon and meat. Like redalder, it was a source of dye and a substance for tanning hides.The Carrier made fish nets out of mountain alder and dyedthem black by boiling them in their own juice. Fish cannot seethe black nets.

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Paper birch

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Paper birchBetula papyrifera

A small to medium-sized tree, often with manystems, up to 30 metres tall. In forests, it has aslender trunk that often curves before extendingto the narrow, oval-shaped crown. In the open,the crown is pyramid-shaped.

LeavesTriangle- or egg-shaped, about 8centimetres long, and doublytoothed; dull green on top, palerwith a soft down underneath.

FlowersThe flowers are either male orfemale and are in narrow catkins.Female catkins are 2 to 4 centi­

metres long, standing erect at the tip of the branch. Male catkinsare longer and hang below the branch. The flowers appear beforeor at the same tinle as the leaves.

FruitThe nutlets have wings broader than the seed. Each tree producesthousands of seeds.

BarkThin, white to reddish-brown, with dark horizontalslits (lenticels). It peels inpapery strips, exposingreddish-orange inner barkwhich will gradually turn blackwith age.

Where to find paper birchIt is found throughout British Columbiabut only in a few scattered places on theouter coast.

HabitatPaper birch grows on a variety of soils, and is abundant onrolling upland terrain and floodplain sites, but it also grows onopen slopes, avalanche tracks, swamp margins and in bogs. Itdoesn't grow well in shade, and consequently it often occursin younger forests following a disturbance.

Paper birch can be an impol1ant winter food for many forestaninlals including deer and moose. It is also a favourite foodof snow~hoe hare, porcupine, and beaver. Many birds willnest in __ t =0; l tj .~ ~;o; ";'~- . -:- ; ~\.~~:'-i -,:

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UsesMany First Nations people in British Columbia used birch barkas material for baskets, cradles, and canoes. They also used itfor wrapping and storing food and for roofIng pit houses.They used the wood for many small items, including bowsand spoons. They drank the sap as a medicine for colds. ~

Birch sap can be used to make syrup,but it requires 80 to 100 litres of sapto make one litre of symp! Undiluted,birch sap' can be used to make vinegar or birch beer.

Birch is harvested in eastern Canada for pulp, sawlogs, andveneer logs; the wood is used for products such as paneling,tongue depressors, and cheese boxes. In British Columbia,paper birch is harvested for fIrewood.

Young bark

NotesPapyrifera means "paper-bearing," referring to the bark.

Alaska paper birch (Betula neoalaskana) occurs innortheastern British Columbia; its twigs are densely coveredwith bumpy resin glands.

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Water birch

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Water birchBetula occidentolis

Varies from a small coarse shrub to a small tree upto 10 metres high; most commonly shrubby, with ....several spreading trunks.

LeavesOval-shaped, broadest below the middle, slightlytapered towards a blunt or sharp tip; 2 to 5centimetn~s long. The edges are thin, doubly-toothed. The leafsurfaces are shiny, yellowish-green above and paler, dotted withfme glands underneath.

FruitTiny, hairy nutlets with wingsbroader than the seed. Thousandsof seeds are produced from each tree.

BarkThin, shiny, dark reddish-brown toblack, with marked horizontal slits(lenticels); does not peel like otherbirches.

Where to findwater birchIt occurs frequently insouthern British Columbia,east of the Coast andCascade mountains; rarelyfound in the nOlth or inmountainous areas.

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HabitatWater birch occurs on the wet to moist, nutrient-rich soils ofstreambanks, forests, and marshes. It is important in wetlandecosystems and those near water, where it provides importanthabitat for many birds and other animals.

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Black cottonwood

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Black cottonwoodPopulus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa

Balsam poplarPopulus balsamifera ssp. balsamifera

These hardy, straight-trunked trees have large,sticky, fragrant buds. On the coast, blackcottonwoods can reach 50 metres tall, but balsam poplars usuallyreach only 25 metres.

LeavesShiny, dark green leaves are 6 to 12centimetres long, pale underneathand often marked with brown. Theyvary from oval to wedge-shaped andhave a sharply pointed tip.

FlowersMale and female catkins are onseparate trees. Male catkins are

small, 2 to 3 centimetres long and female catkins are larger,8 to 20 centinletres long.

Fruit -,..The hairy capsules open torelease seeds which arecovered with white, fluffyhairs.

BarkThe bark is smooth,yellowish-grey on youngertrees, but grows thick anddeeply grooved with age.

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Where to find black cottonwood and balsam poplarBlack cottonwood grows west of the Rocky Mountains andbalsam poplar grows in the north, from the upper Stikine toeast of the Rockies. Balsam poplar and black cottonwoodhybridize where their ranges overlap. Poplars are rare on theQueen Charlotte Islands and northern outer coast ofVancouver Island.

