Two Challenges, One SolutionTwo Challenges, One Solution: Case Studies of Technologies that Protect the Ozone Layer and Mitigate Climate Change United Nations Environment Programme

Two Challenges, One Solution:Case Studies of Technologies that Protect the Ozone Layer and Mitigate Climate Change

UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

Energy and OzonAction Unit

OzonAction Programme

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation

of the Montreal Protocol

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2329 UNEP Back from ETSU 3 4/10/01 9:22 am Page 37


Two Challenges, One Solution:Case Studies of Technologies that Protect the Ozone Layer and Mitigate Climate Change

United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and EconomicsEnergy and OzonAction UnitOzonAction Programme39-43 quai André Citroën75739 Paris Cedex 15, France

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol1800 McGill College Avenue, 27th FloorMontreal, Quebec H3A 3JCCanada


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document was produced by the OzonAction Programme of the United Nations Environment Programme Divisionof Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE) as part of its Work Programme under the Multilateral Fund.

The project was managed by:

Mrs Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, Assistant Executive Director and Director, DTIEMr Rajendra Shende, Chief, Energy and OzonAction UnitMr Jim Curlin, Information Officer, OzonAction ProgrammeMr Shaofeng Hu, Associate Information Officer, OzonAction Programme

Prepared by:

AEA Technology plc

UNEP would like to thank the following experts who assisted in reviewing the booklet:

Dr Lambert Kuijpers, Co-chair, UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and Refrigeration TechnicalOptions Committee; Mr Paul Ashford, Co-chair, UNEP Foam Technical Options Committee.

Design and layout: Hierographics

This document is available on the UNEP DTIE OzonAction website at: www.uneptie.org/ozonaction

© 2001 UNEP

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposeswithout special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEPwould appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without priorpermission in writing from UNEP.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression ofany opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Environment Programme concerning the legal status ofany country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning delineation of its frontiers or boundaries.Moreover, the views expressed do not necessarily represent the decision or the stated policy of the United NationsEnvironment Programme, nor does the citing of trade names or commercial processes constitute endorsement. Alltrademarks used in this document are the trademark of their respective companies.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

ISBN: 92 807 2080 5


Contents Page No.

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

INTRODUCTION “Win-Win” Benefits from this booklet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

HALONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Case Study 1 Water Mist impacts Fire but not the Environment in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Case Study 2 Inert Gas Fire Suppression Systems in the Middle East and the UK . . . . . . . . .8

REFRIGERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Case Study 3 Guam Hotel Installs New Chiller and Cuts Running Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Case Study 4 Packaged Blast-Freezer Using Ammonia in Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Case Study 5 Cost-effective Strategy for Industrial Plant Design at a UK Brewery . . . . . . . .15

Case Study 6 Retail Stores in USA Convert to HFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Case Study 7 UK Cider-maker Chooses Natural Solution for Air Conditioning of Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Case Study 8 Cold Store Renovation in Mozambique to Improve Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Case Study 9 New Zero ODP Bottle Cooler Cuts Electricity Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

FOAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Case Study 10 CO2 Provides Simple Foaming Solution at Brazilian .Furniture Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Case Study 11 Cyclopentane Foam and Zero-ODP Refrigerant in aChinese Refrigerator Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Case Study 12 HFCs Proved Good Environmental Choice for Phenolic Pipe Insulation . . . . .26

Case Study 13 Conversion to Hydrocarbons in Polyurethane Foam for Finnish Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

AEROSOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Case Study 14 Cost Saving with Hydrocarbon Aerosol Propellants in Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . .30

Case Study 15 Syrian Factory Chooses Hydrocarbon Aerosol Propellants for Manual Production Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

ANNEX 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

ANNEX 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

CONTENTSCONTENTS


4

INTRODUCTION“WIN-WIN” BENEFITS FROM THIS BOOKLET

Choices are still being made in many parts of the world

regarding when and how to phase out Ozone Depleting

Substances (ODSs) in applications including aerosol

propellants, foam-blowing agents, refrigerants and fire-

extinguishing agents. It is important that these choices now

also take into consideration their impact on global warming

as climate change and ozone depletion are interlinked issues.

Some effective replacements for ODSs have significant

Global Warming Potential (GWP), and some applications of

replacements will impact global warming indirectly via their

energy consumption.

This booklet seeks to raise awareness about these

connections and the ozone and global warming-related

factors to consider when seeking non-CFC alternatives for

foams, aerosols, refrigerants and halons. Through the case

studies, it highlights ODS phase-out solutions which minimise

total contributions to global warming. Such solutions will help

countries to meet the aims of the Montreal Protocol and

simultaneously limit climate change and so are ‘win-win’

solutions in this respect. However, more importantly, the

technologies are often economically more attractive with

lower costs and deliver a high level of ‘win-win’ achievement

– i.e. ‘win’ for the environment and ‘win’ for the business.

This booklet will be useful to National Ozone Units (NOUs) in

'Article 5(1)' (or developing) countries when devising their

national strategies. It will also help to inform users and

equipment suppliers that such ‘win-win’ opportunities exist,

and encourage them to investigate whether they could

achieve similar success.

CFCs and the Montreal Protocol

The discovery that CFCs and other chlorinated compounds

are responsible for the depletion of stratospheric ozone was

among the first global environmental issues to be identified

and addressed by the world community. The Montreal

Protocol, which was signed in 1987, was the first such

agreement to solicit global co-operation in the phase-out of

the group of chemicals known to be responsible. Through a

series of production and consumption controls, it has proved

possible to achieve a remarkable level of success in this

phase-out, assisted by the provision of a Multilateral Fund to

support the actions of Article 5 countries. The Protocol has

been amended and adjusted regularly on the basis of the

known science and replacement technologies in order to

ensure that an optimal rate of phase-out is achieved at

bearable cost.

Global warming and climate protection

In contrast to the Montreal Protocol, climate change has

proved to be a much more challenging and pervasive

problem. The linkage between the emission of greenhouse

gases and temperature rise is growing increasingly distinct as

more scientific evidence emerges. However, the impact of

such temperature rises on weather patterns is much more

difficult to measure and some argue that there are other

factors which are having greater effect. Nonetheless, the

precautionary principle calls for action in view of the long

recovery periods that may be involved. Controlling emissions

of greenhouse gases rather than their consumption is viewed

by many as the first of several steps to limit global warming

and climate change. However, this concept is not yet

universally accepted.

This booklet shows that solutions which help meet the aims of

the Montreal Protocol and limit climate change can also be in

the best interests of business, both in terms of their financial

‘bottom-line’ and their environmental profile.

Selecting a win-win alternative

It is rarely easy to decide which is the best solution.

Sometimes an improvement at one stage of a product’s life

may simply cause another environmental problem later on.

For example, selecting carbon dioxide to replace a CFC

foaming agent may result in refrigerators that have much

poorer thermal insulation. This would mean higher energy

consumption throughout the product’s life, and so higher

indirect global warming impact. We should ensure that the

environmental impact of all types of emissions are

minimised over the whole life of equipment.

To help manage this overall reduction, the concept of Life

Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP) is increasingly being

applied when selecting alternative processes. LCCP

considers the ‘cradle-to-grave’ climate impact of

greenhouse gas emissions. This includes those released

directly from a process and those released by dependent or

related processes. For example, emissions from energy

used to make components and emissions during recycling

or disposal need to be considered. LCCP allows companies

and governments to compare how different systems will

affect the climate.

This booklet focuses mainly on the direct and indirect global

warming impact of the technology during its operational


use. This accounts for the majority of the LCCP impact.

Less guidance is given on impacts during manufacture and

disposal.

Whilst these tools are helpful, they need to be placed in a

systematic framework in order to ensure that all aspects of

the replacement technology are considered. The flowchart

in Fig. 1 illustrates the type of decision process required.

Why the case studies were chosen

Some of the case studies in this booklet have been chosen

to illustrate practical alternatives to CFCs that, by their

very nature, also minimise direct and indirect impact on

global warming. For example, the highly efficient

refrigerated bottle cooler with hydrocarbon refrigerant and

foam blowing agent (page 20), or the water mist fire

suppression agent (page 7).

Others have been chosen to illustrate how, even when an

alternative with high GWP is the only practical alternative, its

careful application can minimise direct and indirect impact

on global warming.

Many case studies are from Article 5(1) countries, but all of

the case studies have important lessons for both developing

and developed countries. All of the technologies are

commercially available world-wide (with the exception of the

HFC foaming agent HFC-365mfc which is to become

commercially available shortly after time of printing).

The benefits of win-win solutions

All those countries and businesses now phasing out ODSs

can benefit from the experiences of others when choosing

alternatives. The benefits of adopting a win-win

technology are clear:

• Win-win solutions can be very cost-effective,

especially where energy efficiency is improved. Some

are more efficient and effective than the CFCs that

they replace.

• The global market is increasingly demanding

products that protect the environment, including

those that are ozone- and climate-friendly.

• By choosing a win-win solution, companies are better

prepared for any future controls arising from the need

to limit greenhouse gas emissions.

• Organisations can improve their public image and

show that they are an environmental ‘good citizen’.

• Damage to the ozone layer will be minimised, and

increases in global warming will be minimised.

Thus, the technology can also be win-win in the sense

that both the environment and business can win.

5

Identifying analternate

technology

What are the ozone depletionimpacts of the new technology?

Are these reduced in comparisonwith the existing technology?

Does the new technology meetexisting and likely short-term

ODS legislation in the countryof operation?

Prepare a reasonedjustification

Proceed to developan implementation

plan

Seek independentpeer review

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

MONTREAL PROTOCOL ISSUES

CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES

More favorable

Less favorable

How do these compare withother potential alternative

technologies?

If the preferred technology doesnot have the most favorableLCCP, why is it still preferred?

Investigate an assessment

Have the various climateperformance impacts of the

new technology been assessed?

Investment cost? Operating cost?

Other environmentalimpact?

Performance?

Availability oftechnology

Other occupationalhealth issues?

Figure 1. A outline decision process for use whenconsidering an alternative to an ODS


IntroductionHalons are used mainly in fire-extinguishing equipment.They work by stopping the chemical reactions in firesand explosions and they do not cause secondarydamage. They are particularly good for fighting fires insensitive electronic equipment.

Alternative fire-extinguishing chemicals generally usesmothering or cooling to extinguish a fire. Some of thesecan damage sensitive electronic equipment. They oftendo not work as rapidly as halons.

Relevance to Montreal Protocoland climate protectionTable H1 below gives the ODP and GWP of halons andtheir main alternatives.

Certain limited critical use areas, such as some aircraftand military applications, have no acceptable alternativesto halons at present. Research into alternatives continuesin these areas but halons some drawn from existing‘halon banks’ continue to be used.

Some hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), despite their high GWP,are used as fire-suppressing agents in some applicationswhere risk assessment shows that they are the best option

from a safety point of view. However, steps to minimisetheir avoidable emission should be taken.

Minimising or eliminating halons Reducing the risk of fire should always be the firstpriority. Effective prevention or early detection of fires canhelp to avoid the need for suppression systems.

Emissions can be minimised by the fire preventionhierarchy:

1. Can the risk of fire be prevented or reduced?

2. If a protection system is necessary, can you use onethat does not contain a hazardous/environmentallyharmful substance?

3. If a system must use a hazardous/environmentallyharmful substance, can its exposure be minimised?

Alternatives to halon fireextinguishing systemsThere is no chemical that has all the properties of halon.Various alternatives can be used for different types offire. Alternatives that have zero ODP and low or zeroGWP include CO2, foam spray, water and dry powder.CO2 has the advantage of being inexpensive, although itis possible for the fire to re-ignite once the gas hasdispersed. Foam spray cannot be used on high voltageelectrical equipment or liquid fires. Water likewise cannotbe used on high voltage electrical equipment or liquidfires. Dry powder is very efficient but messy. The powderis ineffective once settled.

