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318 Chon

scleractinian species from Malaysian reefs, adding that

Acropora was the dominant genus.throughout the region (Chou et al. 1994a) .From dataarchived at the project's data centre in Chulalongkornuniversity (Bangkok).. less than 3% of the reefs surveyedin Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore could be considered tobe in excellent condition (i.e. supporting more than 75%live coral cover) (Table 1) .Recent assessments byexperien~ed scientists placed degraded reefs at up to 70%more than 50 years ago (Chou et al. 1994b) and productivityloss of up to 80% during the same time frame.

Table 1: Status of ASEAN coral reefs based on data from the

ASEAN-Australia Living Coastal Resources project (Chou etal. 1994a) .Live coral cover determined on transects placedusually at depths of 3 and 10m on reef slope. Conditionvalues refer to percentage of transects with cover >75'

(excellent) ; <75' and >50' (good) ; <50' and >25' (fairr;<25' and 0' (poor)

No. oftransects

Country Excellent%

Good,

Fairt

Poor"

;rndonesia

MalaysiaPhilippinesSingaporeThailand

190193238142178

2.611.4.1.32.8

16.9

24.2

52.8

7.5

9.2

42.].

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6.2

Most of the Philippine reefs which cover an estimated25,000 km2 are fringing varying in length from tens ofmetres to 5 km (Gomez et al. 1994aJ. The largestconcentration is in the southwest of the country. Two atoll

systems are found on the submarine Cagayan Ridge in theSulu Sea; Cagayancillo and Tubbataha. Atoll-like formationssuch as Apo Reef near Mindoro Island and Scarborough reefswest of Luzon are present. The banks west of Palawan mayconstitute a barrier reef which could be one of the largestin the world. A double-barrier reef is represented by theDanajon Bank off Bohol and a few more small barrier reefs

may be present. Fringing reefs and atolls in the Sulu Sea,and the reefs of the Palawan islands are known to be amongthe best of Philippine reefs. TYphoons cause extensive

damage to some reefs such as at Mactan, while Drupellaoutbreaks (Moyer et al. 1982) and Acanthaster infestations(Alifio et al. 1981) have been reported. The eruption of Mt.

Pinatubo caused a 23 to 69' decline in fi~h biomass fromthe reefs along the coast of Zambales. This was correlatedwith the drop in live coral cover due to ashfall deposits(Ochavillo et al. 1992) .Nemenzo (1986) reported 499species of hard corals from the Philippines.

Thailand has over 300 major reef groups covering an

estimated 12,000 km2 which can be divided into 4 distinctareas: inner part of the Gulf of Thailand (Chonburi), eastside of the Gulf (Rayong and Trad), west side of the Gulf(Prachuap Kirikhan, Chumporn and S~rathani) , and along the

Andaman Sea coastline (Ranong, Phuket, Phang-Nga, Krabi,Trang and Satun) .About 55' of Thailand's reefs occur inthe Andaman Sea. The majority of Thailand's reefs arefringing with widespread occurrence ".f developing coralcommunities (Sudara and Yeemin 19-94) .Storms and monsoonsare the major natural causes of coral reef damage in Thaiwaters, turning over coral heads and breaking coralbranches. TYphoon Gay which hit southern Thailand inNovember 1989 caused significant damage to some reefs.Localised outbreaks of Acanthaster have been reported inthe Gulf of Thailand and a significant increase ininfestations has occurred in the Andaman Sea since 1982.Extreme low tides and coral bleaching are other natural

phenomena reported to cause severe damage to Thailand'sreefs.

The reefs of Brunei Darussalam had low live coral cover ofless than 40' at Pelong Rocks and 27' at Two Fathom Rock.This is due to the turbid water conditions and proximityto the mainland coast. Data are not available for the reefsof Cambodia and Myanmar. In Vietnam, coral cover rangedfrom 30 to 50' in northwest Tonkin Gulf, and 30 to 40'southwest of Vietnam (Gulf of Thailand) .No mention is madeof coral cover in the Spratly Islands claimed by Vietnam.

