Two types of molecules make a fat

R groups determine the type of amino acid

Amino group

Acid group

Animation 5.9.3Animation 5.9.3

Reactant

Product

Negative change in free energy

Reactant

Product

Animation 6.16Animation 6.16

ATP helps to couple reactions

The surface area to volume ratio increases with smaller size

By subdividing a large volume into smaller volume increase the SA/Vol ratio

•The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and various kinds of vacuoles.

•It can be used to add to the membrane system and also to modify it.

Chloroplasts convert radiant energy from the sun into chemical energy the plant can use. Its inner membrane is composed of flattened sacs called thylakoids. A stack of these is called a granum. The thylakoid membrane have a green pigment called chlorophyll in them. Chloroplasts are part of a larger group of organelles called plastids. Leukoplasts are colorless and are used for storage (e.g. amyloplasts store starch). Chromoplasts have colored pigments.

9 + 2 structure found in eukaryotes

Basal body has 9 triplets identical to the centriole

NAD+ recycled

NADox is recycled back to glycolysis

Regulation such as feedback inhibition controls how much ATP is produced

Types of cell communicationTypes of cell communication

3 Stages of Cell Signaling3 Stages of Cell Signaling

• 4 Types of Signal Reception

• G-Protein-Linked

• Tyrosine -Kinase

• Ligand-gated ion channels

• Intracellular Receptors

Signal Transduction Pathways or Relay Molecules pass information INTO the cell

Signal Transduction Pathways or Relay Molecules pass information INTO the cell

Transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a protein

Transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a protein

Usually serine or threonine is phosphorylated

Usually serine or threonine is phosphorylated

To REVERSE the process, protein phosphatases remove the phosphate groups

To REVERSE the process, protein phosphatases remove the phosphate groups

Some relay molecules are NOT proteins -Second Messengers

Some relay molecules are NOT proteins -Second Messengers

Two kinds of second messengers are cAMP and Calcium ions

Two kinds of second messengers are cAMP and Calcium ions

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Calcium can bind to Calmodulin

Calcium can bind to Calmodulin

Enzyme Cascade Effect amplifies the response

Enzyme Cascade Effect amplifies the response

Binary FissionBinary Fission

Cdk and Cyclin combine to form MPF - which is an active from of Cdk

Cdk and Cyclin combine to form MPF - which is an active from of Cdk

MPF will phosphorylate many enzymes - which will move the cell past the G2 checkpoint into M phase - it will also make a proteolytic enzyme that destroys cyclin and thus turn off MPF

MPF will phosphorylate many enzymes - which will move the cell past the G2 checkpoint into M phase - it will also make a proteolytic enzyme that destroys cyclin and thus turn off MPF

MPF is only active when there is a high cyclin concentration

MPF is only active when there is a high cyclin concentration

Law of Independent Assortment

Law of Independent Assortment

Crossing Over p236

Crossing Over p236