The main alternatives to fixed halon fire extinguishingsystems are:

• Water sprinklers. Heat sensitive heads are located inpipework throughout the protected area.

• Water mist. Unlike a sprinkler system, water mistcan be used on flammable liquid fires.

• Carbon dioxide. CO2 extinguishes a fire by displacingand diluting air, thus starving the fire of oxygen.

• Foam. Fixed foam systems mix water with foamconcentrate and then aerate the mixture.

• Dry powder. These systems use nitrogen to expel finedry powders through nozzles in a pipework system.

• Inert gas systems. These are electrically non-conductive, leave no residue, have a reasonable levelof safety and good penetration.

All the above have zero ODP, and zero or negligible GWP.

• HFC systems. As with inert gas systems, these areelectrically non-conductive, leave no residue, have areasonable level of safety and good penetration. Theuse of HFCs has helped to accelerate the removal ofhalons from systems. HFCs have significant GWPs.

For more information 1. HTOC Reports and Technical Notes (www.teap.org)

Table H1. The main fire suppressants

6

HALONSHALONS

� ODP is the ratio of the impact on the ozone of achemical compared to the impact of a similar mass of CFC-11, which is definedas 1.0. All others are compared to this.

� CO2 is used as the base measure and given a GWP of 1, all others arecompared to this.

� Source: Table 11-1 of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, 1998.� GWP of ozone depleting substances is currently under review due to the

complexity of ozone and climate interactions.

GWP �

–– �

–– �

–– �

7900

3300

12100

1

0

0

CHEMICAL NAME

Bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211)

Bromotrifluoromethane (Halon 1301)

Dibromotetrafluoroethane (Halon 2402)

Perfluorobutane (FC-3-1-10)

Heptafluoropropane (HFC227ea)

Trifluoromethane (HFC23)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Inert gases (nitrogen, argon)

Water (spray and mist)

ODP �

3 �

10 �

6 �

0

0

0

0

0

0


7

CASE STUDY 1

WATER MIST IMPACTS FIRE BUTNOT THE ENVIRONMENT INGERMANY

BackgroundWater mist has, in recent years, been adopted as a firecontrol and extinguishing medium at an ever-increasing rate.Fire suppression with water mist was first developed in the1920s, but technological developments in the 1980s and1990s have allowed its current widespread deployment.One such system is manufactured by FOGTEC BrandschutzGmbH & Co in Germany.

The projectsThe German chemicals company Bayer AG in Krefeld,Ürdingen, required fire protection for 18 sections ofelectrical power main tunnels and cellars. The small sizeof some access ways, some blind tunnels and fewemergency exits make this a hazardous place formaintenance staff, and especially for fire-fightingpersonnel. There is also limited space for pipe work, but agreat deal of combustible material. The FOGTEC systemis ideally suited for this situation. It has rapid and effectivecooling and smoke scrubbing impact, requires little space,can reach and protect blind areas and requires a minimalvolume of water. Bayer used a dry pipe deluge system withopen nozzles. Actuation was via smoke detectors.FOGTEC installed 500 nozzles, with six 120-litre pumps todeliver the water.

In contrast, a more conventional 15-storey office buildingwas fire-protected at Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG,Printmedia Academy Heidelberg, in Germany. Thebuilding is a glass and steel construction, 44 metres high,with offices, lecture halls, glass facades, kitchen fryers andescape ways to protect. The building design left littlespace for pipe work in false floors or ceilings, but aFOGTEC system with 2,500 nozzles was installed, withseven 120-litre pumps supplying water. A dry pipe delugesystem was used for parts of this office. The remainderwas a wet system, with glass-bulb activated nozzles. Thewater mist system is well suited to protect the open steelbuilding structure, and requires the storage of only 6,000litres of water.

The technologyFOGTEC fire fightingsystems use special nozzlesto apply water to the seatof a fire in the form of finewater droplets. Thedroplets rapidly absorbconsiderable amounts ofenergy. Surrounding air iscooled quickly, and the1,640-times expansionfrom water to steamdisplaces oxygen from the seat of the fire,effectively controlling and extinguishing it.Nearby objects and people are protected from radiant heat. Thesmall mist droplets bind a high percentage of the smoke particles and so potential inhalation and smokedamage are minimised. Large amounts of water-soluble combustion gases are washed out. These features make water mist a particularly suitable medium for occupied areas.

Water mist systems are being used in areas traditionallyprotected by gas systems and water sprinkler systems, aswell as in areas previously difficult to protect.

This extinguishing medium has no Ozone DepletingSubstances (ODSs) and zero Global Warming Potential(GWP) and, therefore, negligible adverse environmentalimpact. The system consumes only about 10% of thewater used in conventional systems, resulting in a lowervolume of contaminated water requiring disposal, and farless water damage.

ConclusionWater mist systems provide extremely effective protectionfrom fire hazard with minimal environmental impact.They need to be carefully and expertly designed, whichmakes them expensive compared to competing systems.However, their specific advantages, especially in theprotection of personnel and minimal environmentalimpact, make them well worth consideration.

ContactFOGTEC Brandschutz GmbH & CoSchanzenstrasse 35D-51063 KölnGermanyTel: +49 221 96223-0Fax: +49 221 96223-30E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.fogtec.com

Zero ODP �

Direct GWP zero or low �

Reduced indirect GWP

Lower production costs

Lower operating costs

Additional benefits �

Summary of case study impacts

Water mist spray testing at the Bayer cable tunnels


8

CASE STUDY 2

INERT GAS FIRE SUPPRESSIONSYSTEMS IN THE MIDDLE EASTAND THE UK

BackgroundAir Products in the USA developed for NASA a gascombination of 50% nitrogen, 40% argon and 10% carbondioxide (CO2) for use in space respiration. However, wheninjected into a room at the correct volume, this gas wasfound to lower the oxygen content to around 12-15% whicheffectively stops the combustion process.

This fire-fighting gas, made from components in theatmosphere, was adopted by the Tyco-Wormald Group anddeveloped into the Inergen system.

The projectsIn a major construction programme in the United ArabEmirates (UAE), the Abu Dhabi National Oil Companyrecognised that the future acceptability of the existing

gases, and potentially any new chemical gases, was indoubt and consequently the Inergen system was installed.One of the major benefits of the system was the fastturnaround of refilling on a local basis and in less than 24hours. This meant that dedicated reserves of gas were notneeded, providing financial and storage benefits.

Since the introduction of Inergen into the UAE in 1996, over4,000 cylinders have been installed. The buildings protectedinclude petrochemical sites, telecommunication facilities,archives and data storage areas, military establishmentsand instrumentation rooms. The system has also beenwidely adopted across the rest of the Middle East and inAfrica.

In the UK, the Co-operative Bank has chosen the Inergensystem to replace existing halon systems at its major sites.Wormald Ansul (UK) Ltd has installed 11 Inergen systems,totalling more than 230 cylinders, to protect computerrooms, mainframe rooms, PBX rooms, tape stores anduninterrupted power supply rooms at the bank’s four mainpremises. All halons were removed and deposited in anaccredited storage bank.

The technologyThe gas used has no Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), noGlobal Warming Potential (GWP) and zero atmosphericlifetime. In addition, it can be mixed in almost any localindustrial gas filling plant without the need for specialistrefill plant and imported chemical gases.

The delivery system is also very simple. The gas is stored inmultiple 80-litre cylinders at a pressure of 200 bar. A signalfrom a fire detection system, manual release device or

Zero ODP �


Reduced indirect GWP





Inergen storagecontainers inMussafah, AbuDhabi


remote link operates a solenoid on the master cylinderand this, in turn, releases all the gas cylinders in thesystem. The gas is injected into the risk area over a 60-second discharge, thus reducing oxygen concentrationand extinguishing all fires within this period. Since it is ablend of natural gases, it has a very similar specific gravityto air and, as a result, remains in the risk area for sometime, preventing re-ignition. Because Inergen is stored asa gas, the delivery system pipe work and associatedfixtures are easier to engineer compared to those of ahalon system. As a gas it requires more storage spacebut, because it can be piped over relatively long distances,it can be stored remotely.

Safety propertiesIn the event that anyone is present in a room whenInergen is discharged (due to accident, injury, rescue etc)their safety is fully safeguarded: They should experienceno change in heart or breathing rate, and no loss ofmental capability as a result of inhaling the suppressant.Inergen produces no toxic or acidic by-products oncontact with flames or hot surfaces.

In addition, Inergen does not create a vapour cloud(unlike halogenated compounds and CO2) which couldobscure the way to an escape route.

EconomicsThe cost benefits of the system are two-fold and it hasdifferent advantages from those of chemical agents.When protecting a volume of less than around 100 m3,the investment required for a conventional chemical gas

system is approximately 15% lower than with Inergen.However, the cost of refills thereafter is higher forchemical gases. For larger systems, particularly whenusing a central bank of cylinders to protect multiple riskareas, the Inergen system is claimed to be more cost-effective than conventional chemical gases.

The Inergen gas is mixed from relatively cheapcomponents at industrial gas filling stations, withoutspecialist plant nor expensive imported chemical gases.The current system stores the gas in 80-litre cylinders at apressure of 200 bar. Future developments of the systemshould lead to the use of remote bulk tanks, furtherimproving the economics.

ConclusionThe Inergen system uses naturally occurring gases andhas zero ODP and zero GWP. The inert gas used in thesystem is cheap and easy to produce locally. For systemsover 100 m3, it is a cost-effective option and is becomingwidely used.

ContactsTyco Fire and SecurityWormald Ansul (UK) Ltd Grimshaw Lane, Newton Heath,Manchester M40 2WL, UKTel: +44 161 455 4413Fax: +44 161 455 4455Email: [email protected] site: www.wormald.co.uk

Inside the storagecontainer in Mussafahare Inergen cylindersand valves

9


10

REFRIGERATIONREFRIGERATION

IntroductionMany alternatives to CFC refrigerants are now used, andmany issues must be considered to select the mostappropriate one. This section highlights some of the keyconsiderations, and suggests ways to approach the problemof refrigerant phase-out to minimise long-term cost.

Relevance to Montreal Protocol and climate protectionRefrigerants in all but the smallest of refrigerationequipment are extremely likely to leak to some extentduring use, maintenance and/or disposal. Leakage ofrefrigerants with non-zero ODP (relevant to the MontrealProtocol) and/or non-zero Global Warming Potential(GWP) (relevant to climate change) will have a directimpact on the environment. The use, and especially theleakage, of such refrigerants should be avoided if possible.

Refrigeration equipment also has an important indirectimpact on global warming due to its consumption ofenergy. In addition to having a direct impact on theenvironment, refrigerant leakage almost inevitably leads toserious loss of efficiency.

The methodology for combining the direct and indirectglobal warming impacts of refrigeration equipment, for agiven application, is called the Total Equivalent WarmingImpact (TEWI).

Alternative refrigerantsIn all cases, it is wise to consult carefully with equipmentand/or refrigerant suppliers when choosing alternatives – nosingle alternative is suitable for all applications. In general,when phasing out CFCs there are three alternative types of

refrigerant. Table R1 outlines the most widely usedalternatives and gives their GWP in brackets. Rememberthat many refrigerants are blends of two or more fluids:

HCFCs and HCFC blends HCFCs are considered to be ‘transitional solutions’ thatshould be used only when no effective alternative exists.They can often be used in existing equipment but a datefor their discontinuation has been set, even though it isnot imminent: 100% phase-out in developed countries by2030 and in Article 5(1) countries by 2040. Controls ontheir usage will be in place long before these dates, andin at least one region, the European Community, thedates are being brought forward. Therefore, as theWestin Resort in Guam found (see Case Study 3 on page13), it makes good economic sense to consider thelonger-term alternatives below.

HFCs and HFC blends Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and HFC blends have zeroODP and are used as alternatives to CFCs and HCFCs inmany applications. HFCs are not controlled under theMontreal Protocol. However, most HFCs do havesignificant GWP.

