UKTIVITIJIL. 1 BIL. 2, JULY '86 PUSAT DAYA PENGELUARAN NEGARA ISSN 0127—8223

EFFECTIVE TOOLS IN QUALITY MANAGEMENTBy

Soo Cheong FuttAssistant Director, National Productivity Centre, Malaysia.

(Page 3)

PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH SELF-MOTIVATIONBy

Gerald F. CoxChairman and Chief Executive, Esso Malaysia Bhd.

(Page 26)

PENGALAMAN PDPN DALAM MENGENDALIKAN PROGRAMPERBANDINGAN ANTARA FIRMA

OlehHj. Abd. Rahman Ibrahim

Penolong Pengarah . Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara(Page 39)

KAEDAH ISLAM DALAM MENYELESAIKANMASALAH TANAH TERBIAR

OlehSyed Omar Syed Agil

Pensyarah Universiti Islam Antarabangsa(Page 66)

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON MANAGEMENT IIBy

Annie ThomasLibrarian, National Productivity Centre, Malaysia

(Page 72)

0000053827Jurnal Produktiviti - [Journal].

Penerbit/'PublisherFusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara(National Productivity Centre)

Peti Surat 64,Jalan Sultan 46904

Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.Tel: 7557266

Pemsihat/AdviserIT. Haji Arshad Haji Marsidi

(Pengarah)Pengarang/EctitorMah Lok Abdullah

Pen. Pengarang/Sufe EditorSujaidi Dasuki

Ahli-ahli/MemfeersHaji Ahmad BerekHaji Ruslan Khatib

Lim Yew ChongR. Sugunarajah

Suhaimy Abdul TalibJurina Abd. HamidNor Aini AmdzahAb Rahim YusoffSuhaimi Hamad

Pauzi HanipiPrema Kumari

Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam jurnal ini.lurnal Produktiviti diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung semua aspek ekonomidan pengurusan serta lain-lain bidang yang ada hubungannya dengan konsep produktiviti.Rencana-rencana yang tersiar akan diberikan honorarium dan tidak semestinya merupa-kan pendapat PDPN.

liurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara(Kementerian Perdagangan dan Perindustrian) Peti Surat 64, Jalan Sultan,

46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. Telefon: 7557266 (15 talian),Teleks: MA 36312 PDPN, Telegram: Dayapeng

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editorialJANGAN ABAIKAN NILAI-NILAI

TRADISIApabila kita menyebutkan fungsi baru PDPN sebagai pemimpin,

penganjur dan penyebar konsep dan teknik produktiviti; sebagai pusatpembangunan tenaga manusia yang unggul; dan berperanan nieiahirkanpakar-pakar dan kepakaran tempatan di bidang pengurusan dan produktiviti;bukan bererti kesegalaannya itu tertanggung di atas bahu PDPN sendiri.

Justru Hu untuk merealisasikan cita-dta tersebut, kita amat memerlukansumbangan idea luar samada melatui perbincangan ataupun yang berbentukkajian dan tests, dan para ilmuan yang sentiasa beranggapan bahawa ilmuitu untuk manfaat semua manusia.

Maka, lebih jauh dari itu pemerhatian terhadap nilai-nilai tradisionalperlu terus menerus dilakukan. Umpamanya cara membawa beberapahidangan atau minuman dengan menggunakan dulang, adalah merupakansuatu dri produktiviti yang konsepnya sama dengan mengangkut barangandengan menggunakan troli di kilang-kilang atau di pelabuhan,

Sama juga halnya dengan susunatur perabut di rumah yang dapat me-lahirkan suasana ketenteraman dan kedamaian di mana peranannya samapenting dengan 'layout' di sebuah kilang atau pejabat. Tegasnya, menyenang-kan atau membosankan semuanya terletak di tangan anda sendiri. Inilahdi antara ciri-ciri hidup yang produktif yang sedang hendak di terapkan didalam sistem hidup kita.

Begitu juga mengenai kaedah dan teori. Semuanya boleh dipelajari. "Yangpenting ialah kesesuaian dan penyesuaiannya dengan keadaan setempat tanpamengabaikan nilai-nilai tradisi, sebab, di dalam pelaksanaan bagisetengah-setengah operasi pekerjaan, para pekerja lebih memahami sesuatumasalah di bahagiannya daripada pihak pengurusan yang kaya dengankaedah dan teori.

