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This article was downloaded by: [Curtin University Library]On: 26 September 2012, At: 02:15Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
International Journal of Science EducationPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
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Being constructive: an alternative approach to the
teaching of the energy conceptpart oneRicardo Trumper
a
aSchool of Education of the Kibbutz Movement, University of Haifa, Oranim, Israel
Version of record first published: 23 Feb 2007.
To cite this article:Ricardo Trumper (1990): Being constructive: an alternative approach to the teaching of the energyconceptpart one, International Journal of Science Education, 12:4, 343-354
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0950069900120402
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http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditionshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0950069900120402http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditionshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0950069900120402http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tsed208/11/2019 Trumper, R. part one.pdf
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INT .
j . sc i. EDUC.,1990, VOL. 12, N O. 4, 343-354
I N N O V A T I O N S A N D D E V E LO PM E N T S
Being constructive: an alternative approach
to the teaching of the energy con cept--part one
Ricardo Trum per, Oranim, School of Education of the Kibbutz Movement,
University of Haifa, Israel
Th is article describes a study carried out in Israel which dea ls with the identification of high school pup ils'
beliefs about energy, both before and after formal instruction in physics. In so doing, several of the
alternative frameworks reported in the literature were redefined. Based on the findings obtained, an
elementary course was developed and implemented which teaches the scientific view of energy while
taking into account the prior beliefs adhered to by the pu pils. Th e article also describes experiences in
implementing this course, in using 'comparative events' which helped pupils move from the anthro-
pocentric framework, wherein energy is associated only with human beings, to the more appropriate
scientific view. Subsequ ent articles will deal with the process of conceptual chan ge as pupils move from
two other common alternative frameworks to the scientific view.
Introduction
During the past decade, a great deal of research has been devoted to pupils'
'alternative frameworks' (Driver and Easley 1978)
vis-a-vis
physical phenomena.
Today, it is generally accepted that pupils' pre-instructional knowledge plays a
crucial role in the acquisition of science concepts. N ussba um and N ovick (1982)
define the process as follows:
... students' alternative frameworks, when at variance with scientific conceptions, play
a crucial interfering role in learning science. This conclusion is consistent with the
general notion that the internalization (selective perception and interpretation) of new
information and ideas by a person is a function of his existing conceptual framework.
In other words, any effective instructional s trategy must take into account the
current beliefs adhered to by the pupils. In the realm of energy, a large number of
studies (Bliss and Ogb orn 1985, D uit 1984, Gilbe rt and Po pe 1986, Stead 1980,
Wa tts 1983) have yielded valuable information a bout how children understan d this
very abstract and difficult to grasp concept. W atts (1983) listed 'the m ost popular and
persistent' frameworks about energy held by pupils. Despite the great amount of
information gathered on th is subject during the past few years, very little has been
done in the planning and implemen tation of instructional strategies which deal with
these alternative frameworks.
T he goal of this study w as to identify the ideas about energy held by I sraeli
pupils, both prior to and after formal instruction in physics and to use this
information subsequen tly to develop an introductory course based on a constructi-
vist model of learning. T his m odel views children's minds no t as a
tabularasa,
bu t as
a rich and varied network of ideas derived from day-to-day experiences and non-
scientific language. T his paper describes experiences in identifying pup ils' ideas
about energy and in developing and implementing such a course.
0950-0693/90 3
.
00 1990 Taylor & Francis Ltd.
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3 4 4 INNOV TIONS AN D DEVELOPMENTS
The developm ent of a questionnaire on the energy concept
T he que stionnaire developed for the present stud y was based on the tasks formulated
by D uit (1984). Of the six tasks developed by him for presentation to pupils in West
Germany and the Philippines, the following four were translated into Hebrew.
(Copies of the questionnaire may be obtained from the author on request.)
T ask 1: Pupils were asked to write down their three first associations with the
word energy.
T ask 2: Pupils were asked to define or describe the meaning of the word energy.