Natural refrigerants Some naturally occurring chemicals, such as ammonia,hydrocarbons, and even carbon dioxide (CO2) are effectiverefrigerants in certain applications. These have zero ODPand low or zero GWP. The efficiency of hydrocarbons andammonia, in particular, is arguably competitive with that ofHFCs in many applications, depending on the temperature

Table R1. The main refrigerant alternatives (GWP figures in brackets are based on a 100 year time horizon).

Alternative Refrigerant being replaced

CFC-11 [4000] CFC-12 [8500] CFC-502 [5590] HCFC-22 [1700]

HCFC (retrofit or new) 123 [–– 2] 401A [–– 2] 402A [–– 2] n/a401B [–– 2] 402B [–– 2]409A [–– 2] 403A [–– 2]409B [–– 2] 403B [–– 2]

408A [–– 2]411B [–– 2]

HFC (retrofill or new) 134a [1300] 134a [1300] 404A [3260] 407C [1526]413A [1774] 407A [1770] 410A [1730]407B [2285] 410A [1725] 417A [1968]

507 [3300]

Other (new plant only) Ammonia [0] HC [<50] HC [<50] HC [<50]Ammonia [0] Ammonia [0] Ammonia [0]

1 Based on: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - CFC and HCFC Phase Out: Advice on Alternatives and Guidelines for Users, 2000, UK Governmentpublication, URN 00/1156, see www.dti.gov.uk/access/ozone.htm

2 GWP of ozone depleting substances is currently under review due to the complexity of ozone and climate interactions.


level and other factors. Natural refrigerants were widelyused before CFCs were discovered, but hydrocarbons andammonia, in particular, require care in use for safetyreasons (see Case Studies 4, 5, 7, 8 & 9). None of thesenatural refrigerants, other than some specially blendedhydrocarbons, can be used in existing equipment that usesCFCs. Hydrocarbons are typically used in domesticrefrigerators and freezers, small integral equipment,including heat pumps. These are also used in largeindustrial systems in petrochemical plants where safetyissues are fully addressed. Systems need to be designed (orcarefully adjusted) to reduce fire risk. Ammonia is typicallyused in industrial processes and cold storage. Safetyconsiderations are of high importance, and systems mustbe designed specifically for ammonia. Other naturalrefrigerants are re-emerging, but are not yet widely applied.

Assessing the total impact of refrigeration plantOver the lifetime of the equipment, both the indirect globalwarming impact (from energy consumption) and the directimpact (caused by refrigerant leakage) will be important.From some equipment, the indirect global warming impactmay be more than six times the direct impact. Whenassessing which type of plant to use for a givenapplication, one method is to calculate the TEWI of eachsystem. TEWI adds the estimated direct impact to theestimated indirect impact in equivalent CO2 terms. UsingTEWI, the relative global warming impacts of differenttypes of system can be assessed for any given application,expressed in kilogrammes of CO2. For further informationon TEWI see Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI): AnOverview, item 2 in Sources of further information.

Changing refrigerant and/or equipment is an idealopportunity to review and improve the energy efficiency ofplant. This need not cost any more in terms of the initialinvestment, and will usually save money through lower energycosts over the life of the plant. See Case Studies 3 and 5.

Devising a strategy for CFCphase-outDealing with small equipmentSmall equipment that uses CFCs, such as self-containedrefrigerated cabinets or domestic refrigerators, has zero orlow leakage rate. It is often best to run this equipment tothe end of its working life, and then dispose of it and itsrefrigerant responsibly.

Dealing with larger systemsFor larger systems, many factors must be considered whendevising a phase-out strategy, but in simple terms thefollowing may be useful:

1. Identify all equipment that contains CFCs. Assess therelative importance to the organisation, the quantityof CFC contained in the equipment, and how muchCFC is used to maintain each item.

2. Implement a campaign to reduce or eliminaterefrigerant leakage. This will limit emissions, but will alsoimprove the energy efficiency (see document 5 in thesection entitled Sources of Further Information below).

3. Consider equipment conversion or replacementoptions for the main equipment.

4. In the first year of the phase-out programme, convertor replace enough high priority equipment to makeavailable a quantity of CFCs. This CFC ‘bank’ can beused to meet the maintenance requirements of theremaining CFC equipment.

5. Continue the programme, dealing with enoughequipment to keep CFC stocks adequate and theinvestment and running costs as low as possible, untilthe CFC equipment is phased out.

Part of the strategy should be to investigate how theefficiency of replacement or renovated plant can beimproved, to reduce running costs and indirectenvironmental impact.

The options when removing CFC refrigerantsWhen CFC refrigerants in a system are to be replaced,there are usually two alternatives:

• Keep the equipment but remove the CFC, andreplace it with an alternative refrigerant. This iscalled ‘drop-in’ replacement at the simplest level, orretrofit when some equipment modification is alsonecessary.

• Replace the whole system with a completely new one.

‘Drop-in’ and retrofit are likely to be far less expensivethan replacement. New equipment may be cost-effective ifthe plant is old and needs replacing anyway, is inefficientor poorly suited to its current role, has high maintenancecosts or has a refrigerant leakage problem - as in CaseStudy 5 at Bass Brewery in the UK (page 15).

Several refrigerant manufacturers produce ‘drop-in’alternatives to CFCs that require little or no alteration tothe refrigeration system. Others can be used in oldsystems but they have to be adapted for the purpose. Beaware that different replacements will have differentimpacts on the system.

Amongst the issues to consider are materials compatibilityproblems, need to replace lubricating oils, and operatingpressures (which may be higher and so give moreleakage). The efficiency of the alternatives will vary;choosing the one that is most energy efficient for the plantcould make the investment much more cost-effective.Replacement will almost inevitably alter the coolingcapacity of the plant (i.e. the amount of cooling that it iscapable of producing in a given time). Remember thatreduced capacity does not necessarily mean reducedefficiency.

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Always check with suppliers, and also assess how thesystem efficiency can be improved at the same time tomake the investment much more cost-effective.

Key issues for improving energyefficiency For typical air-cooled vapour compression plant:

Keep the condensers clean

• Blocked or fouled condensers lead to increasedcondensing temperature, and so lower efficiency.Keep them clean and clear of debris.

Make sure the air entering the condensers is as cool aspossible

• The warmer the air onto the condensers is, the higherthe condensing temperature. Shade condensers fromthe sun, allow free air circulation and ensure warmair is not re-circulated.

Ensure that the refrigerant charge is correct, and reducerefrigerant leakage

• (See section below)

Set points should be only as low as the process/storagerequires

• A lower temperature of cooling means lower efficiency

Keep cold store doors closed as much as possible, andwell sealed

• Especially important for freezer stores. Strip curtainscut losses from doorways in regular use.

Check that evaporators defrost properly

• Too little defrosting means ice build-up on theevaporator, which leads to poor heat exchange andlower efficiency. Too much or too often defrostingleads to defrost heat being dumped into the air orspace that has to be later cooled.

(See also Key Design Issues on Page 16)

The importance of reducingrefrigerant leakageReducing leakage saves money and lowers the impact onthe environment in several ways. Methods to reduceleakage need not be expensive and are usually cost-effective. They can be relatively easy to implement andthey improve the reliability of the plant.

Leakage of refrigerant leads to:

• Increased running costs due to lower cooling capacityand reduced plant efficiency (running costs can bedoubled by typical leakage rates in many types ofplant).

• Reduced reliability due to mechanical and coolingcapacity problems when refrigerant levels are low.

• High maintenance costs. In addition to the obviouscost of refilling the system, plant failure is more likelyand serious events such as compressor burn-out havemajor implications.

Leakage can be reduced cost-effectively by improvedoperation and maintenance, and care in design andinstallation of plant.

Sources of further information1. Making the best of CFC Phase-out, Gluckman, R

(1995) Brewers' Guardian, May 1995 edition, UK pp.17-22.

2. Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI): AnOverview, Annex 1, 1998 Report of the UNEPRefrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee - 1998Assessment, UNEP, Kenya.

3. For further guidance on energy efficiency ofrefrigeration plant, the UK Government’s EnergyEfficiency Best Practice Programme has published GPG 278 Purchasing efficient refrigeration - the valuefor money option; GPG 279 Running refrigerationplant efficiently - a cost-saving guide for owners;GPG 280 Energy efficient refrigeration technology - the fundamentals; GPG 283 Designing energyefficient refrigeration plant. GPG 178 Cutting the cost of refrigerant leakage – an introductory guide for users of small to medium-sized refrigerationsystems. www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk

4. Guide book for the Implementation of Codes of GoodPractice, UNEP (1998), Code GB-6.

5. Internet sites of refrigerant manufacturers providefurther advice on their usage and the conversionprocess. These include: DuPont Suva:http://www.dupont.com/suva; Rhodia/Isceon & HF:http://www.isceon-refrigerants.com; Ineos Fluor:http://www.ineosfluor.com; Atofina:http://www.forane.com; Calor Refrigerantshttp://www.care-refrigerants.co.uk . There are others.See also the UNEP OzonAction Internet site of linksto equipment suppliers athttp://194.51.235.137/ozat/links/company.html.

6. 1998 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioningand Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee -1998 Assessment, UNEP, Kenya.

7. Global Warming – Considerations for the refrigerationand air conditioning industry, Heap RD (1998),Dreosti Memorial Lecture 1998.

8. Code of Practice for the Minimisation of RefrigerantEmissions from Refrigerating Systems, (1995) UKInstitute of Refrigeration, London, www.ior.org.uk

9. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - CFC and HCFCPhase out: Advice on Alternatives and Guidelines forUsers, (2000) UK Government publication URN00/1156, www.dti.gov.uk/access/ozone.htm

10. Avoiding a Double Phase-Out: AlternativeTechnologies to HFCs in Refrigeration and AirConditioning, UNEP, (1999) Code REF-5.


CASE STUDY 3GUAM HOTEL INSTALLS NEWCHILLER AND CUTS RUNNINGCOSTS

BackgroundThe Westin Resort, on the Pacific island of Guam, wasrunning its air conditioning system using R-11, with highODP and high GWP. As in many hotels around the world,ageing centrifugal chillers provide chilled water that ispumped around the building to deliver the cooling. Thephase-out of any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerantsprovided an opportunity to reduce operating costs andimprove reliability whilst switching to a zero ODP refrigerant.

The Westin Resort, Guam, has 420 rooms and requiresnearly 5 MW of cooling from its chillers.

The projectThe resort requires nearly 5 MW of cooling for its 420-room hotel facilities. Three centrifugal chillers providedthe cooling. The resort facility team chose R-134a, ahydrofluorocarbon (HFC) with zero ODP and givingcompetitive energy efficiency, for use in the new plant.

The Westin decided on a phased replacement programmeto reduce capital costs and ensure continued coolingavailability. The three centrifugal chillers deliver chilledwater into a single system, and could be replaced one ata time.

The system distributing the chilled water around the hotelwas still satisfactory but, for improved efficiency, thepumps and the control system distributing the chilledwater were also replaced. Carrier Corporation engineersanalysed the cooling demands at the resort, and foundthat the installed capacity of the new plant could bereduced as a result of the higher efficiency of the newchillers. Through careful sizing, both the cost andphysical size of the new chillers were reduced.

An added key feature of the project is the regularmaintenance programme. As well as the benefit of leakchecking, this contract means that the condensers havebeen kept clear of fouling through improved maintenanceof the cooling towers.

The first chiller was replaced in 1999 which resulted in0.5 tonnes of CFC being removed from service. Followinggood results, the second chiller was ordered in 2000, andthe third for 2001.

The technologyThe resort had three centrifugal chillers, each with around1.7 MW capacity. The first of these was replaced in 1999with a Carrier 19XR chiller with a capacity of 1.6 MW,running on refrigerant R-134a. As part of the package,the system uses a Carrier Comfort Network (CCN) controlsystem that gives 24-hour monitoring of performance,including remote monitoring from the Carrier regionaloffice. They can thus respond to any issues before theybecome a problem.