Reefs in the western Indonesian archipelago are subjectedto greater human pressures than those in the east. Forexample, almost 40' of the reefs in the Seribu islands(north of Jakarta) are in the poor category (live coralcover > 25') with 5' maintaining coral cover in excess of75'. In the eastern archipelago, 22' of the reefs surveyedwere in the poor category while 7' were in excellentcondition (Soekarno 1994) .The reefs of Vietnam, estimated to cover 400 km2 can be

found along its 3200 km coastline from north to southexcept around the deltas of the Red and Mekong Rivers, butmostly around the 3000 islands on the shelf and offshoreLang et al. (1995) .Five sub-regions may be defined: westof Tongkin Bay, central Vietnam, east of south Vietnam,west of south Vietnam, and offshore islands. Fringing reefsare common with atolls located far offshore in theSpratlys. Coral assemblages rather than reefs characterisewest of Tongkin Bay so that coral diversity here is lessthan in the other sub-regions. The reefs around Con Son

Islands off the southern tip of the country are known to beparticularly rich. More than 300 hard co~al species havebeen recorded.

Reefs at the offshore islands of Peninsula Malaysia's eastcoast support an average range of 56 to 69' live coralcover. Those along the west coast have lower live coralcover between 25 and 46' due to the higher sediment loaddischarged by runoff. The reefs of Sabah (East Malaysia)support between 43 and 52' live coral cover with reportedlyhigher dead coral cover and coral rubble than at PeninsulaMalaysia, attributed mainly to human disturbance (Ridzwan1994) .The clear waters of the Layang-Layang atoll permitcorals to develop at depths of more than 40m but live coralcover on the upper slope of the oceanic reef face wasnaturally low at 29'. Recent development into a resort withan airstrip caused a massive 75' drop in live coral cover.

The reefs of Sarawak on the north-western face of Borneoexhibit an average of 60' live coral cover, which issurprisingly high for the turbid waters. The reef communitywas also reported to be vigorous and diverse.

The highest coral diversity (188 species) was recorded fromthe Spratly Islands belonging to Vietnam. Lower diversityoccurred in northwest Tonkin Gulf (165 species), southeastof Vietnam (176 species) and southwest of Vietnam (138species) .Storms and typhoons, and low winter temperaturehave been implicated as natural stresses. In their review of Philippine reef condition (Gomez et al.

1994a) surveyed over the last 7 years and the use Qf a"coral mortality index" (ratio of dead coral cover to thesum of dead and live coral cover) , 84\ of the reefs had atleast half of their corals still alive compared to the 16\in the earlier surveys. They however cautioned that thismay be attributed to the differences in sampling protocolbetween the earlier and later surveys. The report by Gomezet al. (1994b), showed that in Luzon, 3.6\ of reefs were in

STATUS OF CORAL COVER

The five ASEAN countries which participated in the ASEAN-Australia Living Coastal Resources Project from 1986 to1994 have carried out extensive line-intercept surveystotalling 942 100-metre transects at 42 reef locations

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320 Chou

are dependent on. Such communities are effective incontrolling destructive activities caused by other users aswell as themselves. For larger areas, the co-managementsystem approach is more effective where management isshared between government agencies, local communities and

non-governmentalorganisations.

coral reef conservation, adding that reef management willfail unless local users and officials are informed andinvolved in sustainable resource management. Excellentlegislation and planning, backed by the current structuresfor enforcement will remain ineffective unless users agreewith the process and are convinced of the'benefits ofcompliance. The rate of reef degradation has eased but onlya little with abetter understanding of its functions andthe establishment of marine protected areas. To ensure

maintenance of Southeast Asian reefs, stronger and moreconcerted efforts are still needed.

Many Southeast Asian countries are signatories tointernational conventions and agreements to maintainnatural ecosystems. Of relevance to coral reefs is theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES) , which has been effective in slowing the export ofin live and dead corals and other reef organisms from the

region. Another international convention addressing theglobal loss of plant and animal species i~ the Conventionon Biological Diversity which the majority of the region'sstates have signed and ratified. Informal regionalagreements such as the 1989 Langkawi Declaration on theEnvironment, the 1990 Baguio Resolution on Coastal ResourceManagement, the 1990 Kuala Lumpur Accord on Environment andDevelopment, and the 1994 Bangkok Resolutions on LivingCoastal Resources, all attest to increased regionalawareness of the need to manage coastal resources includingcoral reefs for sustainable use.

REFERENCES

Alcala AC

17(3)

988) Marine reserves94-199

Alcala AC (ed) (1991) Proceedings of the regional symposiumon living resources in coastal areas. Marine ScienceInstitute, University of the Philippines.