Task 3: Pupils were asked to write three examples of the concept of energy.
T ask 4: T his task dealt with the motion of a ball rolling without friction along a
curved path after being released from a point A. Pupils were asked to
predict the height the ball would reach and to explain their pred ictions.
This task showed if the pupils could apply the energy concept and,
especially, the principle of energy conservation.
In addition to these tasks, a fifth one was added:
T ask 5: Pupils were asked to select three out of 15 pictures in which they were
able to identify the energy concept and to explain their choice. They
were also asked to choose one picture in which th e energy concept does
not appear at all and to explain this choice too.
The questionnaire comprising the foregoing tasks was pre-tested with groups of
pupils similar to those used in the main stu dy. I n the light of the answers obtained,
the following modifications were made to the questionnaire:
1. In task 1, pupils were asked to write sentences linking their associations with
the word energy.
2. In task 2, the focus was sharpened by asking pupils to choose one definition of
energy out of five. T he five alternative definitions represented the five
alternative frameworks most commonly used by pupils.
3.
Task 3 was eliminated.
4. A question similar to task 4, was added.
5. T he second part of task 5, in which pupils had to choose a picture in which the
energy concept does not appear at all, was dropped.
T he content validity of the revised questionnaire was judge d by 17 experts in the
field. After making some m inor changes as suggested by th e judg es, th e test was
deemed valid.
T he test-rete st reliability of the final version of the questionnaire was determ ined
by asking pupils in the samp le to respond to the same questionnaire one m onth later.
Responses were checked and the Chi-square coefficient between responses on the
two occasions was calculated. Fo r non e of the questions w as a statistically significant
difference between the pupils' answers on the two occasions measured.
Identification of high-school pupils' ideas about energy
T he first stage in dealing with pup ils' prior know ledge about energy was to identify
these beliefs. T his w as done in order to establish w hether these beliefs were
congruent with the alternative frameworks described in the literature. This part of
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TEACHING THE ENERGY CONCEPTPART ONE
345
the study encompassed 35 Israeli high-school pupils, none of whom had participated
in former stages of the study. They were:
(a ) Sixteen ninth-graders before any physics instruction;
(b )
T en ten th-grad ers after com pleting a one-year programm e for poor
achievers;
(c) N ine eleventh-graders after com pleting a two-year physics programm e
which focused on energy, optics and waves.
Testing was carried out in two stages:
1. The pupils answered the five written questions in the questionnaire about
energy previously described.
2. Pupils in the same grade were interviewed in small groups (four to six
participants). T he interview began with pupils discussing their answers in the
questionnaire. N ext, they were shown 20 pictures (see figure 1 for some
examples) and asked: 'Is there any energy here?' The ensuing discussion
proceeded in the interview-about-instances format described by Osbo rne and
Gilbert (1980).
IS THERE ANY ENERGY HERE?
Melting ice
A man eating A man in the snow
Figure 1
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34 6 INNOVATIONS ANDDEVELOPMENTS
Pupils associations with energy
In th e first task of the questionn aire pup ils were asked to write dow n their f irst thr ee
associations with the wo rd energy and th en to write three sentences , each one linking
the word en ergy with one of the associations . T h e pu pils ' associations were classified
according to D uit 's (1981) categories:
1. Things: human beings, things or objects in nature, appliances , industrial
p lants , equipment in phys ics laborator ies .
2.
Processes:physical or men tal activities .
3 .
Phenomena:
light, heat, electricity.
4 . Physical concepts:
unit s , formulae, term s like work, force, power, velocity.
5.
Words: Additional words not covered in the categories above.
T able 1 shows the extent (percentages) to which t he five different categories occ ur.
W e see, for exam ple, that 27 of the eleven-grade pup ils ' associations relate to
phen om ena. T he increasing num be r of physical concepts (category 4) referred to by
pupils after having studied physics is caused mainly by the large number of energy
types (i .e . , electrical , kinetic, etc. ) used by them.