The system delivers only the amount of cooling demandedat any time and turns off one or more chillers, as required.

ConclusionIt is important to use the opportunity of CFC phase-out toinvestigate whether energy efficiency improvements canbe made at the same time. This does not necessarilymean increased cost, and a reduction in the installedchiller capacity through careful design can often lower theamount of investment required. In addition, monitoring ofperformance and regular maintenance will keep downoperating costs and improve reliability.

Contactswww.carrierguam.comor Carrier CorporationCarrier ParkwayP.O. Box 4808SyracuseNY 13221-4808USAPhone: +1 800 227 7437Fax: +1 315 432 6620www.carrier.com

Zero ODP �

Direct GWP zero or low

Reduced indirect GWP �


Lower operating costs �



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CASE STUDY 4PACKAGED BLAST-FREEZERUSING AMMONIA IN IRAN

BackgroundThe Iran Meat Organisation's (IMO) Ziaran Meat Complexneeded a major upgrade of its capacity in order to freeze 7tonnes of lamb carcasses per day. IMO’s existingequipment, using chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), was nolonger adequate to meet demand, nor economic tosustain. The company operates a two-shift system and thesite engineers knew that, because of these long runninghours, investment in an efficient ammonia system wouldprobably make economic, and environmental sense. IMOneeded to retain flexibility for future production changesand, having no experience of working with ammonia plant,was concerned about the additional safety requirements.

The projectYork Refrigeration Global Contracting supplied blast-freezing modules on 12-metre articulated trailers that needonly a level base, a water supply and electrical power.

Once the concrete piles were built and water andelectricity made available, the only additional projectengineering required to install the freezer was to ensurean efficient means of loading and unloading the meat.For safety reasons and ease of installation, the two unitswere sited outside the building, facing into their mainproduction facility (see photograph). This meant that noammonia was used within the existing facility, therebyeasing safety requirements.

The units were delivered to the site ready to operate andcomplete with their ammonia charge, and causedminimum disruption to production.

The technologyAmmonia is a cheap, energy efficient refrigerant withworld-wide use in food and cold storage. It has zeroimpact on ozone depletion, very low direct global warmingimpact, and competitive indirect global warming impact.It is second only to HCFC-22 in terms of its usage inreplacing CFCs in the industrial and cold storage sectors.Whilst its purchase price per kW capacity may usually behigher than equivalent HCFC plant, its efficiency canmake it extremely attractive for the medium- to long-terminvestment.

The blast-freezer modules used by IMO are built within a12.2m container. At one end, opening out to the end ofthe container, is a 6.2m x 2.2m freezing chambercomplete with rails for meat hooks. The freezing chamberis large enough to hang 2 tonnes of lamb carcasses ineach batch. The two axial flow fans and air coolers backon to a partition wall separating a small plant room at theother end of the trailer.

The 150 litres/hour water supply provides for theevaporative condenser. This evaporative approach leadsto greatly reduced evaporating temperatures and saves25-40% of energy in the temperatures experienced inmost developing countries, compared to a similar systemusing an air-cooled condenser.

The three-phase 380 V power supply requires a maximumof 22 kW, and delivers 28 kW of freezing capacity, enablingthe units to freeze 2 tonnes of lamb carcasses to anestimated carcass temperature of -18 to -24°C in 10 hours.

A key advantage to this approach is that the units are fullyfactory assembled and tested, and so require minimalassembly and commissioning on-site. York providedtraining to the local staff in the necessary maintenance.

ConclusionThe modular approach demonstrated with these blastfreezers shows how low environmental impact can beachieved using ammonia technology with a minimum of on-site engineering and, importantly, minimum disruption toproduction facilities. The units have now been operatingreliably for several years and, because of their higher energyefficiency, have achieved significant running cost savings,compared with the previous equipment using CFCs.

Contactswww.yorkref.com orYork Refrigeration Global ContractingChristian X's Vej 201DK-8270 HøjbjergDenmarkPhone: +45 8736 7000Fax: +45 8736 7605

Zero ODP �


Reduced indirect GWP �





The packaged freezing container needed only a level baseand water and electrical supplies to get production started.


CASE STUDY 5COST-EFFECTIVE STRATEGY FORINDUSTRIAL PLANT DESIGN AT AUK BREWERY

BackgroundThe Bass Brewery at Burton-on-Trent, in the UK, wasusing R-12, a CFC, in centrifugal chillers for its productionfacility. The plant was old, its reliability was declining, andit had problems meeting the peak summer coolingdemands. The company management decided to invest ina new plant, and knew that lifetime running costs forrefrigeration plant are typically several times its purchaseprice. By designing for maximum energy efficiency, thecompany was confident that energy costs could be cut bya substantial amount.

The projectThe Burton brewery plant is large, but the lessons learnedare also applicable to much smaller industrial processcooling plants. Some of the important aspects of theirapproach are outlined below.

Analysis of cooling demandsFirstly, the cooling needs at the factory were assessed,because system over-sizing incurs unnecessary capital andrunning costs. Some key findings were:

• Cooling of wort (unfermented beer) incurred a veryhigh load in summer, but this lasted for only arelatively short time - so the more typical total coolingload was actually much lower.

• Most of the cooling demands did not require suchlow temperatures as the old plant supplied.

Reduction of unnecessary heat loadsWhen the engineers analysed the system, they found thatthe system fans, and especially pumps for chilled water,alcohol, brine and condenser water, represented asignificant total electrical load. Most of this power endedup as extra heat in the product or coolants that therefrigeration plant then had to remove. The new systemhas smaller pumps and variable speed drives (VSDs) tomatch pumping to the cooling demand.

Careful choice of refrigerantThe choice of ammonia as the main refrigerant wasaimed at achieving maximum efficiency, and also becauseammonia has zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) andGlobal Warming Potential (GWP). Hence, the total impacton the environment was minimised.

Essential comprehensive monitoringof plantAnother key objective was to make the plant as reliable aspossible. This meant investing in reliable instrumentationand monitoring equipment. By monitoring trends in thepressure and temperature readings, faults can beidentified and corrected long before they cause problemswith production and efficiency can be kept at theoptimum.

Main plant design aimed at typicaldemand, with measures to cope with peakdemandThe main plant was designed to cope efficiently with thevariation in demand for most of the year, but not to copewith the peak demand. For most of the year, a bank offive single-stage screw compressor packs with good part-load performance is used. Switching on only enoughcompressors to match demand was a key factor in thesuccess of the new plant.

To deal with the extra summer load, some packaged liquidchillers were installed to supplement the main plant. Thisapproach was considerably cheaper than if the main planthad been sized to cope with the maximum load and,because the main plant is not oversized for most of theyear, overall efficiency is good.

The plant includes evaporative condensers to takeadvantage of lower condensing temperatures, and airpurgers that remove air from inside the ammonia systemto improve efficiency.

The generously sized evaporative condensers ensure thatthe condensing temperature stays low, considerablyimproving energy efficiency.

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Zero ODP �


Reduces indirect GWP �






16

ConclusionThis project has shown that significant energy savings canbe made when replacing an old refrigeration system. Thenew plant was a major investment, but broughtsubstantial benefits:

• Improved reliability.

• Reduced maintenance costs and fewer problems.

• A 34% improvement in energy efficiency, savingaround US $235,400 per year in energy costs.

In addition, the cost savings achieved through careful re-evaluation of the cooling demand exceeded the extra costof the energy saving features, i.e. net additional cost forachieving the higher efficiency was zero.

For further detailsThis case study has been published as Good Practice CaseStudy 248 Strategy for major cooling plant replacement,available from the UK Government's Energy EfficiencyBest Practice Programme. A free copy can bedownloaded from

www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk

SOME KEY DESIGN ISSUES THAT REDUCE THE RUNNING COSTS OF REFRIGERATION PROCESS PLANT:

• Reduce the total cooling demand. This can be achieved by using VSDs

on pumps, insulating cooling delivery lines, cooled vessels and cold

stores, and keeping cold store doors closed.

• Raise the temperature at which cooling is delivered. The lower the

temperature of cooling, the less efficient the system, and the more

expensive it is to run. Always set thermostats as high as the needs of

production will allow.

• Keep the condensing temperature as low as possible. High condensing

temperatures make the plant work harder. Allow the condensing

temperature (head pressure) to float down with ambient temperatures,

avoid head pressure control, and choose evaporative condensers rather

than air-cooled ones, if possible.

• Design main plant for typical (average) cooling demands, and deal with

short peaks in demand separately. Aim for maximum efficiency at typical

running conditions, not at peak demand. This may mean having

additional chillers that are used only at peak times. These could be

cheaper and less efficient models if used for only some of the time, with

more resources used to make the main plant as efficient as possible.

• Select compressors and their controls for maximum efficiency. Avoid

using capacity control. For example, it is often more efficient to use

three or more smaller compressors and turning on only those required to

meet demand. Consider what loading the compressors will typically

have, not just their peak demand, and select them for efficiency at that

part-load condition. Use a control system to ensure the compressors are

run for maximum efficiency at any given load condition.

These packaged chillers are only used to deal with peakloads in summer - and so the main plant was designed tobe highly efficient, and cheaper to buy, for the more usuallower load levels

Computerised data collection and control systems ensurethat the plant runs efficiently and reliably.


CASE STUDY 6RETAIL STORES IN USA CONVERTTO HFCs

BackgroundUntil the phasing out of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),refrigerants R-12 and R-502 were widely used in theUSA retail sector. This represents a large number ofsmall systems using CFCs and to convert them to usingalternatives presents a major logistical and financialchallenge. Companies need to review the optionscarefully, consulting with refrigerant and equipmentsuppliers, and will benefit from monitoring and adviceas the work proceeds. Bruno’s Inc., a chain of grocerystores in southeast USA, decided to convert the systemsin its then 240 stores for both environmental andcommercial reasons. The company’s decision tookinto account the timing of new regulations, thedeclining availability of CFC refrigerants and thelogistical challenges presented. Bruno’s spokespersonnoted that a sense of urgency about the CFC issue wasstarting to replace the complacent attitude that hadprevailed for several years in the industry.

"Bruno’s did not want to get involved in any last-minuteconversion crunch." explained the Vice President ofConsumer Affairs at that time. "We wanted to makesure that we could get the materials and peoplenecessary to perform safe, efficient and timely retrofits."

The projectFor guidance on how to proceed with the conversions,Bruno’s consulted its main refrigeration contractor andthe equipment supplier. The decision was taken tobegin the process by converting initially the R-12systems to SUVA® 134a, a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)refrigerant with zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP).In a second phase the R-502 systems would beconverted to SUVA® HP-62, once commercialquantities were available. The conversions wereevaluated and prioritized according to requirementsand equipment specifications.

Before committing to conversion of the whole chain ofstores, two stores were selected for a trial of the newrefrigerant. Plant performance was monitored with theoriginal R-12 and R-502 equipment over a period ofweeks. After conversion performance and efficiencycharacteristics were compared to the previous data.

The initial results showed no adverse system ortemperature effects. It was important to Bruno’s thatcustomers experienced no disruption to the serviceprovided by the stores. Since the conversions werecarried out in the equipment room during normal storehours, this was achieved, and the company embarkedupon the main conversion project.

An important aspect of the programme was to set uppreventive maintenance procedures for each storeundergoing conversion. This ensures that efficiencyremains high.

The technologyDuPont, in common with other refrigerantmanufacturers, provides guidance notes for thoseconsidering conversion from CFCs using its refrigerants.These notes give detailed advice on the conversionprocedure. They also indicate the compatibility ofrefrigerants with elastomers and plastics in system seals,gaskets etc, and with lubricating oils. However, it isimportant that the original equipment manufacturer isconsulted to provide verification. Adverse reactions canresult in shrinkage of seals, leading to increasedrefrigerant leakage. Tables of the differences in systemtemperatures, pressures and capacity to be expectedwhen converting are also available to aid the conversiondecision and assist the commissioning process.