Sebagai yang pernah disebutkan oleh YAB Dr. Ghafar Baba, Tim.Perdana Menteri kita sewaktu merasmikan "Pertandingan Pidato Produktiviti'86" baru-baru ini (sila lihat Produktiviti Bil 9, Sept/Okt '86) bahawakepakaran dan teknologi boleh dicari. Tegasnya, walau bagaimanasophistikatednya mesin dan jentera itu, pun boleh kita beli; namun yangmasih sukar diperbaiki, tetapi kita masih terus memperbaiki ialah sikappekerja kita sendiri

EFFECTIVE TOOLS INQUALITY MANAGEMENT

BY SOO CHEONG FUTT

BIODATA

Present PositionAssistant Director,Industrial Engineering Section,National Productivity Centre,Malaysia.

Professional & Academic QualificationA graduate in Science (B. Sc. Hons in Physics) from

University of Malaya.

An Associate member of the Institute of Cost andManagement Accountants, London.

Diploma in Industrial Engineering from REFA of West Germany.

MTM A-Qualification from MTM Association of Germany.

Certificate in Industrial Standardization & Quality Control from Japan.

Diploma Training of Trainers in Energy Management in Enterprise', Turin, Italy.

Fields of Special CompetenceWork StudyOrganisation & Methods /Office ManagementQuality ControlNetwork Analysis and Quantitative AnalysisProduction ManagementCost and Management AccountancyErgonomics

ExperienceConsultancy in Workplace Layout & Erogonomics.Consultancy in Time StudiesMTM Studies in an automobile manufacturing concern.Office Management in a Regional Office of NPC for 3.5 years.Sectorial and Plant level productivity measurement.

Besides the normal planning, co-ordinating and administrative duties as an AssistantDirector of NPC, often participates in various national and regional seminars as well asundertakes in-house training, advisory and consultancy assignments.

ABSTRACT

With the increasingly higher customer expectations arising out of greatercustomer knowledge and demand, coupled with the intense competitionand rapid technological changes, companies all over the world have tostrive for higher quality and better management to look for ways of im-proving their productivity and their competitive positions.

This article attempts to describe the current concepts and trends of someof the effective management tools and skills available and practised inquality management, both conceptual and technical. Discussed at lengthare Japanese concepts, techniques and practices in the production systemas compared to those in the West. Special emphasis will be placed onJIT, TQC, QCC, ZD, and KANBAN systems.

Some observations and comments on the promotion and the practices ofTQC, and QCC in Malaysia are put forward in an attempt to look atwhat the future holds for them.

INTRODUCTION

Quality is relative, and can mean different things to different peopleand at different times, but to an enterprise it always means a lot at all'times.It means incomes and costs to an enterprise. An enterprise exists becausethere are people who want the products produced and service provided bythe enterprise with the right quality and at the right price. The enterprise de-rives its income from its sales and profits from being able to reduce its costsand thus price.

The Malaysian consumers, like consumers in other countries, are be-coming more and more educated and increasingly aware of consumerism.Their expectations and demands on quality and product safety are be-coming higher and more sophisticated. They are more well informed thanthey were before.

This development will have far-reaching effects on the marketabilityand hence the well-being of an enterprise, irrespective of whether it is in theexport or in the domestic markets. If one enterprise does not rationalise toimprove quality and reduce costs, another will, in the face of an intenselycompetitive environment. This will obviously put the quality-consciousmanagement in a tighter and more demanding spot. This means managerswill have to look into ways of improving productivity and quality to streng-then their competitive position.

It is generally held, erroneously or otherwise, that the quality ofMalaysian products is not as good as that of the more developed countries.The Malaysian managers are having a tremendous task to remove such un-

desirable stigma. It is never simple. A well-balanced and effectivelymanaged quality organisation must be instituted and maintained not onlywithin the total enterprise but also within the whole economy at large. It isformidable, but by no means insurmountable or unattainable.

As the management/production tasks are complex and demanding, amanager must apply principles and practices that could lead to the manu-facture of quality products. At the same time, managers must also reckonwith a multiple of human traits, attitudes, and environment that may wellact as deterrents to quality objectives. Human attitudes exercise as much in-fluence upon quality as other non-human factor; it is the people who trans-late theory and concepts into practical applications.

