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Turn in: 1. Video Notes
2. Worksheets from yesterday
1
EcologyCommunity Ecology
Community Ecology
Populations are linked by interspecific interactions that impact the survival & reproduction
of the species involved
Examples?
Factors that Impact Communities
1. Disease2. Interspecific Interactions:
• Competition• Predation• Symbiosis
Mutualism − mycorrhizae
Commensalism
Early Hypotheses of Community Structure Individualistic
Individualistic Hypothesis − a chance group of species is linked & distributed according to its tolerance ranges for abiotic factors
Early Hypotheses of Community Structure Individualistic
Interactive hypothesis - states that the community is an integrated unit comprised of closely-related species associating with each other due to biotic interactions.
Early Hypotheses of Community Structure Individualistic
Community composition seems to change continuously, with each species independently distributed
Community Structure
• Community−an assemblage of populations living close enough together for potential interaction
• Dominant Species−most abundant, highest biomass, powerful control over occurrence and distribution of other species… VA Sugar Maple
• Keystone Species−NOT necessarily most abundant, exert strong control due to their ecological roles or niches… Sea Otters!!!
• Richness number of species & abundance
• Why would one species become dominant?
Biodiversity
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• Communities with higher diversity are– More productive and more stable regarding
their productivity– Better able to withstand and recover from
environmental stresses– More resistant to invasive species, organisms
that become established outside their native range
– Identify human actions that affect ecosystems and predict and explain the consequences
Species Diversity
Species Richness (# of different species)
Species Diversity = + Relative abundance
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(proportion each different species represents of all the individuals in the community)
Species Richness
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Which community is richer?
A
B
Sample Data
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The data below represents the abundance of macro-invertebrates taken from three different river communities in Georgia. A variety of diversity indices may be used to calculate species diversity. Based on the data below, which community has the greatest diversity? Explain!
Observation Of Sea Otter Populations And Their Predation
Food chain beforekiller whale involve-ment in chain
(a) Sea otter abundance
(b) Sea urchin biomass
(c) Total kelp density
Num
ber
per
0.25
m
2
1972 1985 1989 1993 1997
0
2
4
6
8
10
0
100
200
300
400
Gra
ms
per
0.25
m
2
Ott
er n
umbe
r (%
m
ax.
coun
t)
0
40
20
60
80
100
Year
Food chain after killerwhales started preyingon otters
Explain the patterns seen in the graph and explain why those patterns occur.
Killer Whales vs. Sea OttersPredator-Pray Energetics
The daily caloric requirements for male versus female killer whales (orcas) is shown below:
• Male killer whale: 308,000 kcal/day• Female killer whale: 187,000 kcal/day
Calculate the average caloric value of a sea otter assuming a male orca consumes five sea otters each day to meet its caloric requirement.
Killer Whales vs. Sea OttersPredator-Pray Energetics
Calculate the average caloric value of a sea otter assuming a male orca consumes five sea otters each day to meet its caloric requirement. Using dimensional analysis or simple arithmetic:
kcal308,000
day
1 day×
kcal61,600
5 otters otter
kcal kcal308,000 5 otters = 61,600 per day
day otter
or
Killer Whales vs. Sea OttersPredator-Prey Energetics
Assume a population of 4 male orcas feed solely on sea otters. How many otters are lost to the community over a 6-year period?
Killer Whales vs. Sea OttersPredator-Pray Energetics
Assume a population of 4 male orcas feed solely on sea otters. How many otters are lost to the community over a 6-year period?
5 otter
day
365 days
1 year6 years
10,950 otters=
orca
4 orca10,950 otters
orca 43,800 otters
Why the change?– Some fish populations have
declined in recent decades– Shortage of certain fish
caused substantial declines in harbor seals and sea lions
– Shortage of seals and sea lions resulted in killer whales preying on smaller sea otters
Interestingly, The Sea Otter Is Not UsuallyThe Orca’s Food of Choice
Why Should We Care About Declining Numbers of Sea Otters?
• Sea otters are an important part of the coastal community
• The loss of sea otters affects the community directly and indirectly
A keystone species is one that has a strong effect on the composition of the community
– Removal of keystone species causes a decrease in species richness
– Sea otters eat sea urchins which are fierce competitors having a diet of kelp
Indirect Effect on the Community
Sea Urchin Population vs. Kelp Densityexamine and interpret the graph!
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Homework• 1. Videos: ‘Environmental Exchange’- take
notes on your own• 2. Read and note sec 42.1-42.3• 3. Finish coyote removal and competitive
exclusion worksheets
• Reminders: bring in pill bugs, come afterschool to plant mung beans, supplies
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Ecological NichesAn organism’s niche is the specific role it plays in its environment…its job!
• All of its uses of biotic and abiotic resources in its environment
• Ex: oak tree in a deciduous forest Provides oxygen to plants,
animals Provides a home for
squirrels Provides a nesting ground
for blue jays Removes water from the
soil
The Niche• Ecological niche is the total of an organism’s use of biotic and
abiotic resources in its environment
Ex: Barnacle species on the coast of Scotland
Compare and contrast fundamental and realized niches?
Competition Between Organisms Of Different Species Can Be Direct Or Indirect
• Interference−Directly fighting over resources
• Exploitative− Indirectly competing by consuming a common limiting resource (space)
• Apparent- Indirectly between 2 species both preyed upon by the same predator.
Example: Species A and species B are both prey of predator C. The increase of species A will cause the decrease of species B because the increase of As would increase the number of predator Cs which in turn will hunt more of species B.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Sometimes referred to as Gause's law of competitive exclusion states that two species competing for the same resources cannot coexist if other ecological factors are constant. • The competing species that has even the slightest
advantage will dominate in the long term and emerge the victor.
• The loser will either relocate or become extinct. • The principle has been paraphrased as "complete
competitors cannot coexist".
Competition Between Organisms Of Different Species- Examine and interpret the results
Solutions to Competitive Exclusion
• Resource partitioning− sympatric species consume slightly different foods or use resources in different ways
Ex: Anolis lizard sp. perching sites in the Dominican Republic
Solutions to Competitive Exclusion
Character displacement− sympatric species tend to diverge in the characteristics that overlap
Ex: Darwin’s finch beak size on the Galapagos Islands
Succession• Ecological succession− transition
in species composition over ecological time
• Pioneer organisms = bacteria, lichen, algae
• Climax community = stable• Primary− begun in lifeless area;
no soil, perhaps volcanic activity or retreating glacier.
• Secondary an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil intact
Human Impact on Ecosystems
• Humans are the most widespread agents of disturbance– Reduces diversity– Prevent some naturally
occurring disturbances