The conversion of the Bruno’s stores to HFC refrigerantsrequired replacing the original mineral oil with a polyolester (POE) lubricant. DuPont advises that previous oilsare flushed out of the system during conversion, andthat POE lubricants must be stored in a closed containerand have minimum exposure to air because they absorbwater/moisture. The filter dryers must also be changedduring conversion. Bruno’s experience highlighted thecritical importance of strict control of moisture duringthe conversion process to HFCs.

ConclusionRetrofit to HFC refrigerants, and using POE oils, canprovide a cost-effective solution to CFC phase-out aslong as moisture is prevented from entering the system.With attention to maintenance, commissioning andrefrigerant leakage reduction, improvements in energyefficiency can also be achieved. This means zeroimpact on ozone depletion, and minimization of theimpact on global warming.

ContactsDuPont Suva DuPont de Nemours International S.A. 2 Chemin du PavillonPO Box 50CH-1218 Le Grand-SaconnexGeneva, SwitzerlandPhone: +41 22 717 5111Fax: +41 22 717 5109Web site: http://www.dupont.com/suva/

Zero ODP �

Direct GWP zero or low






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CASE STUDY 7UK CIDER-MAKER CHOOSESNATURAL SOLUTION FOR AIR-CONDITIONING OF LABORATORY

BackgroundWorld famous cider-maker Bulmers has made benignnatural refrigerants a central part of its comprehensiveenvironmental policy.

The company was embarking on a refurbishment programmeat its cider mill production plant and offices in Hereford, UK.

One of their first acts was to veto a proposal to installplant operating on the hydrochlorofluorocarbon HCFC-22.

Earthcare Products, a refrigeration and air-conditioningconsultant, was invited to devise an alternative solutionusing refrigerants that have no Ozone Depletion Potential(ODP), and minimal Global Warming Potential (GWP).

The projectNine split air-conditioning systems were required for thebrewer’s laboratory and analytical areas where the indoorenvironment has to be maintained within ±2°C.

Earthcare Products used split air-conditioning, with wall-mounted and cassette-type ceiling units and mobile air-conditioners. All of these had been re-engineered tooptimise their performance with the hydrocarbonrefrigerant CARE 40, and to minimise charge weight andrefrigerant emissions.

The technologyEarthcare Products set out to minimise direct globalwarming impact:

• The refrigerant charge within the units was minimisedthrough careful pipe work design.

• Traditional flared copper joints that are responsiblefor a high percentage of refrigerant leaks werecompletely eliminated.

• Copper capillary lines (small pipes for instrumentationand sensors that are particularly prone to cracking)were also eliminated.

• CARE 40 has a very low GWP of 21.

Indirect globalwarming was alsominimised bymaximisingenergy efficiency:

• Hydrocarbonrefrigerantsare wellsuited to thistype ofapplication,competingfavourably onefficiencywith HCFC-22 and mostother alternatives.

• The indoor unit(evaporator) andoutdoor unit (condenser) used larger heat exchangersthan conventional to achieve lower temperature lift,and so higher efficiency.

• Floating head pressure control was used, allowing thecondensing pressure to float as low as 20°C whenambient conditions allow, instead of being heldartificially at around 40°C. Even in temperateclimates, this can achieve up to a 30% increase inefficiency compared to fixed head pressure.

• The systems used fully flooded evaporators, whichlead to increased cooling capacity and efficiency.

ConclusionSmall-scale packaged air-conditioning equipment can beoperated efficiently with hydrocarbon refrigerants. The re-engineering required to convert HCFC equipment neednot be complex, however, careful attention must be paidto safety and efficiency. Conversion provides a chance tore-examine the details of the design. Focusing on this willyield improvements, and manufacturing costs will notnecessarily be higher.

ContactsEarthcare Products Ltd46 Queen Anne's Gate, London SW1H 9AU, UKTelephone: ++44 20 7960 7916Fax: ++44 20 7222 7536E-mail: [email protected]

CARE refrigerants: Calor Gas Refrigeration, Athena Drive, Tachbrook ParkWarwick, CV34 6RL, UK Telephone: ++44 1926 318634http://www.care-refrigerants.co.uk

Zero ODP �







A variety of energy efficient airconditioners were chosen, all usinghydrocarbon refrigerants.


CASE STUDY 8COLD STORE RENOVATION INMOZAMBIQUE TO IMPROVEEFFICIENCY

BackgroundThe Pescom company cold store in Maputo, Mozambiquewas used to store fish in eight separate cold store rooms.Managers running the store, with its ageing refrigerationsystem, needed to decrease running costs and diversify tostore meat, fruit and ice cream in order to improveprofitability. The Danish International DevelopmentAgency (DANIDA) work in Mozambique to improveinfrastructure. Since an improved Pescom cold storewould support several areas of local food industry,DANIDA provided financing to achieve this.

Renovation of any cold store can be turned into a majorcost-saving opportunity if attention is also given to energyefficiency during the process. Especially since muchimproved energy efficiency does not necessarily cost moreto achieve, and often brings with it improved reliability.

The ProjectThis was a major overhaul of the store and includedreplacement of the complete refrigeration system,insulation panels for walls and ceilings, cold store doorsand flooring.

Sabroe Industry supervised the whole project, but reliedupon local contractors.

The replacement plant uses a two-stage ammonia system,with two Sabroe TSMC 116L reciprocating compressors,and also a single-stage SMC 104L reciprocatingcompressor. The total capacity of the new plant is 485kW. A 720 kW capacity evaporative condenser provideshigher efficiency by achieving a low condensingtemperature compared to air cooled condensers. Thesystem also uses two intermediate coolers. The previousrefrigerant receiver vessel and two pump separators wererefurbished and reused to save cost. In the cold stores,13 new Sabroe LSA type air coolers were installed. Amodern control system allows comprehensive monitoringof the status of the plant, and a high degree ofautomation to optimise performance.

Insulation panels were replaced on all walls and ceilings,with special attention to sealing the panels againstmoisture, as that can reduce the effectiveness of theinsulation. The doors were all replaced with easy to usemanually operating sliding doors.

ConclusionAs a result of this renovation project, Pescom now havean efficient and reliable cold store that uses no ODSs,and is economic to run. Due to its increased capacity, itcan also now serve a much wider range of the local foodindustry. This example has shown how attention toefficiency at the time of refrigerant phase-out can yieldimportant economic and environmental benefits.

ContactYORK Refrigeration Global ContractingChristian X's Vej 201DK-8270 HøjbjergDenmarkTelephone: +45 8736 7000Fax: +45 8736 7605 www.yorkref.com

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Zero ODP �







New sliding doors simplify product handling. They are also easy to close - to keep cold air in, and warm moist air out -which helps to keep energy consumption and running costs down.


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CASE STUDY 9NEW ZERO ODP BOTTLECOOLER CUTS ELECTRICITYCONSUMPTION

BackgroundRefrigerated glass-door cabinets are now very widely usedto cool and display drinks and food in kiosks, petrolstations and shops, cafes and supermarkets. It isestimated that there are around 70,000 of them inDenmark alone. This project was launched by the DanishEnergy Agency to improve the efficiency of commercialcooling and freezing equipment.

The projectThe companies Vestfrost, Danfoss, and the Coca-ColaCompany, in co-operation with the Danish TechnologicalInstitute, developed a new bottle cooler that usesapproximately 40% less energy than traditional coolers.Energy savings are made by the use of a new and moreenergy-efficient variable speed drive, more effectiveventilators, outside lighting and glass doors which reduceenergy losses. The new cooler uses hydrocarbons:isobutane for the refrigerant, and cyclopentane for thefoam blowing agent for the insulation. Both of these havezero ODP and low GWP.

The technologyA Vestfrost 350-litre single-door bottle cooler wasexamined for energy-saving potential: tests showed thatthe cooler consumed 4.8 kWh/day of electricity whentested to standard EN-441. A number of changes to theexisting cooler were implemented, and tested in aprototype. The improved cabinet was able to chill 270 softdrink cans from 32°C to 3.3°C in 19 hours, meetingstandard test requirements for the Coca-Cola Company.

Design changes included:

• Use of a new type of variable speed compressor(Danfoss NLV11K), developed by DanfossCompressors. At times of low cooling demand, thecompressor runs at low speed and so higherefficiency. When, for example, warm bottles areplaced in the cooler, the compressor runs at fullspeed to ensure fast refrigeration of the products.

• The hydrocarbon refrigerant chosen, isobutane (R-600a), is well suited to this type of application.

• Polyurethane foam, expanded using cyclopentane, isused for the insulation.

• Efficient direct current ventilators (fans) are used.Evaporator ventilation energy consumption has beenreduced from 24 W to 12.8W, with only 9.2 W of thatused inside the cabinet.

• The improved glass doors have high insulation & heatreflection characteristics. Two layers of glass areused, with a special coating that reflects heatradiation. The new glass door has a U value of 1.28instead of the normal 2.64 W/m2K.

• Low energy lighting is used. An 11 W low energybulb is situated over the door (outside) instead of theconventional 15 W neon strip and choke coil insidethe cabinet. This eliminates a significant, constantheat load into the cabinet.

Zero ODP �







Careful design, including a double-glazed and speciallycoated door, and external lighting achieves 40% savings inenergy consumption.


Laboratory tests showed that the new energy-efficientbottle cooler used around 3.24 kWh/day, corresponding toa 34% reduction in electricity demand compared toconventional coolers. The proportions of savings bysource are illustrated in chart R2.

The Coca-Cola Company then assisted large-scale fieldtests, with 40 of the new prototype coolers beingcompared to 20 standard ones in stores aroundCopenhagen and Aarhus. Monitoring was carried out bythe Danish Technological Institute during a year of use.Savings achieved by the prototypes cabinets wereapproximately 40% - 2.9 kWh/day compared to 4.8kWh/day for the conventional cabinets. The higher level ofsavings was because the temperature in the stores wasnormally lower than in the laboratory, allowing even betteruse of the variable speed compressor’s saving potential.

ConclusionThe combined effect of the design changes lead to a 40%reduction in electrical demand compared to conventionalcoolers. There are around 70,000 bottle coolers currentlyin use in Denmark; if all of these were replaced with thenew energy-efficient coolers, annual savings of 50 MWh inelectrical energy would be achieved. This wouldcorrespond to a reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2)emissions of 40,000 tonnes/year, and elimination of allozone depleting substances in this sector.

ContactsVestfrostSpangsbjerg Møllevej 1000DK-6705 Esbjerg ØDenmarkTel: +45 7914 2222Fax: +45 7914 2355Attn: Torben Lauridsen, Export ManagerE-mail: [email protected]

Danish Technological InstituteGregersensvejPO Box 141DK-2630 TaastrupDenmarkTel: +45 7220 2000Fax: +45 7220 2500E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.teknologisk.com

AcknowledgementWith acknowledgement to CADDET Energy Efficiency, anIEA/OECD programme set up to increase energy security.The bottle cooler project is described in detail in CADDETEnergy Efficiency Result 408, available to download atwww.caddet-ee.org

21

Compressor20%

Internal fan25%

Glass door20%

Lighting20%

Other15%

Chart R2: How each design issue contributed to the total savings achieved in the new bottle cooler


22

IntroductionFoam polymers are manufactured in various forms and formany different applications, and most have at some stageused CFCs in the process of manufacture. Such foams aretypically used for comfort and safety cushioning, thermalinsulation and packaging.

The principle of all the different manufacturing processes isto introduce a gas or volatile liquid, called the blowing agent,into the polymer when the polymer is in liquid form. Theblowing agent forms bubbles and when the polymer hardens,the cellular structure remains.

