Introduction to Gender
Introduction to Gender
Duration: 3 Weeks
Course ObjectivesTo help students identify why and in what ways
African societies are genderedTo examine the impacts of gender
relations and inequalities on development To critically examine
state and civil society responses to gender inequalities.
Learning ObjectivesBy the end of the session you
should:Distinguish the difference between gender and sexBe familiar
with key gender concepts Be able to identify gender issues in
everyday lifeProvide a gender analysis of major social problems in
AfricaBecome familiar with state and civil society efforts to
address gender inequalities.
Week 1: Understanding Gendered Society At the end of todays
class, you should be able to:Gain a better understanding of what is
meant by gender and the factors that contribute to making a society
gendered Be familiar with the concept of patriarchyBe familiar with
some of the discriminatory cultural practices that perpetuate
gender inequalityBe familiar with some of the key arguments and
justifications for dealing with gender inequality
BOYS WILL BE BOYS AND GIRLS WILL BE GIRLS
BOYS WILL BE BOYS AND GIRLS WILL BE GIRLS.SUZANNE ROMAINE
Definition: Gender Vs. SexUnlike sex, which is a biological
concept, gender is a social construct specifying the socially and
culturally prescribed ideas about the behaviour, actions, and roles
a particular sex performs and follows Gender is the costume, a
mask, a straightjacket in which men and women dance their unequal
dance Gerda Lerner
Why Gender Inequality is a ProblemGender equality involves
ensuring that the perceptions, interests, needs and priorities of
women and men (which can be very different because of their
differing roles and responsibilities) will be given equal weight in
all aspects of life, including planning and decision-makingEqual
rights, opportunities and responsibilities is a matter of human
rights and social justice. Greater equality between women and men
also a precondition for (and effective indicator of) sustainable
people-centred development. The perceptions, interests, needs and
priorities of both women and men must be taken into consideration
not only as a matter of social justice but because they are
necessary to enrich development processes.
Brain TeaserThe boy is the biological son of the doctor, but the
doctor is not the father of the boy. What is the Doctor to the
boy?
Brain Storming Exercise What are some of the important events or
influences in your childhood that you feel influenced your sense of
being male or female?Consider messages you received from parents,
teachers, peers, role models, pastorsConsider messages about,
region identity, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, age
Why is gender an issue in African societiesSocial construction
of society Importance of social relations (gender, class, kinship,
etc.)Social relations determine roles, positions, privileges and
power.Gender relations are reinforced by
socialisation.Socialisation institutions (family, church, school,
media, work, etc.).
PatriarchyPrevalence of patriarchal institutions and
cultures.Patriarchy is a social system in which the role of the
male as the primary authority figure is central to social
organisation and where fathers hold authority over women, children
and property.
Patriarchy, ctd.It implies the institutions of male rule and
privilege and is dependent on female subordination.Historically,
patriarchy has manifested itself in the social, legal, political
and economic organisation of a range of different cultures and also
influences modern civilisation.In modern times societies and
institutions are described as patriarchal when they have features
of patriarchies.Matrilineal inheritance systems do not disrupt
patriarchy.
Elements of Gender RelationsDivision of labour Productive and
reproductive rolesMale roles and responsibilities valued more than
womensWomen roles and responsibilities undervaluedControl of
resources (land, power, labour, education, training, etc.)