Recently, it has been remarked that most of the Malaysian managers,though technically competent, are still not skilful enough as managersought to be. Such remarks prompt us to take a hard look at what manage-ment skills, tools and instruments and what techniques that are available inorder to achieve the objective of providing products and services of thehighest quality and the greatest possible value and satisfaction to our con-sumers; thereby, in doing so, gaining and maintaining their support, respectand loyalty to goods and services Tvlade in Malaysia'.

The scope of this article does not permit a detailed examination of thevarious effective tools, instruments and management skills that are widelybeing practised elsewhere. Instead, it is proposed to critically examine theseconcepts, practice their practicability, and their prospects for use in theMalaysian environment.

The discussion will therefore be on TQC, QCC, SQC, ZD, andKANBAN systems. However, before that is done, it would be worthwhileto look into some of the conditions surrounding and influencing thedifferences in production concepts and systems between the West, notablyUS, and Japan, which form the foundation of our discussions.

JAPANESE AND WESTERN PRODUCTION CONCEPTSAND SYSTEMS

The Japanese have propelled themselves into the top quality productsmanufacturer status, and in many aspects, have even surpassed theWestern world. They were determined and they have succeeded within aspan of about 30 years. It may not be possible to know all there is to know,but at least a beginning has been made in understanding why they are sosuccessful.

Since the industrial revolution, the Western world has been the leaderin technology and manufacturing management expertise. They continue tobe the leaders in highly advanced scientific and complex management pre-

scriptions, including computer applications in production and inventorycontrol, such as EOQ and later MRP amongst others. However, theJapanese believe in simplicity and simplification. They have not emulatedthe Western world wholesale. In effect they are really good in simplifyingproblems,the most notable of which is the simple and ingenious productionmanagement and quality control approaches developed by Toyota andother leading manufacturers. Within Japan, and to a certain extent, inmany other countries, these approaches have since spread far, wide andand fast. This can be seen by the success of the Japanese subsidiaries opera-ting out of Japan.

The sceptics and critics will no doubt attempt to explain away thisJapanese characteristic by ascribing it to their cultural roots. However, themere fact that these systems themselves are just simple procedures and tech-niques, render cultural roots unimportant in precipitating their evolvement.

JUST-IN-TIME (JIT)It is well known, that Japan is void of natural resources, but densely

populated, and hence they cannot afford waste. Consequently they have toharness their only abundant resource, namely, human resources. Thus,their production system's main concerns are productivity and quality, andthese two go hand in hand. They have, as a result, evolved what are knownas JIT and TQC system. JIT directly addresses the materials {includingwork in progress) the cost component of productivity which leads to thevery desirous effects of higher worker motivation, and quality improve-ment, whereas TQC describes the sets of quality improvement procedures,including of course, JIT itself. Therefore JIT and TQC overlap. It is alsobecause of the natural thrift of the Japanese that made it possible for theacceptance of the JIT and TQC concepts so very readily.

JIT and TQC work well because the Japanese rarely depend onspecialists, unlike in the Western World and in our society, but rely heavilyon the shopfloor workers and the line managers. In this respect, they haveeven gone to the extent of having overcome the Western 'specialist' orien-tation to make their system work well even in the West itself.

Whilst the West is vigorously debating on topics like balancing theinventory holding costs, ordering costs/shortage costs, set-up costs, safetystock, large versus small lot-sizes, EOQ etc., the Japanese are feverishlyusing engineering to drastically cut down machine set-up times, so that it iseconomical to run very small batches or lots. (It has been reported that atToyota, the engineers have succeeded in reducing set-up time from 2 to 3hours (in 1945 — 1954) to 15 minutes between the years 1955 —1964; after1965, it was only 3 minutes). In JIT, the idea is to make one piece just intime for the next operation and not to maintain inventory just in case ofshortage or fluctuation in demand. JIT's main benefits are not so much on

the saving on inventory carry cost or material cost, but rather on qualityimprovement, worker motivation and productivity.

But how has this been possible? The following example provides aclear illustration.