Relevance to Montreal Protocol andclimate protectionChlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the agents that meet theprimary requirements for blowing agents (see below) and,until recently, were relatively inexpensive. CFCs in foams arereleased to the atmosphere at different rates, depending onthe foam type. Rates of release range from total loss straightaway, to release gradually or only during disposal.

Although there are suitable alternatives that have little or noOzone Depletion Potential (ODP), none of these provide atotal solution for all applications. Some have considerableGlobal Warming Potential (GWP) which can present aparticular problem in highly emissive applications. The choiceof blowing agent should always be made in the light of theserisks, but with a view to minimising Montreal Protocol impactsand climate change.

Given that CFC-based foam insulation is being phased outunder the Montreal Protocol, alternative zero-ODP blowingagents typically provide more effective insulation than theirnot-in-kind alternatives such as fibre-based products. Thethermal insulating capability of insulation products must becarefully considered for its indirect impact on climate change.

Alternatives to CFC blowing agentsWhen seeking to phase-out Ozone Depleting Substances(ODSs) used in foams, an alternative to foam can be used insome cases, particularly where thermal properties are lessimportant. Otherwise, an alternative blowing agent has to befound, for use with the same or similar polymers, and thatselected will vary depending on the application.

The main requirements for a blowing agent are that it shouldnot react with the polymer and should have the necessarysolubility (or lack of it) to support the control of the foamingprocess. It should also possess a suitable boiling point andvapour pressure to create an acceptable foam density.

Problems experienced occasionally when eliminating CFC asa foam-blowing agent are: changes in mechanical and/orthermal properties, changes in insulating effect, shrinkageand hardening. It is, therefore, very important to determinewhich properties of the foam are essential for eachapplication and choose an alternative that allows you toproduce those essential properties.

If foams are to be used for thermal insulation, it is importantto assess thermal properties as better insulation means lessenergy is required to heat the building, or whatever is beinginsulated.

Some foam-blowing agents that can be considered duringODS phase-out are shown in Table F1. Each has its own costand processing advantages and disadvantages:

• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) generally have goodthermal insulation properties, but their use is limited.HCFCs will eventually be phased out under the MontrealProtocol.

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are only just becomingcommercially available as blowing agents. Both HCFCsand HFCs have a high GWP, which must be balancedagainst the good thermal insulation properties of thefoams in which they might be used.

• Hydrocarbons (isopentane, cyclopentane, n-pentane etc)are cost-competitive and provide very good thermalinsulation properties, but are flammable in both theliquid and vapour stages so specialised equipment andstringent safety procedures are required for their use.They have very limited GWP. See Case Studies 11 & 12.

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be used in several ways, andits use is explained further in Case Study 10 on page 23.

Table F1. ODP and GWP of possible blowing agents.

Designation ODP GWP

HCFC-22 0.055 –– *

HCFC-142b 0.065 –– *

HCFC-141b 0.11 –– *

Methylene chloride 0 n/a

HFC-134a 0 1300

HFC-152a 0 140

HFC-245fa 0 1040

HFC-365mfc 0 910

Isopentane 0 <50

Cyclopentane 0 <50

n-pentane 0 <50

Carbon dioxide 0 1

Carbon monoxide 0 1

Nitrogen 0 0

Inert gases (e.g. helium) 0 0

CFC-11 (for comparison only) 1 - *

CFC-12 (for comparison only) 1 - *

* GWP of ozone depleting substances is currently under review due tothe complexity of ozone and climate interactions.

For more information1. Sourcebook of Technologies for Protecting the Ozone Layer –

Flexible and Rigid Foams. September 1996.2. Protecting the Ozone Layer, Volume 4. Foams, UNEP IE/PAC (1992),

Sales number 92-111-D.10.3. Foam Sector Technologies in Use - Six technical case studies

addressing the polyurethane and Phenolic sub-sectors. Alternativetechnologies include carbon dioxide, HCFC-141b, pentanes andHFC-134a. OzonAction Programme, August 1995,www.uneptie.org/ozat/tech/main.html

4. 1998 Report of the Flexible and Rigid Foams Technical OptionsCommittee, 1998, Ozone Secretariat, UNEP, ISBN: 9280717286.

FOAMSFOAMS


CASE STUDY 10

CO2 PROVIDES SIMPLE FOAMINGSOLUTION AT BRAZILIANFURNITURE COMPANY

BackgroundEspumas Oeste is a Brazilian company that manufacturesmoulded flexible foam automotive seating, flexible integral skinfurniture components, and rigid foam coolers. The companyrecently completed the phase-out of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)as a blowing agent in the production of foam. The project wasprepared by UNDP and implemented by UNOPS in conjunctionwith Prozon, the Brazilian Government’s Ozone Unit.

The projectEspumas Oeste evaluated the substitute technologies, takinginto consideration the consequences for the company, itscustomers, and the local government agencies. The issuesconsidered included: health and safety implications; cost; easeof implementation; environmental impact; mechanicalproperties (e.g. hardness) of the resultant foam; and thermalproperties (some agents result in foam of a different structureand thermal properties).

After extensive research, Espumas Oeste chose to convert towater/isocyanate- generated CO2 for all of its foam production.CO2 foaming of polyurethane is available in two forms:

1 Through the reaction of the polyurethanecomponents (isocyanate and additive water). This isgenerally more expensive than CFC-blown foamsowing to the use of additional isocyanate, and thefoams are generally of a higher density. Additionally,CO2 is a poor thermal insulating gas for rigid foams.

2 As a liquid or gaseous additive. Its application iscurrently limited to flexible foams. The foams arecompetitive in price and comparable in density withCFC-blown flexible foams but are required specialisedprocess equipments. The technology is nowapproaching maturity and is available in most countries.

The advantages and disadvantages of this technology, asreviewed by Espumas Oeste, are explained in Table F2,and show that CO2 is a viable and cost-effective choice forthe company.

An increase in product cost because of the need for coatingto produce an integral skin foam was offset by the fact thatthe use of water/CO2 is competitive in density and cost.

Table F2. The advantages and disadvantages of CO2 as afoaming agent, as reviewed by Espumas Oeste in Brazil.

Advantages• The use of water/CO2 as the blowing agent for the

flexible foam is competitive in density and cost.• The chosen method is well established.• The generation of CO2 by this method is

applicable to all liquid polyurethane processingand requires no specialised equipment or safetyprocedures.

• The technology is approaching maturity and isreadily available on a global scale.

Disadvantages• Integral skin foam may require the application of a

durable coating to the foam to simulate that ofCFC-blown foam resulting in a higher product cost.(However, the CO2 technology cost less to run thanthe CFC method it replaced.)

• CO2 produces foam with lower thermal insulatingproperties.(However, the rigid foam coolers made byEspumas Oeste were considered to be a non-critical thermal application)

Production line foaming equipment at Espumas Oeste issimple to operate and uses environmentally benign CO2.

ConclusionsEspumas Oeste demonstrated that the disadvantages ofthis technology were not significant for the company, andprovided a simple solution with low capital cost.

Individual companies will need to take their own needsand priorities into careful consideration when choosingalternative processes to replace CFCs.

ContactsJorge PickersgillRua Dr. Augusto Alves Franca 84Crimeia-LesteGoiania-GOCEP 74660-030BRASILTel: + 55-62-203-1595Fax: + 55-62-203-1439

23

Zero ODP �


Reduces indirect GWP

Lower production costs �





24

CASE STUDY 11

CYCLOPENTANE FOAM ANDZERO-ODP REFRIGERANT IN ACHINESE REFRIGERATORFACTORY

BackgroundHaier Qingdao is a refrigerator factory in the People’sRepublic of China run by the Haier Group Company.Haier, in co-operation with GTZ/PROKLIMA, was one ofthe first Chinese companies to develop a CFC-free andHFC-free refrigerator by introducing hydrocarbontechnology. Hydrocarbon-based technology offers zeroODP, very low GWP as well as good energy efficiency.

The work was facilitated by PROKLIMA, a Germanbilateral programme that helps developing countriesphase out their CFCs to meet their Montreal Protocolobligations.

The projectThis case study covers the conversion of one of the finalassembly lines at the Haier factory, with a production of220,000 units annually. The factory consumedapproximately 170 tonnes of Ozone Depleting Substances(ODSs) each year in this facility.

Haier wanted to implement CFC-free and HFC-freetechnology and established a network of contacts fortechnical advice and financial support. They formed linkswith Liebherr, an internationally renowned Germanmanufacturer of refrigerators that had already changed tohydrocarbon technology for their European operations.Haier provided the local contributions such asconstruction, connections and civil engineering work, andLiebherr provided all the equipment, which had to beimported. There were no major problems or delaysencountered in project implementation.

There were two changes to the production of refrigerators:

• The refrigerant CFC-12 was replaced with isobutane.

• The foam blowing agent CFC-11 was replaced withcyclopentane.

Haier made stringent efforts to improve the energyefficiency of their refrigerators during this process of CFCphase-out, and so reduce the global warming impact ofthe equipment over its life. These improvements aredescribed in the box below, and are applicable to theproduction of most types of integral refrigeratingappliances.

Improving the energy efficiency of Haier refrigerators

Thicker insulating foam - Heat loss through thewalls of the refrigerator (the largest heat load on a domestic refrigerator) was cut through use ofthicker insulation.

High-efficiency compressor - An advancedcompressor was carefully selected to suit therequired heat load and temperature, achieving a30% improvement in efficiency over the previousmodel.

Cellular foaming technology - Haier improved the foaming process, resulting in a moreeven and consistent insulating effect.

Improved door gasket design - The new door gasket more closely contacts the frame and soallows less cold air to escape. In addition, the gasket is thinner, and has two air chambers to cut down conducted heat.

Optimised cooling system - Design of the condenser and evaporator were optimised toreduce energy consumption.

The staff of Haier Qingdao were trained thoroughly tohandle cyclopentane blown foam in the production line.Safety within the factory and for the product was ensuredthrough the following measures:

• Staff were given training at Liebherr in Germany andat the factory.

• Documents explaining the new system were provided.

• Specific safety instructions were produced.

• The system was checked and certified to Germanstandards by German TÜV (German safety controlagency) experts.

The total cost of the phase-out operation was just overUS$1.3 million and took less than three months.

Zero ODP �





Additional benefits



The technologyThe conversion was from CFC-11 as the foam blowingagent (ODP 1), to cyclopentane, with zero ODP.

Since cyclopentane is flammable there are potentialproblems with safety, so steps were taken such as forcedventilation to minimise risk:

• The injection system was made explosion-proof andincorporated other technical safety improvements.

• Components such as pumps, valves, piping, hosesand connectors were specified to minimise or preventleakage of cyclopentane.

• Detectors and alarm systems were installed in storageareas, where foam ingredients are mixed, and onassociated pipework.

• Fire-fighting equipment was also provided.

The main threat to the success of the project was the costof lost production time during the shutdown forinstallation and commissioning of the new system, but thiswas only two days - a very successful outcome.

ConclusionThe Haier Group Company was the first Chineserefrigerator/freezer manufacturer to convert a completeproduction line to using cyclopentane. It has been runningsuccessfully since 1995 and Haier is very proud of itsachievement.

Cyclopentane foaming is a safe and environmentallysound technology. An economic balance betweeninvestment and ODS phase-out can be achieved. Theproject was completed satisfactorily on schedule threemonths after approval and no disposal of ODS-basedproduction equipment was necessary.

ContactsProject Executive:

Foreign Economic Co-operation OfficeState Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA)No. 115 Xizhimennei NanxiaojieBeijing 100035 People’s Republic of ChinaTel: +86 10 6615 3366Fax: +86 10 6615 1776

25


26

CASE STUDY 12

HFCS PROVE GOODENVIRONMENTAL CHOICE FORPHENOLIC PIPE INSULATION

BackgroundKingspan Insulation manufactures pipe insulation for thepetrochemical and building services sectors. The companymanufactures polyisocyanurate (PIR) and phenolic foamsin the UK using HCFC-141b, but recognised that a zero-ODP foam was essential for their future business in thelight of forthcoming regulatory changes in Europe.