Elements of Gender Relations, Gender ideologies (natural,
unchanging, etc.)Gender myths and stereotypes (women are their own
enemies, victim blaming, e.g. in rape, women are gossips, women are
weaker sex).Heterogeneity of gender-intersection of other
identities
Justifications for dealing with gender inequalities Development
imperativesCitizenship rights and the constitutionGender equitable
cultures
Development ImperativesWhat is development? Movement from one
level to anotherTo enlarge opportunities and freedoms for peopleTo
expand, strengthen, evolve societies and economiesTo exploit
potentialities of resources to the benefit of society/people
Development ImperativesDevelopment is not neutral there are
winners and losersDevelopment outcomes are genderedThere are
different approaches to development impacts on
genderModernisationNeo-liberal
Citizenship & ConstitutionDefinition of CitizenshipSense of
belongingRights and responsibilitiesIt is a statusIt is a processIt
is formalIt is informal
Constitutional Guarantees of CitizenshipAll persons shall be
equal before the law (17.1)A person shall not be discriminated
against on grounds of gender, race, colour, ethnic origin,
religion, creed or social or economic status (17.2).For the
purposes of this article, discriminate means to give different
treatment to different persons attributable only or mainly to their
respective descriptions by race, place of origin, political
opinions, colour, gender, occupation, religion or creed(17.3)
Constitutional GuaranteesNothing in this article shall prevent
Parliament from enacting laws that are reasonably necessary to
provide (17.4):For the implementation of policies and programmes
aimed at redressing social, economic or educational imbalance in
the Ghanaian society ((17.4a);For matters relating to adoption,
marriage divorce, burial devolution of property on death or other
matters of personal law (17.4b);
Constitutional Guarantees, ctd.Every person has the right to own
property either alone or in association with others (18.1)The State
shall actively promote the integration of the peoples of Ghana and
prohibit discrimination and prejudice on the grounds of place of
origin, circumstances of birth, ethnic origin, gender or religion,
creed or other beliefs (35.5)
Constitutional Guarantees, ctd. The State shall afford equality
of economic opportunity to all citizens; and, in particular, the
State shall take all necessary steps so as to ensure the full
integration of women into the mainstream of the economic
development of Ghana (35.6)the protection and promotion of all
other basic human rights and freedoms, including the rights of the
disabled, the aged, children and other vulnerable groups in
development processes (37.2b)
Constitutional Guarantees, ctd.37.3) In the discharge of the
obligations stated in clause (2) of this article, the State shall
be guided by international human rights instruments which recognize
and apply particular categories of basic human rights to
development processes.
International AgreementsThe Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)Addresses women human
rights issuesOptional Protocol to the CEDAWInternational Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)Seeks to provide
economic, social and cultural rights of individuals, including
labour rights and rights to health, education, and an adequate
standard of living
International Agreements, Ctd.The Vienna Declaration Programme
of Action (1993)Womens rights are human rightsThe human rights of
women and the girl-child are an inalienable integral and
indivisible part of universal human rights
International Agreements, Ctd.The African Union Solemn
Declaration on Gender Equality and Womens EmpowermentThe African
Charter on Human and Peoples RightsEffective measures should be
undertaken to ensure that women have an active role in the
development process
International Agreements, Ctd.Un International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD) Declaration and Programme of
ActionCalls upon member states to incorporate a gender perspective
into their population policy and ensure reproductive health and
rights of womenCommonwealth Plan of Action for Gender EqualityUn
Declaration on the elimination of violence against women
International Agreements Ctd.Beijing Platform for ActionTo
advance the goals of equality, development and peace for all women
everywhere in the interest of all humanityBeijing +5 and Beijing
+10 Outcome Documents and Declaration of 2000 and 2005.
Promotion of gender equitable culturesWhat is Culture?The
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by [a
person] as a member of society" (Tylor 1958 [1871]
Discriminatory cultural practicesMarriage (polygamy, rights and
duties in marriage, widowhood rites, wife inheritance)Family and
community life (chores, decision-making, seclusion, stereotypes,
role expectations, )Reproductive health (decisions on family
planning, sexuality, pro-natalism)Inheritance (discriminatory
inheritance practices)
SummarySocieties are genderedGender is socially
constructedGender relations are power relations and privilege as
well as disadvantage differentlyThree reasons to deal with gender
disparitiesTo promote equitable and sustainable developmentTo
promote full citizenship for allTo transform our cultures to be
just and equitable
Week 2: State and Civil Society Responses to Gender
InequalitiesRecap of Week 1At the end of todays class, you should
be able to:Be familiar with the history of the feminist movementBe
familiar with arguments for affirmative action and the forms
affirmative action takesIdentify the efforts that have been made
globally, regionally and locally to deal with gender
inequalities
History of efforts to address gender inequalitiesMany efforts to
deal with gender inequalities over many centuriesFirst Wave
FeminismWomen get the vote after long struggle by suffragettes in
U.S .and U.K.Second Wave FeminismStruggle for reproductive
rightsRight to workEqual pay for equal work
UN ProcessesInfluence of second wave feminism on UN-Four world
conferences Mexico, Copenhagen, Nairobi, BeijingOutcomes of world
conferencesCEDAWMillennium Development Goals (MDGs): Halving
Poverty (MDG 1)Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG
3)Improve Maternal Health (MDG 5)
International Development ApproachesDifferent approaches to
addressing the impact of development initiatives on womenWomen in
Development (WID)Women and Development, (WAD)Gender and Development
(GAD )Gender mainstreamingInstruments of WID, WAD, GADIncome
generation projects Technology transfer
National Level ProcessesHistorical context to interventions in
GhanaState policies and actionsCivil society actionsGroup
agencyIndividual agency
Historical Context to National InterventionsIn colonial period
no attempt made to address position and status of women in
traditional society.Colonialism gendered society further e.g.