Ahmad's work is to make a component part and pass it on to Chiawho will assemble it with other component parts made by other workers.In the event that Chia cannot proceed with his assembly work because thepart made by Ahmad is defective, Chia will let Ahmad know about it rightaway, for Chia himself has targets to meet and he certainly does not wish tobe hindered from doing so by this defective part. Ahmad, as expected, willreact in the right way and tries to root out the problem that caused the de-fective part. In this way, the system succeds in getting cutting down bothwasted time, rework and materials by not allowing large lots of defectivesto be produced in the first place.

A worker who knows or learns to know the effects of his workman-ship will naturally become motivated to improve, because his workmanshipand the consequences of which are easily visible, and become his ownreward or penalty. Therefore, when JIT is in operation, the worker is mademore aware and conscious of the problems and their causes even if theprinciples of reinforcement (the motivationist's tool) were not operative, ashe will probably find it easier to guess what and' where he did wrong;and realising this himself, he will not want to produce defective parts anymore. This would improve his feeling of responsibility which would in facthelp cultivate initiative in him.

The Westerns, on the contrary, believe in large lot-size production,where the parts are made in large lots, in anticipation of shortage or inorder to avoid high set-up costs. Under this system, Ahmad will producethe parts in large lot size, and Chia will received his required parts in largequantity too. In the event that Chia finds a part that is defective, he simplythrows it aside, because he will have more than enough to continue hisassembly thereby promoting indifference. Similarly, Ahmad would displayindifference, because his production will be inspected by the QC inspectorsby sampling methods any way.

In the large lot-size production system, problems of bad parts areobscured and not easily detected or seen. It is rationalised that a certainpercentage of defective parts in a large lot should be expected and toleratedand that it does little harm to the production or the subsequentoperations.

Therefore, large lot-size breeds waste, provides no motivation toimprove and encourages a couldn't care less attitude, whereas the 'hand-to-mouth system' promotes the generation of more ideas for controlling

defects, ideas to further improve and ideas to further reduce the lot ̂ ize forfurther improvement.

Another factor is that in the West, plagued by their abundance ofresources to the extend that, instead of conservation, they learn to cultivateconsumer demand, change and variety. This invariably encourages manu-facturers to hold stock in order to be responsive to changing demand. Thisis what Schonberger termed as 'a throw away society'.

The way the Japanese tackle problems also differ as indicated by theway they dealt with the oil shock. The Japanese tried seriously to find waysto tighten materials control using JIT approach whilst the West searched forpolitical and economic solutions to the energy and material cost dilemma,and is still searching.

In summary for JIT system, the following points can be noted:

1. The JIT production is simple, requires little use of computers, and pro-vides far tighter inventroy controls than are attainable through manyWestern economic models or approaches.

2. It leads to significantly higher productivity and quality.3. It exposes problems at their source leading to improved worker res-

ponsibility and commitment.4. It can be extended from the factory itself, forward into distribution and

backward to purchasing activities.5. The JIT norm is for all materials to be in active use as elements of work

in progress and never at rest collecting carrying costs.6. JIT is a "hand-to-mouth" mode of operation, an ideal worth pursuing

aggressively.7. JIT requires an initial outlay for engineering and tools-making to cut

down set-up times.

It is to be noted that JIT was firmly in place in numerous Japaneseplants 15 years ago, but its beginning elsewhere dates back to about 1980.In Malaysia, it was only very recently that some electronics companies inPenang started planning to invest millions of ringgit to introduce JIT, whilein the US, General Electric was the first enterprise outside of Japan to mounta JIT campaign.

TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL (TQC)

DEVELOPMENT OF TQCQuality engineers learned about TQC approach about 24 years ago,

from the first book on TQC written by A.V. Feigenbaum in 1961. li was atabout the same time that QCC started to take roots in Japan in 1962, whenthe first publication GEMBA to QC was issued specially for the foreman. A

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few years later, ZD concept was initiated in the US. Both the QCC and ZDmovements have the flavour of TQC

TQC as proposed by Feigenbaum aims to make quality right the firsttime, with the quality proof resting on the makers of the component partsand not with inspection.

TQC in the US did not catch on well simply because only the qualityengineers knew about TQC while the management were virtually ignorantof it until some of them were told about it by the Japanese, who hadborrowed it from the US itself.