The projectKingspan took a well-planned approach to their selectionprocess.

For phenolic foams, two existing properties were high ontheir priority list for retention as they consideredalternative blowing agents:

• performance in case of fire - phenolic foam is oftenspecified for public buildings;

• thermal properties - pipe insulation is amongst themost important of insulation types in terms of savingenergy. This is due to the high emissivity of metallicsurfaces if left un-insulated.

However, the blowing agent had to accommodate therestrictions of the discontinuous block foaming processused, and had to boil in the range of 20 – 40˚C. Thisrestricted candidate blowing agents to the following:

Blowing Agent Boiling Pt. Flammability(ºC) Limits

(vol. %)

N-pentane 36 1.3 – 8.0

Iso-pentane 28 1.4 – 7.8

HFC-245fa 15.3 None

HFC-365mfc 40.2 3.5 – 9.0

When considering performance in fire, it was clear thatthe flammability of pentanes could jeopardise the foam’sall-important fire performance in the markets being

served. Kingspan were mindful of both current andimpending regulations affecting fire safety of theirproducts. They concluded that hydrocarbon blown foammay not achieve the same fire safety classification as theirexisting products enjoy. Accordingly, Kingspan began tofocus increasingly on HFCs as their potential solution.

Kingspan then looked carefully at thermal performance.HFCs offer better gaseous thermal conductivities thantheir main competitors when corrected for variations intest temperature. Emulsion technology used in phenolicfoams achieves good cell geometry and cell sizing whichfurther enhances performance.

However, the aspect of most concern was the significantGlobal Warming Potentials (GWPs) of the HFC blowingagents: 1040 for HFC-245fa and 910 for HFC-365mfc.Blowing agent emission profiles from foams varysubstantially with type and usage, but Kingspan basedtheir assessment on the worst-case scenario of total loss.They also looked at a more prudent 10% release ofblowing agent.

Graph F3 illustrates the specific impact of the use of HFCsin phenolic foam for a variety of pipe sizes and provides acomparison with the same thickness of poorer insulatingmaterial. HFC blown phenolic foam would typicallyprovide a thermal conductivity of 0.02 W/mK whereaspoorer commercially available insulation materials couldyield thermal conductivities in the 0.035 – 0.04 W/mKrange. A typical material at 0.035W/mK has been chosenfor this example.

The graph shows the indirect savings of CO2 fromreduced energy consumption, from which the directimpact of HFCs released has been subtracted. The directimpact is seen to be small in comparison with the indirectsavings.

Zero ODP �





Additional benefits



The choice for Kingspan was eventually between HFC-245fa and HFC-365mfc. Both have similar GWP andsimilar gaseous thermal conductivities at constanttemperature. Kingspan eventually chose HFC-365mfc,influenced strongly by product availability issues.

ConclusionKingspan have converted their phenolic foam pipeinsulation range to a zero-ODP technology well ahead ofthe requirements of current European Regulations. Theirassessments showed that HFC foams can meet the dualrequirements of fire performance and thermal efficiencyand so deserve consideration when taking a responsibleenvironmental approach.

ContactsMr. J. GarbuttKingspan Industrial Insulation PembridgeLeominsterHerefordshire, HR6 9LATel. +44 1544 387 210Fax. +44 1544 387 299

27

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

20017.2 21.3 26.9 33.7 42.4

HFC blown phenolic - no losses

HFC blown phenolic - 10% HFClosses (0.02W/mK)

HFC blown phenolic - 100% HFClosses (0.02W/mK)

Poorer insulation (0.035W/mK)

Pipe Diameter (mm)

CO

2 sa

ved

(kg

per

m.)

Graph F3. Carbon dioxide saving comparison for HFC-365mfc blown phenolic foam for common sizes of commercialheating pipe at 75°C over 15 years (constant thickness).


28

CASE STUDY 13

CONVERSION TOHYDROCARBONS INPOLYURETHANE FOAM FORFINNISH COMPANY

BackgroundUrepol Oy is a Finnish company manufacturingpolyurethane-insulated steel-faced and flexible-faced panels,and one-component polyurethane foam (OCF) insulation.

Urepol Oy had been researching alternatives to CFCs, butwhen the market opportunities for environmental saferproducts became apparent, their search intensified. After aninitial conversion from CFCs to hydrochlorofluorocarbons(HCFCs), the search for an alternative soon focused onhydrocarbon blowing agents.

The company used HCFCs as an interim step betweencomplete elimination of CFCs and the use of hydrocarbontechnology.

The projectUrepol Oy was the first company in Europe to usepentane as a blowing agent in the production ofpolyurethane-insulated, steel-faced panels. Manufacturingequipment had to be redesigned and changes made insafety procedures. The conversion cost Urepol Oy over $1million, a large part of which was the cost of installingadequate safety procedures and equipment.

The technologyIn its search for an alternative, the company consideredand tested a hydrofluorocarbon HFC-134a, water (whichreacts with isocyanate to produce carbon dioxide (CO2)and various other types of hydrocarbons.

Table F4 compares four blowing agents for polyurethanefoams. These properties were all important to Urepol Oyin making their decision:

The thermal conductivity has an important impact on theindirect GWP of insulating panels - better insulationmeans less energy is required to heat the building, orwhatever is being insulated.

The density of the foam is important for cost reasons -low density means less raw materials.

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global WarmingPotential (GWP) were important due to Urepol Oy'scommitment to minimum environmental impact.

Cost was of course also a key consideration, and n-Pentane is inexpensive, costing less than either of theprevious blowing agents used, CFC-11 and HCFC-22.

Table F4. Comparisons of blowing agents for polyurethanefoams.

* GWP of ozone depleting substances is currently under review due tothe complexity of ozone and climate interactions.

It was decided to use n-pentane for the panel productionand a propane/butane mix for the OCF. n-Pentane wasfound to be an acceptable alternative provided that safetymeasures within the production process could be met.

n-Pentane is flammable and can be explosive. To ensuresafety in production:

• the n-pentane pumping unit was placed outside thefactory;

• the foam section was enclosed in a well-ventilatedcabin;

• the pumping and production areas were equippedwith gas detectors, which will automatically stop then-pentane pumps if the n-pentane content in the airrises above a certain limit.

ConclusionUrepol Oy's manufacturing processes have now beenCFC-free since 1991 and HCFC-free since 1995.

n-Pentane as a long-term alternative to CFCs and HCFCshas many advantages: it is environmentally acceptable,inexpensive and has good insulating properties. Providedsafety procedures are incorporated, processing isstraightforward.

ContactUrepol OyPO Box 7FIN-12101 OittiFinlandFax: (358-19) 7860200

Zero ODP �




Lower running costs

Additional benefits


Blowing Thermal Density Ozone Global

Agents Conductivity Depletion Warming

(W/mK) Potential Potential

CFC-11 0.020 32-40kg/m3 1.0 –– *

HCFC-22 0.022-0.025 40-45kg/m3 0.055 –– *

n-pentane 0.022 40kg/m3 0 <50

Water/CO2 0.025-0.030 45-50kg/m3 0 1


IntroductionChlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were often used aspropellants for aerosol cans, and in some parts of theworld are still used because of economic and socialbarriers. CFCs are efficient, non-flammable solventsthat allow aerosols to produce fine, dry sprays, butalternatives exist for many applications.

Relevance to Montreal Protocoland climate changeSome alternatives to CFC propellants, and especiallyHFCs, have appreciable Global Warming Potential(GWP), which means their use will make it harder forcountries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.

HFCs are effective propellants, but should not beconsidered for anything other than specialist applicationssuch as medical applications. This is because effectiveand usually cheaper alternatives are available.

There are two main alternatives to using CFCs in aerosols:

1. Use an alternative propellant.

2. Choose a technology that does not require a propellant.

Both of these have their advantages and disadvantages.

Alternative propellantsHydrocarbon aerosol propellants (HAPs), dimethyl ether(DME) and some compressed gas systems have zero ODPand very little, if any, GWP. This means that they helpcompliance with the Montreal Protocol without making itmore difficult to limit greenhouse gas emissions. This wasone of the reasons that Chem-Tech, in Mauritius, chose toconvert its filling plant to using HAPs (see Case Study 14on page 30). HFCs also help compliance with the MontrealProtocol but make it more difficult to limit climate change.Table A2 compares the ODP and GWP of the CFCs used inaerosols with their alternatives. The relative impact ofdifferent propellants can be calculated by multiplying thenumber of kilograms emitted or avoided by the GWP.

Alternative technologiesThe main alternatives to aerosols are mechanicalpumps, dual compartment aerosols and roll-on/stickproducts. Mechanical pumps are more expensive thanHAPs and bottles need to be fuller. Product may requirereformulation. Dual compartment aerosols are moreexpensive to produce and specialised filling machinery isrequired. Both mechanical pumps and roll-on/stickproducts require no propellants, although they do requirecomplete reformulation of the product. If they are usedinstead of aerosols, they help countries to comply withthe Montreal Protocol targets and may also contribute toclimate protection. The effect of dual compartmentaerosols depends on the nature of the propellant used.

Alternatives in developing countriesIn some circumstances, existing equipment can beupgraded. Centralised facilities, where small businessescome together, are another possible solution.

Finding a suitable propellant can also be a problem.However, LPG is often easier to obtain and can bepurified on-site. LPG and HAPs can be dangerous totransport, and standard precautions must be taken.

For more information1. 1998 Report of UNEP Aerosols, Sterilants,

Miscellaneous uses and Carbon Tetrachloride TechnicalOptions Committee. ISBN 92-807-1726-X.

2. Sourcebook of Technologies for protecting theOzone Layer: Aerosols, Sterilants, MiscellaneousUses, and Carbon Tetrachloride, (1996) UNEP DTIE.

3. Aerosol sector conversion in action, UNEP DTIE(1995).

29

Table A1. Technical issues with the main alternative propellants for aerosols.

Propellant Technical issues to consider

HAPs (hydrocarbon Much cheaper than CFCs. Can be a better solvent than CFCs, although some products may requireaerosol propellants) reformulation. Highly flammable, therefore require increased safety measures, maintenance and

ventilation. Transportation of HAPs may need special safety measures. Care should be taken when using an aerosol filled with HAP. The HAP must be pure and clean, but liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) can be purified on-site for use.

Compressed gases Discharge rates vary throughout product lifetime. Fine and dry sprays are difficult to achieve. (CO2, N2, N2O) Inexpensive. CO2 can cause corrosion and is difficult to dissolve in solvents so cannot be used in

many products.

DME (dimethyl ether) Highly flammable. More expensive than HAPs but similar price to CFCs. No odour problem (naturally slightly sweet smell). The only liquefied propellant that is substantially soluble in water.

HFCs Reasonable alternatives to CFCs and have zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), but do have(hydrofluoro-carbons) significant GWP which makes it more difficult for countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Expensive.

AEROSOLSAEROSOLS


30

CASE STUDY 14

COST SAVINGS WITHHYDROCARBON AEROSOLPROPELLANTS IN MAURITIUS

BackgroundChem-Tech, in Port Louis, is one of three aerosol manufacturersin Mauritius. Chem-Tech felt that, to remain in business, it hadto phase out the 16 tonnes of CFC-12 used each year.

The projectChem-Tech opted to convert its filling plant to produceproducts using Hydrocarbon Aerosol Propellants (HAPs).The company felt that hydrocarbons were the only realisticchoice offering lowest Global Warming Potential (GWP)and zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). HAPs wouldalso be cheaper to use, giving savings of US$7,500 overthree years. Chem-Tech received funding to aid the cost ofconversion from Proklima/GTZ (see Contacts below).CZEWO GmbH was contracted by Proklima/GTZ toimplement the conversion as a turnkey package.

Some important safety considerations when converting toHAPs include:

• HAPs are highly flammable and leakage must beprevented.