Pupils
use of the conservation of energy principle
Question 4 shows how pupils relate to a mechanical process in which the
conservation prin ciple is involved; the results summ arized in table 2 show how the y
solve the question and explain their answers . We see that the number of pupils who
answered correctly and made use of the energy concept or of the conservation
principle, increased after learning the subject . However, more than half the pupils
used their out-of-school ideas instead of using the energy concept, despite the fact
they were working on a 'questionnaire about energy' . Another remarkable f inding is
the very small num be r of pupils who used the energy con servation principle in their
answers .
Tab le 1 . D is t r ib u t ion o f p u p i l s ' a s s oc ia t ion s , b y grad es .
Category
Things
Processes
Phenomena
Physical concepts
Words
Tab le 2 . Dis trib ut ion of
Prediction of correct height
U se of energy in explanation
U se of energy conservation
in explanation
Associations ( ) mad e
Grade 9
9
20
7
64
p u p i l s ' a n s w e r s
p e r c e n t a g e s .
Grade 9
19
12
Grade 10
17
9
38
36
t o q u e s t i o n
Grade 10
47
37
26
in
Grade
27
53
20
4,
by
11
grades, in
Grade 11
60
40
20
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TE CHING TH E ENERGY CONCEPTP RT O NE 3 4 7
Pupils alternative frameworks on energy
T he analysis of the pup ils' alternative conceptual frameworks on energy was based
mainly on their descriptions of the different pictures presented to them du ring the
interviews. T heir responses were classified according to the alternative frameworks
defined by Watts (1983):
(1) Anthropocentric: energy is associated with human beings.
(2) D epository: some objects have energy and expend it.
(3) Ingredient: energy is a dormant ingredient within objects, released by a
trigger.
(4) Activity: energy is an obvious activity.
(5) Prod uct: energy is a by-pro duct of a situation.
(6) Functional: energy is seen as a very general kind of fuel associated with
making life comfortable.
(7) Flow-transfer: energy is seen as a type of fluid transferred in some processes.
After making some changes in the definitions of the frameworks, 96 of the pup ils'
responses were found classifiable. Framework (2) became:
(2a) T he original 'depository ' framework w hich is of a passive nature ('there is
energy in the b atte ry. . . ' ) .
(26) T he 'active' deposit. T he energy as 'causing things to happen', as 'being
needed' for some processes to occur ('The electric bulb needs energy in
order to light').
Framework (7) became:
(7a) T he original flow-transfer framework (see above).
(7b)
T he accepted scientific concep t: 'When two systems interact (i.e., when a
process takes place), something, w hich we name energy, is transferred from
one system to the other' (CDC1978, p. 15).
T he definition of one of the frameworks was b roadened:
(5) T he pro duct framework in which energy is a produ ct of some process and not
only a by-product of a situation.
T he results are shown in table 3 which states the extent to which the pupils showed
comb inations of alternative frameworks in their responses. T he conclusions that
may be drawn from this, are:
(a) All pupils used more than one alternative framework in their desc riptions.
(b ) All pupils hold frameworks (1),(2b)and (5).
(c) Framew orks (1), (2a) and
(2b)
appear frequently, but the frequency of their
appearance decreases after studying physics.
(d )
Frameworks (3), (6) and (7a) rarely appear.
(e)
Frameworks (4) and (5) appear increasingly after studying physics.
(/) Framework (7b),the accepted scientific view, rarely appea rs, both before and
after studying physics.
T o con clude, we see that pup ils' responses to the associations task and the question
concerning the conservation principle show some success in learning. However,
since very few pupils adhere to the scientific framework (7b),there seems to be no
significant increase in th e num ber of pupils relating to the energy concept in the way
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34 8 INNOVATIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS
Table 3. Distribution of pupils' alternative frame works, by grades, in
percentages .