HabitatPoplars'require ample moisture and plenty of nutrients to growwell. They favour floodplains and moist upland sites with lots oflight. They do not grow well in the shade of other species.

UsesFirst Nations people on the coastand, more commonly, in theInterior made dugout canoesfrom black cottonwood. Also,

the Okanagan people made cottonwood into sideboards forriding and cradles to flatten their children's heads.

Cottonwood burns well and was used to make friction firesets. Ashes were used to make a cleanser for hair and buckskinclothing. The Thompson people produced soap from theinner bark. The Hudson's Bay Company reportedly continuedusing their method, combining the inner bark with tallow.

- / Young bark

First Nations people used theresin from buds to treat sorethroats, coughs, lung pain andrheumatism. An ointment, calledbalm of Gilead, was made fromthe winter buds of balsam poplarto relieve congestion. ~

The buds contain a waxy resin with anti-infectant propeltiesstill used in many modern natural health ointments. Beescollect it and use it to seal off intruders, such as mice, whichmight decay and infect the hive.

The short, fme fibres are used in tissues and other paperproducts.

NotesIt is named cottonwood for thewhite hairs on mature seedwhich float through the air likewisps of cotton or snow.

Trembling aspen

Trembling aspenPopulus tremu/oides

A slender, graceful tree with smooth, greenish­white bark; grows up to 25 metres tall; distinctiveleaves that quiver in the slightest breeze.

LeavesSmooth, round to triangular-shaped leaves with aflattened. stalk that is longer than the leaf. They aredark green above, paler underneath and turn golden yellow orred in the fall.

BarkSmooth, green anddoesn't peel.

Where to findtrembling aspenIt is found throughout theprovince east of the CoastRanges, with a few scatteredtrees around the Strait ofGeorgia. Aspen is verycommon in the northeasternpart of the province.

FlowersThe flowers are borne in male andfemale catkins on separate trees.Male catkins are small, 2 to 3centimetres long, and the femalecatkins are larger, 4 to 10centimetres long.

FruitTiny capsules covered withcottony down.

HabitatTrembling aspen grows best on moist, well-drained soils,especially soils rich in calcium, such as those derived fromlimestone.

It is known for its ability to sprout from root suckers and formclones of many individual stems. Aspen clones can often bedistinguished in spring or fall when groups of stems leaf outor change colour all at once. These clones can get quite largeand can pe very long-lived. Some are estimated to be over5,000 years old.

Individual aspen stems are relatively short-lived and oftensuccumb to disease at 50 years or so. These rotten stemsprovide excellent homes for cavity-nesting birds. Moose, elk,and deer also eat young aspen suckers.

UsesAspen wood is soft and brittleand not very durable. TheShuswap people used youngaspen to make tent poles, but

these apparently rotted after a couple of years. Rotten woodhad its uses though. The Carrier people lined babies' cradleswith it because it was soft and absorbent.

Aspen branches boiled in water made a cleanser for guns,traps, and buckskins. Hunters would also wash themselves inthis solution to remove human odour.

III

The Okanagan people predictedstorms when aspen leavesquivered in no perceptible wind.

After decades of being treated asa weed, the forest industry nowvalues aspen for pulp andwaferboard. It is also exported aschopsticks.

NotesOther names include quaking aspen or quivering aspen. Inseveral native languages, the name translates as "woman'stongue" or "noisy leaf."

Classif~no the Natural WorldThere are many different kinds of forests across BritishColumbia. Each forest has its own unique combination of plants,soil and climate. Large geographical areas with similar plants, soiland climate are called biogeoc!imatic zones. British Columbia isdivided into 14 of these biogeoclimatic zones.

These biogeoclinlatic zones are further divided into manydifferent types of ecosystems that have sintilar soils, landscapefeatures and plants. In order to understand the variety ofecosystems that occur in the province, researchers have spentmany years studying the soils and plants of each ecosystem.

By describing and naming ecosystems, we provide a frameworkfor managing our resources ecologically. Classifying ecosystemshas many uses in forestry. It can help foresters recommend sitepreparation methods that ntinintize damage to the soil and selecttrees that are ecologically suited to the site where they will beplanted. It can also be useful for wildlife habitat managementand conservation planning.

Blbgeoclimatic Zones ofBritish"""Columbl8

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In the northern borealforests ofBritish Columbia, fire has playedan important role in shaping the landscape patterns.

An ecosystem may be as small as a rotten log, or as large as theplanet, but we define an ecosystem as an area with unifOlm soilvegetation and organisms.

What is an Ecosystem?Ecosystems are collections of living organisms and their physicalenvironment (soil particles, air, water). Some of the relation­ships are understood. Plants harness energy from the sun andprovide food and shelter for animals. In turn, many plants needthe help of animals to reproduce. Animals eat seeds and spreadthem, undigested, to other places. They also spread seeds bypicking them up on their feathers and fur.