The Japanese made efforts to expand TQC, first initiated in the US, bymaking it work at the worker-level. As has been pointed out, the Japaneseplace very little emphasis on specialists (the quality engineers), but insteadplace the responsibility for quality in the hands of the production people.The mere act of reassigning the responsibility from the QC department tothe production department, which is its rightful place, is likely to producesome results in steadily improving quality.

STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL (SQC)

It is a well-known fact that Joseph M. Juran and W. Edwards Deminghave been greatly instrumental in the Japanese successes in quality. TheJapanese learned from the SQC, and later on introduced it to the manage-ment, and around the years 1961/1962, to the worker-level, after they hadpublished magazines written in plain, shop-floor oriented language, whichhelped to provide an effective way for QC ideas to be shared at the •worker's level. Through the years, the Japanese have developed a list ofgood and effective quality concepts of their own.

The Japanese learned SQC from the Americans, but modified itto sqCwhere the concept of control is not just one of restoring the situation back toits standard but where it becomes a habit of improvement. This habit of im-provement is dynamic and directed towards perfection. They apply theDeming Cycle of Plan, Do, Check Action (the PDCA) continuously, and toall activities. Based on the concept that quality is of utmost importance, andthat responsibility should be taken for quality as provided by the DemingCycle, they now practise sQc instead of sqC. They have more or lessdiscarded Sqc.

On the other hand Western managers continue to be satisfied so longas performance is in accordance to standards and specifications. Theycontinue to believe that the short run quality objective presumes a givenpercentage of defectives.

Therefore, it is a situation where the Japanese move further ahead,while the West remains static.

BASIC PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED IN TQC

1. Total Process ControlEvery process needs to be controlled by. checking the quality during theproduction thus avoiding reliance on a sampled few processes or the lotacceptance inspection. This is made possible by moving the responsibi-lity for quality from the QC specialists to the production workers.

2. Make Quality Measurable, Visible, and Easy to Understand Visuals.By displaying QC Charts, Maintenance Records, Projects on QualityImprovements, Cleanliness Records etc. allows others to see that thetotal workforce is involved in quality, and be convinced that quality isreally there.

3. Quality before Output.Top management must insist on Safety, Quality and Output in thatorder. There should be no compromise on this priority ranking.

4. Authority to Stop Production Line to Correct Quality Problems.By giving the authority to stop the production line to correct safety andquality problems, it reinforces and reassures the commitment by topmanagement that Safety is before Quality and Quality is before Output.

This practice discourages workers from passing on work that is de-fective or poor in quality which is likely to happen when the workerscannot stop the line even though they discover that there are bad parts,due to their need to meet the schedule, and their belief that certainpercentage of defectives is acceptable in a large lot.

5. Worker To Be Responsible for Correcting His Own Errors.Output rate should not be emphasised so that it allows the worker or thework group to do the rework or correction; But it must still be stressedthat the daily schedule should be met, by extended work hours if neces-sary.

6. 100 % Inspection And Not Random Sampling InspectionJust as in total process control, check every item. When that is notpossible from cost consideration, then check only the first and the lastitem. When JIT is in operation, if the first and the last item are good, itcan be assumed that the process has remained stable and therefore allparts are good. This practice ensures that defects are caught right awayand in time to correct the problem and avoid any further production ofparts. This is however, not likely to take place when large lot-size pro-duction is in operation and with lot acceptance sampling.

7. Continuous Documentation of Quality Improvement Projects.Such documentation will serve to have a continual succession of

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quality improvement projects in every work area, year after year.There are many intelligent workers who regularly explore smarterways to perform their work. When these workers are promoted, trans-ferred or when they leave, whatever improvements they made go withthem too if undocumented. As a result, the successors do not benefitfrom the improvements that were achieved and the same mistakes orproblems could recur. TQC requires improvements to be institution-alized so that the successors can benefit from the improvementsachieved by the predecesors, work smarter, and have time for morecreative works. In other words, an average worker can have controlover his own work and be an expert as well. These are opportunitiesfor job enrichment.

Facilitating Environment For TQCManagement can facilitate the environment for TQC by first placing

the responsibility for quality on the production workers, away from the QCspecialists and put into effect its basic principles and practices. In additionmanagement has to show that it is convinced that TQC is the operatingphilosophy that it wants adopted and be fully committed and involved. Ithas therefore, to nurture an environment conducive to the practice of TQC.