Alternative framework
Grade Pupil 1 la 2b 3 4 5 6 la 1b
9 1 20 20 35 10 IS 10
10
11
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
2
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3
3
32
33
34
35
28
8
22
9
7
24
29
22
22
2
28
23
2
28
6
4
7
23
9
5
5
8
2
3
8
23
2
5
6
8
3
5
2
7
23
3
22
2
33
32
9
3
7
42
3
32
22
4
22
8
7
5
3
2
9
22
3
3
2
2
3
2
9
2
25
4
45
5
43
4
9
37
33
3
23
3
32
36
26
5
25
2
2
6
26
5
8
6
3
42
24
2
26
23
32
33
7
4
32
2
2
2
6
3
8
2
6
3
4
36
29
42
46
49
5
22
3
35
49
26
5
2
25
9
24
5
22
7
8
3
8
7
6
6
8
9
8
5
4
3
2
8
7
23
4
2
24
22
23
6
29
4
8
5
9
9
4
7
6
6
4
3
5
4
6
3
3
3
6
4
3
5
3
6
3
4
2
5
3
3
3
5
2
7
7
2
8
6
3
4
3
2
it is taught at school (energy transformations). In fact, pupils continue to adhere to
the same alternative frameworks held before studying physics. These results suggest
that the energy concept cannot be effectively taught without taking pupils'
alternative frameworks into account: these are mainly the anthropocentric frame-
work (1), the 'active' deposit framework (26) and the product framework (5), which
are held by all the pupils in this study.
This paper deals only with a strategy for changing the anthropocentric
framework. In the near future, experiences using an instructional strategy which
deals with the other two frameworks will be discussed (part two, in press); the
strategy enables pupils to build for themselves the appropriate scientific concept.
6
3
2
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TEACHING
THE
ENERGY CONCEPTPA RT
O N E 3 4 9
Mod els of learning
In ord er to deal with these frameworks, a pupil/teacher dialogue process appears to
be necessary. As Champagne
et al.
(1982) claim:
... By participating in the dialogues which occur in Socratic teaching, the student is
forced to deal with counterexamples to proposals and to face contradictions in his or her
ideas.
To overcome the attacks of adversaries in the dialogues, the student must
construct a new framework of ideas that will stand up to criticism.
In many cases, when there is a conflict between new and old concepts, a major
accommodation is necessary. Many researchers have claimed that conceptual change
occurs through cognitive conflict, in what Gilbert and Watts (1983) call a
revolutionary change process.
Alternative framework (1), the anthropocentric framework in which energy is
associated w ith hum an b eings, is not an un acceptable framework conflicting w ith the
accepted scientific concept. Rather, it is limited, as we can see from the following
example in which a tenth-grade p upil described th e picture of 'a man p ushing a box
up a hill*.
It 's like a football player, he moves his body, he's doing some activity, as a result, there is
some energy .. . He moves himself and he moves the box, he climbs up. He uses his
ene rgy ... When we do sports, we use our energy.
In this situation, we see how the pupil focused her attention only on the human
being. This contrasts with her description of the same event in which the man was
replaced by an electric motor:
There is kinetic energy as a result of the motor pulling up the box . .. and also potential
energy when the box is up.
In this case, we can talk abo ut an evolutionary change w hich 'involves the facilitation
of extension in richness and precision of meaning for stud ents' framew orks' (Gilbert
and Watts 1983).
Ausubel (1968) has described a process of 'meaningful learning' w hich results in
the 'subsumption' of new knowledge. In this process, the new knowledge interacts
with existing concepts and is assimilated into them, altering the form of both the
anchoring concept and the new assimilated knowledge (Novak 1978).
Following this approach, Hashweh (1986) proposed a model of conceptual
change (see figure 2). An alternative framework C l is successful in the interaction
with some particular domain of the real world, R l. It fails to describe a second pa rt of
the world, R2. According to this model a pupil holding an alternative framework
faces two different conflicts (c.f. figure 2).