through discriminatory education, jobs and preferential treatment
introduced to traditional occupations, e.g. cocoa farming.Post
colonial history Nkrumah regime had social justice policies which
advantaged women, e.g. in job diversification for women, women in
public sector and politics, etc.Policies under other regimes,
especially military, discriminatory against women, e.g. early years
of Armed Forces Revolution Council (AFRC) and Provisional National
Defence Council era (PNDC) when young women and traders seen as
cause of economic problems.PNDC period however also championed
rights of women, especially through 31st December Womens
Movement.
Economic Recovery/Structural Adjustment of 1980s and 90s had
negative effects on women, e.g. taxes to informal sector, which is
dominated by women, promotion of cash crop farming and neglect of
food crop farming (where you find most women)Economic recovery also
introduced gender differentials in access to services such as
health and education because of subsidy removalsMechanisms to
redress through laws, policy and other actions.
State Actions: Legal Reform
Intestate Succession Law, 1985 (PNDC 111): Protects the
inheritance rights of spouses and childrenCriminal code amendment
act of 1994 section 69 (FGM)Criminal code amendment act of 1998
section 314.a (Trokosi)
State Actions: Legal Reform
The Human Trafficking Act, 2005 (Act 694)Domestic Violence Act,
2007 (Act 732): Seeks to protect the populace against violence and
abuse in homes and institutions Property Rights of Spouses Bill
(Before Parliament)
State Action: Policy ReformReproductive Health Policy and
StrategyGender Policy in Agriculture Girl-Child Education
PolicyGhana Poverty Reduction StrategyMaternity Leave
policiesEstablishing of Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU) of Police
service, now called Domestic Violence Victim Support Unit
(DOVVSU)
State Action:Affirmative Action
What is Affirmative Action?A set of temporary measures adopted
by governments, public and private institutions such as political
parties, educational establishments, corporations and companies to
address a history of systemic discrimination and exclusion of
particular social groupsAffirmative action encourages the efforts
of particular social groups in the interests of certain development
goals (Wikipedia).
Background to Affirmative ActionOrigins in the USA used to
address racial discriminationSouth Africa used to address racial
and gender disparities after Apartheid Different kinds of
affirmative action. Direct (qualitative or quantitative, i.e.
quotas).Indirect (e.g. science clinics for girls and school lunches
for poor children )
Examples of Affirmative Action First GenerationScholarship
schemes (Northern Ghana scholarships; cocoa marketing board
scholarships)Fee free education; Free textbooks and
uniformsTargeted investments in infrastructure, education and
health in some RegionsReservations of seats for women (10 women in
parliament)Measures to promote participation of women in certain
professions
Examples, Ctd.Second GenerationSchool meals in certain
districtsReserved places in state universities for students from
deprived districtsGirl Child Education PoliciesLower cut-off point
for girls in tertiary educationScience clinics for girls 50% of
appointed district assembly members are women
Affirmative Action QuotasQuotas for women based on two
potentially conflicting justifications equalitydifferenceSymbolic
valueQuotas are only effective when backed by law and when policies
such as electoral reform, political education, the mobilisation of
citizens and the removal of obstacles to womens ability to utilise
the quotas are removed
Value of affirmative Action
Discrimination of any form does not self correct. Instead, it
perpetuate itselfImproves representation of womenensures a critical
mass which can make a difference (e.g. 30% of women in decision
making bodies)provides more female role models and improves
awareness of the issues. Guarantees gender balanced policy making
at all levels of government. Allows considerable skills to be
brought into decision making structures.