Role of QC Department as a FacilitatorWith the responsibility for quality resting on the production workers,

the size of the QC Department will be very much reduced. However, itshould remain as the source to help facilitate the production department inareas where it calls for every technical and complex inspections, testings,and corrections; But their positions should in no way be elevated to that ofan Quality Expert. The workers who, being responsible for quality shouldbe the quality experts.

JIT and Small Lot-Size ProductionWith JIT and Small Lot-Size Production in operation, defectives are

eliminated early enough to avoid the production of large number of badcomponent parts. This is the basics of QC and it is also the key to JITsystem.

Good HousekeepingGood Housekeeping creates an environment conducive to improved

work habits, quality, care for safety and production facilities.

Under Capacity SchedulingWith scheduling at below full capacity, it makes it feasible to stop a

line for quality or safety problem correction. It avoids taxing the produc-tion facilities and eliminates pressure on the workers; As a result, errors areavoided. Lesser errors mean better quality and lesser need for line stops.

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Daily Machine ChecksWhen workers are provided with the means to check the machines or

equipment before the start of each shift of work, it enchances and re-inforces the workers' priority on safety and quality. Furthermore a wellmaintained machine reduces possible defectives.

Techniques and Aids to Ensure Full Participation at All LevelsTop management should be the chief agent of change in preaching the

TQC philosophy to all levels until the whole management team is fully con-vinced and converted. The managers should in turn spread it in their de-partments until it permeates the entire enterprise.

Position plans should be rewritten to reflect quality in all key resultareas. This helps the people concerned to understand how TQC is inte-grated into their job responsibilities.

The fast feedback on defects provides a loop in which the awareness ofquality problems and quality causes is enhanced and hence, triggering moreideas for controlling defects.

The installation of 'autonomous' machines prevents mass productiondefects and machine breakdowns. For example, malfunction, tool wear andtear, and dimensions of products can be autonomously checked, while pro-viding forewarning in cases of the tolerance limits being exceeded.

Training on SQC and Systematic Problem Solving should be given toevery worker. This should be followed by constant reinforcement andmonitoring so that TQC becomes a way of life.

Management should provide the various tools of analysis and train theworkers in their usage. The following tools are important:-1. Quality dispersion or distribution charts.2. Defects frequency rates and trends.3. Process control charts.4. Fishbone diagrams.5. Pareto Diagram6. Checksheet/Checklist7. Histogram/ Scatter Diagram8. QCC

Management should also recognise suggestions from the workers andimplement the sound and practical ones. Success stories should be widelypublicised to instil faith and confidence in TQC.

QUALITY CONTROL CIRCLES (QCC)TQC is a programme that should involve every facet of an enterprise,

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with the objective of continually improving quality so as to provide goodsand services at levels that provide total customer satisfaction, It is a pro-gramme that is based on the concept that the next process is the customerand hence total involvement by all is a prerequisite. It is a programmethat applies SQC, the PDCA Cycle of Improvement and Systematic Prob-lem Solving Process. TQC is a fundamental production function, whereasQCC is a means of performing that function.

Basically, QCC is a Japanese innovation which started around 1962. Itis a movement that mobilizes small group of workers from the same workarea to voluntarily identify, analize and develop solutions to work-relatedproblems in order to improve quality and productivity. Solutions are re-commended to the management, and where possible, implemented by thework groups themselves.

The QCC concept is very easy to understand and easy to implement.However, caution ought to be exercised in that QCC, though very effectivein work related problems solving, is only a part of the TQC concept. QCCfits into the TQC primarily as a way of wringing out the last defects out o'fthe production system that has already achieved outstanding quality. It istherefore not a ticket to achieve the quality level that is equivalent to thatof the leading Japanese industries. If QCC is founded on such premise, itcould do more harm than good in that they might delay for several yearsthe introduction of a real QC programme.