Hashweh states: 'It has traditionally been assumed that Conflict (1) is resolved by
adopting Conception 2, which better explains R2.' However, this does not explain
W orld of Alterna tive Conflict (2) Scientific
ideas frame wo rk (C1)
- -
conception (C2)
Real world R1 R2 R3 R4
Figure 2. Hashw eh's mo del of conceptual chang e.
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350 INNOVATIONS
AND
DEVELOPMENTS
why Conflict (1) existed. In addition, adopting Conception 2 forces the pupil to face
Conflict (2). Hashweh pointed out interesting and common cases in science, in which
Cl is a special case of C2. That is, Cl represents Rl and C2 represents R1+R2.
The anthropocentric framework, in which energy is associated with human
beings, is not a completely wrong framework. Rather, it is derived from limited
experience and may conflict with the scientific framework which is much more
general. Pupils holding the anthropocentric framework may face two major
difficulties during the learning process:
(a) Pupils may not identify the energy concept in situations where they do not
meet human beings or objects they perceive as having human attributes. For
instance, a ninth-grade pupil describing the picture of the melting ice (see
figure
1):
I think that an inert object like ice, that doesn t breathe, has no energy. Only
something near i t... for example, if someone is holding it, there is energy in
him...
b) When pupils meet human beings, their attention may concentrate on them
only, as we saw in the previous description of a man pushing a box up a hill .
In order to facilitate the acquisition of the scientific concept of energy, it was decided
to deal first with the anthropocentric framework. The goal was not to create a state of
conceptual conflict that would lead to a major accommodation; rather, thepupils
were expected to become aware of the limitations of their conceptual framework.
This can be defined in Hashweh s (1986) terms:
The alternative framework:energy is related only with human beings.
Thenew framework:human beings are energy agents (they need energy and
they also provide it) in an ever-continuing process of energy transformations.
The alternative framework can explain situations involving human beings only. The
new framework is more general, it includes the alternative framework, but it can also
explain situations which do not involve human beings. Therefore, it was decided to
develop an instructional strategy based on Socratic-like dialogues introducing
comparative eventsor analogies.
Dealing withtheanthropocentric framew ork
Rumelhart and Norman (1978) present a very comprehensive theory of cognitive
learning which sees the learning process as schematic transformations which occur in
long-term memory. They propose three different kinds of learning:
Accretion:the encoding of new information in terms of existing schemata.
Restructuring:
the process whereby new schemata are created.
Tuning:the slow modification and refinement of a schema which occurs
through experience.
When physics concepts replace alternative frameworks, restructuring has occurred.
Rumelhart and Norman (1981) suggest two basic mechanisms by which restructur-
ing occurs:
Schema induction:learning by contiguity (the temporal or spatial co-occurrence
of events results in the formation of a new schema).
Patterned generation:a new schema is patterned on an old one. Restructuring
results from interactions with new knowledge, analogies, etc.
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TEACHING THE ENERGY CONCEPTPART ONE 35 1
T he instructional s trategy presen ted here should lead pupils to a restru cturin g wh ich
occurs by means of a pattern ed gen eration. T he new framework will be patterned on
the anthropoc entric framework-comm on to all the pupils participating in this s tud y.
T his is what Strike and Posn er (1982) call a small-scale and evolutionary change .
T his change is achieved in two phases:
(a)
First , pupils have to be aware of their own anthropoc entric framework.
(b)
N ext, they have to create a new and more generalized framework, based on
the analysis of comparative events (analogies).
T he first s tep in the instructional s trategy was to make every pupil aware of his or her
own preconcept ions:
(1) One week after the identification interviews, all the pupils (divided in the
original small groups) were presented with a protocol of their own
discussions about energy. Common to each protocol were the pupils '
description of the picture which showed a man pushing a box up a hill .
Excerpts from such a protocol, presented to one of the ninth-grade groups, follow.
A man pushing a box up a hill
Efrat: He uses the energy of his body to push the box.
Boaz: (If the box is empty) he uses little energy.
Anat:
I've heard there is some relation between doing some physical activ ity. .. so,
calories, for example, are burnt... and it activates the body.