• Good ventilation is vital so that the gas cannot collectand ignite.

• The room used for propellant filling must be explosion-proof.

• Staff must be trained to avoid the dangers associatedwith HAPs.

• HAPs must be stored in the recommended container ina well-ventilated, secure site.

The technologyThe technology required for HAP conversion is wellestablished and has been used successfully throughout theworld. During the conversion, CZEWO is providinginstallation, commissioning, training and start-up, including:

• Technical assistance, which includes on-the-job training.

• Overall technical information and documentation.

• Supply of new machinery and equipment.

• Rebuilding and partial replacement of equipmentcurrently used.

• Establishment of safety procedures.

• Inspection, approval and final certification of equipment.

• Certification to German safety standards.

• Trial operation and start-up of the plant.

ConclusionChem-Tech has gained economic and environmentalbenefits in converting from CFCs to HAPs. HAPs arepopular alternatives are generally cheaper to use per unitbut do need increased safety measures. Funding may beavailable to help with the capital outlay for new equipment.

ContactsDeutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH(GTZ, German Association for Technical Co-operation)Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5, 65760 Eschborn, GermanyTel +49 6196 79-0 Fax +49 6196 79-1115PROKLIMA is a programme of the GTZ division forEnvironmental Management, Water, Energy, andTransport. www.gtz.de/proklima

CZEWO Full Filling Service GmbHHartinger Str. 10, 93073 Neutraubling, Germany Tel: +49 9401 781 0 Fax: +49 9401 7477

Table A2. ODP and GWP of the most common aerosolpropellants.

Name ODP� GWP�

CFC-11 Trichlorofluoromethane 1.0� –– �

CFC-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane 1.0� –– �

CFC-113 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane 0.8� –– �

CFC-114 Dichlorotetrafluoroethane 1.0� –– �

CFC-115 Monochloropentafluoroethane 0.6� –– �

HFC-152a 0 190�

HFC-134a 0 1,600�

HAPs 0 <50

DME 0 ~0

CO2 0 1

N2O 0 320

N2 0 0

� ODP is the ratio of the impact on the ozone of a chemical compared tothe impact of a similar mass of CFC-11, which is defined as 1.0. All othersare compared to this.

� CO2 is used as the base measure and given a GWP of 1, all others arecompared to this.

� Source: Table 11-1 of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, 1998.

� Source: Table 10-8 of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, 1998.

� GWP of ozone depleting substances is currently under review due tothe complexity of ozone and climate interactions.

Zero ODP �








CASE STUDY 15

SYRIAN FACTORY CHOOSESHYDROCARBON AEROSOLPROPELLANTS FOR MANUALPRODUCTION LINE

BackgroundThe Laboratories Kosmeto in Aleppo, Syria, producedperfume, deodorant and hairspray aerosols usingchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as a propellant. The filling lineproduced 470,000 cans per year and approximately 60tonnes of CFCs were used each year. The Syrian Governmentmade an application to UNIDO for assistance with the capitalfunding for a project to convert the plant to usingHydrocarbon Aerosol Propellants (HAPs), purified from LiquidPetroleum Gas (LPG). KP Aerofill was contracted to supply theequipment and technical assistance required for the project.

The projectModifications to the plant were necessary for the changefrom CFCs to HAPs, in particular, separating thepropellant filling process from the rest of the operationsand locating the propellant filling machine in a separateroom. These modifications are essential due to the risk ofexplosion associated with HAPs.

KP Aerofill provided a complete conversion package forthe filling line, including procurement, delivery, installationand commissioning of a gas filling system incorporatingthe propellant filling machine, the required safety andregulation control systems and ventilators. Assistance insupervising design of the new plant, installation works forthe new equipment and systems, and the commissioningof the complete installation were also provided.

Training staff to use the new equipment and understandthe safety requirements is an essential part of theconversion process.

KP Aerofill supplied a small, transportable vessel that couldbe used to transfer LPG in appropriate quantities to thefactory. Odour and other impurities in the LPG were removedby passing it through a molecular sieve, also supplied by KPAerofill, to make it suitable for use as an HAP.

The technologyThe equipment required for the conversion in Syriaincluded:

• Gas filling system - filling machine, propellant fillingstation, ventilation system.

• Conveyor system for connecting equipment on thefilling line.

• Water bath for leak testing.

• LPG storage tanks.

• LPG purification system.

• Gas detection, ventilation and explosion-proof lighting.

• Technical services.

ConclusionHAPs have been chosen as the best and most cost-effective replacement for CFCs, despite the capital outlayrequired, and have been implemented effectively withsafety as a key concern. An estimated 59.87 MT annualODS has been avoided.

ContactsUNIDO : United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganisation Vienna International Centre, P.O. Box 300 A-1400 Vienna, Austria Tel: (+43 1) 26026 Fax: (+43 1 ) 2692669 Web site: http://www.unido.org

KP Aerofill, 33-35 Clayton Road, Hayes, Middlesex UB31RU, UK. Tel: +44 (0)1208 848 4501Fax: +44 (0)1208 561 3308Web site: http://www.kpaerofill.com

Laboratories Kosmeto, Aleppo, SyriaTel: +963 (0)21 4464000/4648265Fax: +963 (0)21 4464000

Zero ODP �







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LPG is stored safely at the Aleppo factory withgood ventilation and security measures.


32

ANNEX 1

Contacts for Implementing Agencies

The Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol has beenestablished to provide technical and financial assistancefor developing countries to phase out ozone-depletingsubstances. For further information please contact theImplementing Agencies and Secretariats listed below.

Multilateral Fund Secretariat

Dr. Omar El-Arini, Chief OfficerSecretariat of the Multilateral Fund for the MontrealProtocol 27th Floor, Montreal Trust Building, 1800 McGill College AvenueMontreal, Quebec H3A 3J6, CanadaTel: 1-514-282 1122Fax: 1-514-282-0068Email: [email protected]: www.unmfs.org

UNEP Ozone Secretariat

Mr Michael Graber, Deputy Executive SecretaryUNEP Ozone Secretariat, PO Box 30552, Gigiri, Nairobi, KenyaTel: (2542) 623-855Fax: (2542) 623-913Email: [email protected]: www.unep.org/secretar/ozone/home.htm

Implementing Agencies

Mr Frank J.P. Pinto, Principal Technical Advisor and ChiefUnited Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Montreal Protocol Unit, EAP/SEED, 304 East 45th Street, Room FF-9116, New York, NY 10017, USATel: 1-212-906-5042Fax: 1-212-906-6947Email: [email protected]: www.undp.org/seed/eap/montreal

Mr Rajendra M. Shende, ChiefEnergy and OzonAction UnitUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE)39-43 quai André Citroën75739 Paris Cedex 15, FranceTel: +33 1 44 37 14 50Fax: + 33 1 44 37 14 74Email: [email protected]: www.uneptie.org/ozonaction

Mr Angelo D’Ambrosio, Managing DirectorIndustrial Sectors and Environment DivisionUnited Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO) Vienna International Centre, P.O. Box 400A-1400 Vienna, AustriaTel: 43-1-21131-3782Fax: 43-1-21131-6804Email: [email protected]: www.unido.org

Mr Steve Gorman, Unit ChiefMontreal Protocol Operations Unit, World Bank, 1818 H Street NWWashington, DC 20433, USATel: 1-202-473-5865Fax: 1-202-522 3258Email: [email protected]: www.esd.worldbank.org/mp/home.cfm

MULTILATERAL FUND SECRETARIAT, OZONE SECRETARIAT AND THE IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES


WHO WE ARE

33

ANNEX 2

About the UNEP DTIE OzonActionProgramme

Nations around the world are taking concrete actions to reduceand eliminate production and consumption of CFCs, halons,carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, methyl bromide andHCFCs. When released into the atmosphere, these substancesdamage the stratospheric ozone layer - a shield that protects lifeon Earth from the dangerous effects of solar ultraviolet radiation.

Nearly every country in the world - currently 176 countries - hascommitted itself under the Montreal Protocol to phase out the useand production of ozone-depleting substances (ODS).Recognising that developing countries require special technicaland financial help in this, the Parties established the MultilateralFund and requested UNEP, along with UNDP, UNIDO and theWorld Bank, to provide the necessary support. In addition, UNEPsupports ozone protection activities in Countries with Economiesin Transition (CEITs) as an implementing agency of the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF).

Since 1991, the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme hasdelivered the following services to governments (particularlyNational Ozone Units or "NOUs") and industry in developingcountries:

Information Exchange

Provides information tools and services to encourage andenable decision makers to make informed decisions onpolicies and investments required to phase out ODS.

Training

Builds the capacity of policy makers, customs officials andlocal industry to implement national ODS phase-out activities.The Programme promotes the involvement of local expertsfrom industry and academia in training workshops and bringstogether local stakeholders with experts from the global ozoneprotection community.

Networking

Provides a regular forum for officers in NOUs to meet toexchange experiences, develop skills, and share knowledgeand ideas with counterparts from both developing anddeveloped countries.

Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs)

Provide countries with an integrated, cost-effective strategyfor ODS phase-out in the refrigeration and air conditioningsectors.

Country Programmes and InstitutionalStrengthening

Support the development and implementation of nationalODS phase-out strategies especially for low-volume ODS-consuming countries.

About UNEP Division of Technology,Industry and Economics

The mission of the UNEP Division of Technology, Industry andEconomics (UNEP DTIE) is to help decision-makers in government,local authorities and industry develop and adopt policies andpractices that:

� Are cleaner and safer

� Make efficient use of natural resources

� Ensure adequate management of chemicals

� Incorporate environmental costs

� Reduce pollution and risks for humans and the environment

UNEP DTIE has its headquarters in Paris and is composed of onecentre and four units:

• The International Environmental Technology Centre (Osaka),which promotes the adoption and use of environmentallysound technologies with a focus on the environmentalmanagement of cities and freshwater basins in developingcountries and countries whose economies are in transition.

• Production and Consumption (Paris), which fosters thedevelopment of cleaner and safer production andconsumption patterns that lead to increased efficiency in theuse of natural resources and reductions in pollution.

• Chemicals (Geneva), which promotes sustainabledevelopment by catalysing global actions and buildingnational capacities for the sound management of chemicalsand the improvement of chemical safety world-wide.

• Energy and OzonAction (Paris), which supports the phase-outof ozone depleting substances in developing countries andcountries with economies in transition and promotes goodmanagement practices and use of energy, with a focus onatmospheric impacts. The UNEP/RISØ Collaborating Centreon Energy and Environment supports the work of the Unit.

• Economics and Trade (Geneva), which promotes the use andapplication of assessment and incentive tools forenvironmental policy and helps improve the understanding oflinkages between trade and environment and the role offinancial institutions in promoting sustainable development.


www.unep.orgUnited Nations Environmental Programme

P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, KenyaTel: (254 2) 621234Fax: (254 2) 623927

E-mail: [email protected]: www.unep.org

Two Challenges, One Solution:Case Studies of Technologies thatProtect the Ozone Layer andMitigate Climate Change

Choices are still being made in most parts of the world on the phaseout of OzoneDepleting Substances (ODSs). It is important for climate change that these choicesalso take into consideration their impact on global warming.

This booklet introduces the ozone and global warming-related factors to considerwhen seeking non-CFC alternatives for:

• Foams

• Aerosols

• Refrigerants and

• Halons

And through fifteen case studies, it highlights real ODS phase-out solutions whichminimise total contributions to global warming.

This booklet will be useful to National Ozone Units, and will also help to informindustry users and equipment suppliers. All of the case studies have importantlessons for both developing and developed countries: everyone now phasing outODSs can benefit from the experiences of others when choosing alternatives.

United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and EconomicsEnergy and OzonAction UnitOzonAction Programme

39-43 quai André Citroën75739 Paris Cedex 15 FranceEmail: [email protected]: www.uneptie.org/ozonaction

ISBN: 92 807 2080 5

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