The best way to provide the best possible quality at the best possibleprice to the highest satisfaction of the customers is to start implementingTQC and employing QCC as one of the means towards that end. Juran hasbeen quoted to have said: There is no possibility for the worker to make amajor contribution to solving a company's quality problems which aremainly related to vendor relations, management policies and processdesigns. 'To make it clearer, and to quote the words of Junji Noguchi, theGeneral Manager of JUSE, who says 'Workers and foremen can solve only15 % of all QCC problems. The rest, 85 % must be handled by managementor the engineering staff." Therefore QCC's are not the panacea to all organi-sational ills.

For QCC's to be effective and beneficial to the enterprise, managementmust create the climate and culture supportive of the participative ethic.QCC provides a means to bring out the potential of the workers' ability tomake contributions by according them the sense of dignity and pride intheir work, a sense of being an important part of an organisation and anopportunity to develop their organisational skills, an opportunity -to im-prove interpersonal relations and teamwork, an opportunity to learn andunderstand the QCC tools which could also be applied in their daily lifeoutside their work environment. QCC, if properly installed and administer-

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ed, can contribute to high priority organisational goals, such as raising pro-ductivity, cost reduction and improvement of quality.

PROMOTION OF QCCQCC has been promoted nationally by the National Productivity

Centre since 1982. But prior to this, a few companies, notably the Japanesebased companies, had already taken the initiative to promote QCC.

A QCC Study Mission visited Japan and Korea from 21 June to 10 July1982. Immediately after the study mission, a Seminar organised by NPC onQCC, was held on 4 November 1982.

In January, 1983, a QCC expert from Japan, Mr. Ichiro Miyauchi wasinvited under the APO's TES'scheme to cortduct a special course on QCCfor Instructors and Facilitators- for the National Productivity Centre,(NPC).

In the same year, the NPC organised courses for Facilitators/Leadersand Appreciation Seminars for management personnel from the public andprivate sectors.These activities aim to:1. Advise on the formation of QCC2. Give further training where necessary3. Give suggestions to help solve problems that had arisen in the process

of forming and implementing QCC.4. Assist facilitators in preparing QCC presentation to the management.5. Popularise the acceptance of QCC as an effective management tool.

A QCC Convention and Seminar was held from 14—15 November1983, during which 7 QC Circles were selected from various organisationsthroughout Malaysia to present their projects to the public, and also todiscuss the achievements, challenges and hopes for QCC in Malaysia.

Meanwhile, a QCC Secretariat has been established to plan, coordinateand monitor the development of QCC in Malaysia. It aims at promotingthe QCC Movement and seeing that it develops along a healthy line. Therewere more than 125 registered circles consisting of more than 1035members at the end of 1983.

An Advisory Committee on QCC has also been formed to advise theSecretariat. The Committee comprises of representatives from the followingorganisations:

*TES - Technical Expert Services

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National Productivity Centre, University of Malaya (Faculty ofEconomics), Malaysian Trade Union Congress (MTUC), Congress ofUnions of Employees in The Public and Civil Services (CUEPACS), Malay-sian Employers Federation (MEF), Institute of Engineers Malaysia (IEM),Goodyear, Matsushita Electric (MELCOM), Institut Tadbiran AwamNegara (INTAN), Institute of Quality Control Malaysia (IQCM) andHewlett Packard.

Tips on QCC Implementation1. Study the concepts of QCC thoroughly, where possible visit various

QCC's in other enterprises to see what and how they are doing it, andattend QCC meetings to learn what and how they are doing.

2. Management to set guidelines and plan, for instance, implementationplans, guidelines on frequency, duration and allowance for meetings,and launch publicity campaigns to attract participation.

3. Get total involvement of the management, involving top management,middle management, supervisors and the unions concerned. Usually,top management, as the top decision making body, does not posemuch problems because they realise that any benefit derived from theseactivities are for the workers and for themselves as well. However, themiddle management arid supervisors generally do not show suchstrong support, probably because of their fear of redundancy, fear oftheir authority being undermined and apprehension of increased workload. The unions, on the other hand, will not be warm towards QCCwhen they are not well informed of QCC.

QCC should be a long term commitment and not just a campaign.Management should not just endorse it but must lead the way bysetting an example. By understanding the concepts thoroughly them-selves, they will help create an environment conducive forparticipation.

4. Encourage the QCC facilitators to communicate more with middlemanagement so that they are better informed, and thereby they willbecome more supportive.