Dorit:
I know this theory abou t burnin g calories or burning some materials in our
bo dy .. . It shows a direct relation between energy and b ur nin g. . . Burning
some materials creates energy.
A man in the snow (see figure 1)
Anat: T here is energy in the man's bo d y. .. He is freezing.
Dror:
First of all, his heart has to beat faster to heat the b o dy .. . so his body uses
energy.
Dorot:
T he man is moving his muscles and uses energy to keep a constant body
temperature.
Liat:
T he man needs energy to heat his body; that means, energy comes from within.
Efrat: When the man has to heat his body, he is using the energy he has in it.
After eliciting the pupils preconceptions , they were presented with the firs t
comparative event:
(2) Pupils viewed a pictu re of an electric mo tor pulling a box up a hill and we re
asked to describe it in terms of energy.
T wo of the pupils in the n in th-grade grou p ma de a d irect compar ison between the
two events:
Boaz: Electrical energy was transformed to 'force' in order to raise the box.
Efrat: T he electric mo tor uses its electrical energy in order to pull it.
T wo oth er pupils added to their previous description som e details which they did no t
include when they described the picture of a man pushing a box up a hill :
Dorit: T he electric mo tor uses its electrical energy in order to turn something else
which pulls the rope attached to the box. Besides that, there is some energy
coming up from the friction between the box and the su rfac e.. . heating both of
them.
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3 5 2 INNOV TIONS NDDEVELOPMENTS
Anaf.
There
is
some electrical energy,
it
makes
the
motor work
and the
motor pushes
the box. Th ere
is
also
the
energy produced
by
gravitation w hich acts against
the
motor.
I n
the
third s tep
of the
instructional s trategy,
the
pup ils were presented with
a
second comparative event:
(3 )
The
electric motor
was
'replaced '
by a
steam engine
and
again
the
pupils
were asked
to
describe
the
picture
in
t e r m s
of
energy .
At this s tage, three pupils began
to
talk,
for the
first t im e, about so me thing like
energy transformations,
a
concept they have never learned before:
Anaf.
In
every motor, there
is
some raw material.
I
don't know, electricity
is not a raw
material,
but
there
is
some material being us ed .. .
Boaz:
The
material there
is
c o a l . . .
Dorit:
I
want
to say
something.
In
order
to
produce electricity,
you
burn coal
or
something like that;
in
order
to
produce energy
in
your body,
you
burn some
materials
in it; in
order
to
heat water
and
produce steam
to
make
the
engine
work,
you
have
to
burn something
to get
that he at. . . Maybe
the
heat comes
directly from
the sun, or
from coal burning
or
electricity.
T he fo llowing
two
steps belo ng
to the
'general izat ion ' phase
in
w hich
the
pupils were
expected
to
create
the new
framework
by
themselves :
(4 )
The
pupils were asked
to
look
for
some proper t ies concerning energy
c o m m o n
to the man, the
electr ic m otor
and the
steam engine .
N o w ,
the
pup ils talk m ore clearly abo ut
the
process oc curring
in the
pictures .
The
accepted scientific framework (76) appears
for the
first tim e
for a
picture including
a
human be ing :
Boaz:
They
are all
energy pro duc ers . . .
Dorit
:
I
don't agree with
you
because th ey
do not
produce energy. They
use
energy
a l s o . . .
Boaz:
But
they produce also
Dorit:
I
think, energy
is not
something being produced,
but
something being
transformed.
If you go
backwards,
for
example, steam
is
produced
by
heat
energy that was produced
by
burning
a
match, this was done
by a
man using
his
energy and
the
man
got
energy from foo d. . . You
can
never
get o the
beginning
of energy
and you can
never
get to its end,
that
is,
some processes lead
to
other
and
so on .. .
Boaz: You're right. T hey do n't produce, they transform
it
into another form
of
energy . . .
Dorit:
I
think energy
is
something that never disappears,
it s
something being
transformed, something changing
it s
appearance.