Howevq, there are many relationships that are hidden from oursight and .we are only no beginning to understand. There aremillions of bacteria, tiny pmnts and aninlals in the soil. We havenot yet even described ost of these, let alone understand theirroles in creating the fertil soil on which the forests depend.

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Trees can be ChoosyTrees need certain amounts of moisture, nutrients and sunlight.Some trees can grow just about anywhere. Lodgepole pine isn'tparticularly picky about where it lives; it occurs on the mild,rainy coast, as well as in the hot, dry Interior. It can grow wherethe soil is very dry and poor in nutrients or where the soil is veryrich and moist. The one thing lodgepole pine cannot do withoutis sunlight.

Other tre~s are more demanding and will grow only in certainparts of th~ province. Some trees are very pal1icular about theamount of nutrients and moisture they receive. For example,arbutus occurs only in southern coastal areas within a fewkilometres of the ocean, where the climate is mild in the winterand the summers are warm. It likes to grow in dry areas, such ason rocky outcrops. Arbutus also prefers to grow where there isplenty of sunlight.

Because trees, other plants, and animals vary in their ability totolerate environmental conditions, we see a variety ofecosystems throughout the province, from lush coastal rainforests to dry, open grasslands and subalpine areas.

I

Time Changes EverythingEcosystems are constantly changing. Many kinds of disturbancescan lead to change. Nature causes some disturbances, likewildfires, insect outbreaks and landslides. People cause others,by logging or farming.

Some disturbances, like wildfue, can turn a forest of trees intosnags and blackened earth. Others, like the wind blowing over afew trees, sinlply create small openings in the forest. But afterany kind .of disturbance, things change. Some plants and fungisurvive the:! disturbance while others move in from thesurrounding forests. The plant communities will change overtime following the disturbance.-

1945

1965

1985

II

Other Useful References• Ecosystems ofBritisb Columbia by D. Meidinger and

J. Pojar, Victoria, B.C.: Ministry of Forests Special Report#6, 1991.

• Native Trees ofCanada by R.C. Hosie, Don Mills, ant.: .Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 8th ed., 1979.

• Plants in Bl'itisb Columbia Indian Tecbnology by N. Turner,Victorja, B.C.: Royal British Columbia Museum Handbook #38,1979, reprinted 1992.

• Plants ofCoastal Bl'itisb Columbia edited by]. POjar andA. MacKinnon, Edmonton, Alta.: Lone Pine Publishing, 1992.

• Plants ofNortbern Bl"itisb Columbia edited by A. MacKinnon,]. Pojar, and R. Coupe, Edmonton, Alta.: Lone PinePublishing, 1992.

• Trees, Sbrubs and Flowers to Know in Bl'itisb Columbia byc.P. Lyons, Toronto, ant.: ].M. Dent, 2nd ed., 1965.

• Tbe Vascular Plants ofBl'itisb Columbia - Volumes I, II, III,and IV by G. Douglas, G. B. Straley, and D. Meidinger,Victoria, B.c.: Ministry of Forests. Part 1. Gymnosperms andDicotyledons (Aceraceae through Cucurbitaceae), SpecialReport #1, 1989. Part 11. Dicotyledons (Diapensiaceae throughPortulacaceae) Special Report #2. 1990. Part III. Dicotyledons(primulaceae through Zygophyllaceae) and Pteridophytes,Special Report #3, 1991. Part lV. Monocotyledons, SpecialReport #4, 1994.

• Tbompson Etbnobotany - Knowledge and Usage ofPlants bytbe T7Jompson Indians ofBritisb Columbia by N. Turner,1. C. Thompson and M. T. Thompson, Victoria, B.C.: RoyalBritish Columbia Museum, 1989.

Index Page

alder, mountain 156alder, red 152apple, Pacific crab 136arbutus 120aspen, trembling 172birch, paper 160birch, water 164cascara 128cherry, bitter 148cherry, cllOke 140cherry, pin 144cottonwood, black .. _ 168dogwood, Pacific _ 104Douglas-fIr 96flf, amabilis 80flf, grand 76flf, subalpine 84hawthorn, black 124hemlock, mountain 92hemlock, western 88juniper, Rocky Mountain 24larch, alpine 56larch, western 48maple, bigleaf 108maple, Douglas 112maple, vine 116oak, Garry 132pine, limber 40pine, lodgepole 28pine, ponderosa or yeUow 32pine, western white 44pine, whitebark 36poplar, balsam 168redcedar, western 16spruce, black 72spnlce, Engelmann 64spruce, Sitka 68spruce, white 60tamarack 52yeUow-cedar 20yew, western 100

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