Alifio PM (1994) Patterns in the distribution of reef-associated fish communities in the ASEAN region. In:Wilkinson, CR, Sudara, S & Chou, LM {eds)Proceedings, Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium onLiving Coastal Resources, Vol 1 Status Reviews.Australian Institute of Marine Science, pp 43-47

Southeast Asian reefs have been heavily exploitedparticularly within the last 3 decades. Economic growth andpopulation increase have caused the collapse of many reefswithin easy reach. Driven by development pressures,destruction of reefs was carried out without much concern.wilkinson et al. (1993) estimated that 11' of SoutheastAsia's reefs have collapsed and a further 48' are in thecritical category, with collapse likely wi';hin the next 20years, if management commitments are not met. Another 36'of reef area is threathened and could collapse in 20 to 40years without effective management. Only 5' of the reefs(Spratlys and remote reefs of eastern Indonesia) areconsidered to be under little threat.

Alino PM, Ross M, Rosaroso V and Orosco, C. (1981) A reporton the subtidal marine environment around thePhilippine Mining Services Corporation pier atAlcoy, Cebu. The Philipp Sci 18:129-140

Brown BE, Suharsono (1990) Damage and recovery of coralreefs affected by El Nifio related seawater warmingin the Thousand Islands, Indonesia. Coral Reefs8:163-170

Chou LM (in press) Importance of Southeast Asian marineecosystems in biodiversity maintenance. In: TurnerIM, Diong CH, Lim SSL, Ng PKL (eds) Biodiversityandthe Dynamics of Ecosystems. DIWPA Series Vol 1The benefits and significance of reef systems are now

better known and there is greater awareness of theimportance of managing and protecting the resource.Indonesia will soon launch a massive Coral ReefRehabilitation and Management Project (COREMAP) aimed atsafeguarding the country's dwindling coral reefs, andarresting degradation of reef habitats. Vietnam commencedits Marine Conservation Project in 1992 aimed at managingmarine resources including coral reefs. The growing numberof marine protected areas in the region indicates theattention currently given to reef management.

Chou LM, Wilkinson CR (eds) (1992) Third ASEAN Science andTechnology Week Conference Proceedings Vol 6 Marinescience: living coastal resources. Department ofZoology, National University of Singapore, andNational Science and Technology Board, Singapore

Chou LM, Wilkinson CR (1994) Existing reef managementsystems in ASEAN. In: Wilkinson CR (ed) ASEAN-

Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources(3rd: 1994: Bangkok), Consultative Forum, Living

coastal resources of South-east Asia: status andmanagement. Australian Institute of Marine Sciencepp 33-36

While policy makers now know that a managed reef canprovide sustained use, government bureaucracy and inter-

agency conflicts prevent effective management beyond theinitial step of declaring marine protected areas. Coralreef management is best facilitated as part of an overallintegrated coastal management strategy. For this,administrative and legislative mechanisms have to beinstituted. Experience shows that Southeast Asian countriesare still a long way from adopting national policies onintegrated coastal management and that developmentconsiderations often override sustainable developmentpolicies and adherence to international agreements and

protocols. This has resulted in the continued decline ofthe region's reefs and increasing exploitation of the moreremote reefs. There are examples of effective community-based management of reef systems, but these are few andlocalised. Wider application of these models are necessary.

Chou LM, Wilkinson CR, Licuanan WRY, Alifio P, Cheshire AC,Loo MGK, Tangjaitrong S, Sudara S, Ridzwan AR,Soekarno (1994a) Status of coral reefs in the ASEANregion. In: Wilkinson CR, Suraphol S, Chou LM (eds)

Proceedings, Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium onLiving Coastal Resources, Vol 1 Status Reviews.Australian Institute of Marine Science pp 1-10

Chou LM, Wilkinson CR, Gomez E, Sudara S (1994b) Status ofcoral reefs in the ASEAN region. In: Wilkinson CR(ed) ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal

Resources (3rd: 1994: Bangkok) .Consultative Forum,Living coastal resources of South-east Asia: statusand management. Australian Institute of MarineScience pp 8-12An action agenda for ASEAN coral reefs calls for

responsibility for action by and full support from allsectors of government, users and the public, to manage reefresources (Wilkinson 1994) .It spells out. strategy for

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