Civil Society ActionCivil Society is composed of the totality of
voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions that form
the basis of a functioning society, as distinct from the
force-backed structures of a state (Wikipedia).
Civil Society Action, Ctd.Since colonial period womens
organisations important part of civil society organising:Market
women active in anti-colonial strugglesWomens associations Womens
NGOsWomens coalitions, e.g. NETRIGHTWomens coalitions to demand
specific actions, e.g. Domestic Violence Coalition, Womens
Manifesto Coalition
Examples: Civil Society ActionsGetting the voteGetting access to
reproductive freedom (birth control, abortion)Womens action in
anti-apartheid struggleWomens action to end war in LiberiaGetting
Domestic Violence Law passedImproving womens participation in
politicsQueenmothers associations supporting different causes (HIV,
girls skills training, etc.)
Examples, Ctd.Defending the rights of individual women (FIDA,
WILDAF, etc. e.g. Amina Lawal)Greenbelt movement (as examples of
mobilised women bringing about change)Women and gender studies in
and outside universitiesResearch on gender (e.g. Violence against
women, women and migration, women and land, media and women,
etc.)
Group AgencyAgency refers to:The means or mode of acting;
instrumentality.Conveys the idea that people are not passive and
can change their situations through self conscious actionThe role
of womens self-help groups Micro-finance groups , e.g. susuWomens
cooperative, e.g. shea butter, beading, pottery, bread making,
etc.Widows support groupHIV social network groups
Individual AgencyInstances where people have triggered change by
their actions: Taking legal action (e.g. Women who petitioned CHRAJ
on workplace sexual harassment: FanAir, NADMO)Taking a stand
against gender discriminatory practices (e.g. Swaziland where
mother of Reed Dance Bride protested) Leaving abusive
relationships, Learning new skills to improve livesHelping
others
Progress and StagnationProgress has been made in promoting
gender equalityMore consciousness of the importance of gender
equalitySome issues being addressed, e.g.Narrowing gap between boys
and girls in educationIn some countries strong representation of
women in politics, e.g. Rwanda, South Africa
Progress and Stagnation, Ctd.Important legislation, e.g.
Domestic violence law has been passed.Increased number of women in
professional careers and in decision-makingImproved maternal health
coverageMore access to credit for women
Remaining ProblemsWomen still disproportionately poorMaternal
mortality still high, not likely to meet MDG 5Political
representation of women low. In Ghana only about 8 percent women in
ParliamentIncidents of violence against women high despite the
law
Remaining Problems, Ctd.Harmful cultural practices continue
(e.g. FGM, women condemned as witches, trokosi, widowhood rites and
inheritance, underage marriage and bride abduction) Trafficking of
womenGender stereotyping and attitudes towards women reflect male
privilege
Why Progress is slowEnormity and multifaceted nature of the
challenge progress in one area can be undermined by problems in
another areaAttitudinal and behavioural change difficult to achieve
and slow to effectCultures evolve slowly and change
slowlyResistance to changeWeak political will Solutions often
piecemealPoor implementation of policiesNot enough resources
devoted to resolving issues
SummaryWe have examined the various responses to gender
inequality :Historical responses getting women the voteGlobal
response UN initiatives, conferencesFrom WID, WAD, GAD to gender
mainstreamingState responses legal and policy reform; affirmative
action
Summary, Ctd. Civil society actionsGroup actions to empower and
to support rightsIndividual actions e.g. Court actions, etc.We have
examined progress and stagnation and assigned reasons why
Consciousness-Raising Activity
Identify a positive action toward women and/or men that you may
not have done before this courseDescribe a liberating act that is
positive and consciousness raising that could help change the
quality of peoples livesYour action must be non-violent and
legal
Week 3: FilmThe CEGENSA Resource Centre has a number of films
that can be shown to illustrate some of the issues discussed in the
introductory class.We recommend for example:The Witches of
GambagaPray the Devil Back to HellFat KineMolade
Questions Following FilmWhat gender issues did the film
illustrate for you?What sections of the constitution or
international conventions will be relevant in addressing the
problem posed by the witches camp?Take a position and provide a
rationale for why the camps should be disbanded or continue to
exist?