Dror:
I
also think that energy
is
something being transformed. Here
we can see
electrical energy being transformed into movement energy.
(5 )
The
pupils , while talking
in
t e r m s
of
energy, tr ied
to
identify so me spec ial
proper t ies which d is t inguish
the man
from
the
motor s , w hen
all are
performing
the
same action:
Anat:
The man
produces energy
and
also transforms
the
energy
he
gets into other
forms
of
energy.
Dorit:
His
body uses
the
energy
he
gets
in
order
to
make some proc esses. . .
A
leaf a cts
also like tha t, from
the
very beginning
it
'knows'
it has to use the
energy
of the
sun
and to
transform
it .. . The
man also uses
the
energy
he
gets
in
very different
processes.
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It can be seen here that the pupils began to talk about the m an being an energy 'ag ent'
in an ever continuing process of energy transformation, the new rameworkthey were
expected to create.
Very similar discussions were held in all the groups participating in the case
study. I n some of the groups, a third
comparativeevent
was presented. In one group,
pupils were presented with the picture of 'snow falling on a house with a burning
stove' and compared it with the picture 'a man in snow'. I n another gro up, they were
presented w ith the picture of 'a car being filled w ith petrol and travelling away', and
compared it with the picture 'a man eating' (see figure 1).
Some of the pupils in the tenth-grad e discussion groups discovered early on by
themselves, the purpose of the instruction which they stated very clearly.
Sagiv:
(comparing the man with a machine) There is no difference... W hen a car is
travelling, it burns energy; when there is no more petrol, it stops. A man, when
he runs, burns 'liq uids '.. . N ow, if he doesn't drink something, he runs, dries up
and collapses.
We saw, in all discussions held during this study, that when pupils discuss
comparative events,
most of them becom e aware that hum ans are energy 'ag ents'
involved in a process of energy transform ations, like many o ther ine rt objects. Only
three of the pupils failed to abandon the anthro pocen tric framework and w ere only
able to change it for an anthrop om orphic framework in some of their d escriptions.
Conclusionsimplications for teaching
An increasing num ber of science teachers find recent work on ch ildren's alternative
frameworks interesting. However, they are less clear about how to utilize such
findings in their teaching. For most teachers, it may be rather difficult to begin
teaching the energy concept with a series of individual interviews. Questionnaires
like the one used in this study , which cover the full range of alternative frameworks
reported in the literature, could be very helpful.
While it is impossible to deal with every idiosyncratic framework, there is enough
common ground to enable a teacher to implement a constructivist approach to
teaching energy. T he m ain purpose of the instructional strategy developed in this
study was to deal with th e limitations of one of the most pervasive frameworks, the
anthropocen tric framework about energy. By exposing pupils to comparative events,
they were led from their alternative framework (energy related only with human
beings) to a new framework (human beings as energy agents). We saw that the
instructional strategy was successful for m ost of the pup ils. Pupils who m ore rapidly
reach the right conclusions are those who adhered to some aspects of the accepted
scientific concept, when describing machines at work.
T he instructional strategy presented in this paper leads to an evolutionary
change, what Strike and Posner (1982) call 'small-scale' change or 'assimilation'.
Like the anthropocentric framework, alternative framework
(2b),
energy as 'being
needed' for some processes to occur, and (5), energy as being the 'product' of a
process, are also limited, representing only some parts of the real world. T hese two
alternative concepts, which are shared by all the students, can be used as 'building
blocks' in the teaching of the accepted scientific concept.
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3 5 4 TE CHING TH E ENERGY CONCEPTP RT ON E
Acknowledgements
I
wish to thank John K. Gilbert and Joan Bliss for the permission to use their
pictures in this study. I also wish to thank Re inders D uit for generously su pplying
his questionnaire and categories.
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C o r r e s p o n d e n c e
Ricardo Trumper, Oranim, School of Education of the Kibbutz Movement, University of
Haifa, Haifa, Israel.