5. Ensure that QCC meetings are held regularly. This is one way wheremanagement shows that it is really supportive.

6. Keep the programme voluntary. Build a partnership between manage-ment and the workers which allows participation in the decisionmaking process before installation of the QCC programme.

7. Emphasize on an on-going training programme with simplified explana-tions so that participants are able to master and apply basic QCCtechniques and the less educated will not feel out of place.

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8. Start small and go slow. All new concepts take time to be acquaintedwith and accepted. Rushing for quick tangible results invites rejectionand failure.

9. Apply PDCA cycle to check and monitor progress and change so thatproblems are identified and corrective measures taken. It is also agolden opportunity to reassert the management support for QCC.

10. Acknowledge that workers have good ideas too, being receptive tothem before and during the programme.

Some Observations on QCC Activities in MalaysiaBased on personal experiences, it is felt that generally, members'

support of QCC is favourable. They feel that QCC has positive effects onmany areas affecting the work environment* particularly on individualattitudes towards work, which in turn affects the quality of work as well asrelationships with others, which in turn builds cooperation. However, theimpact does not seem to be that strong in the public sector, probablybecause the quality of work is more subjective.

A substantial number of people feel that QCC makes jobs moreinteresting, and they express strong desire to continue participating becausethey feel that QCC provides an opportunity to be involved in decisionmaking, as well as help understand their jobs better.

ZERO DEFECTS (ZD)Traditionally, people are brought up to accept imperfections and

errors. It has been said, 'Too err is human", but only if the errors do noteffect him or her in any way. Similarly, in the production system, peoplehave been used to tolerating defects, the reason being that there areinspectors to do the clearing job. Moreover, mass production techniquesdemand division of labour and specialisation, which lead to delegation ofquality inspection to the specialists or the consumers themselves. Withinthis system, workers are too far away in proximity to the end product.They hold that quantity and not quality is priority. They are accustomed tomeeting schedules and standards, in disregard to other interests. To correctthis, various behavioral management tools, industrial engineeringtechniques and other incentives schemes were introduced. Unfortunately,most of these programmes fall into the category of convincing the workersto do what the management wants them to do, or of making them want tobeat the system or they are simply carrot and stick programmes.

ZD was then introduced in the hope of reconditioning the worker totake a personal interest in everything he does in the factory as well as athome. It promotes a constant and conscious desire to do a job right firsttime by constantly reinforcing the attitudes and desires of the individual sothat his tasks, efforts and products become important.

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ZD was initiated in the early 1960's in the US aerospace industry whenthe US was feeling very uncomfortable with the missile gap vis-a-vis theSoviets. ZD may sound similar to QCC but in reality ZD and QCC arequite different in their approach.

The features of ZD are as follows:

1. ZD generates ideas (by using the error-cause removal forms) throughindividual workers but QCC relies on worker groups for ideas.

2. No special procedures are followed in idea generation in ZD while inQCC, usually a step-by-step structured agenda and procedure isfollowed, using PDCA as the guiding tool.

3. ZD objectives are limited to quality improvement ideas, but QCC aimsat quality, methods, morale and motivation objectives. ZD relies onmotivation more than results in motivation.

4. ZD achieved its greatest success in its early stage of development in theUS aerospace industry when patriotic feelings were high then.Since then it dwindled, possibly because its flavour of 'managementimposition' was too strong.

5. ZD operates in the following manner:

a. Management presents a challenge — for example, the strive forperfection.

b. Management backs the challenge that it really seeks perfectionand sets an example by encouraging nothing less.

c. Management establishes standards of performance and makesthem known to the individual employee.

d. Management acts according to the results in recognisingaccomplishments.

The individual knows what is expected of him and where he stands ineyes of management. Management knows its own position and what theemployee expects from it. In this instance, a worker is as important a partof the entire organisation as any member of the management.

The key to ZD is 'individual' and not 'individuals'

Error-Cause-Removal FormThe error-cause-removal exercise is a distinct part of the whole ZD

programme. It assists the employee to do his job right first time. With it, he

17

can identify facilities, processes or procedures which cause or could causemistakes and which make it difficult to perform work free from defects. Thesupervisor is most essential to the error-cause-removal exercise because hehas personal contact with the workers and almost all the problems aresolved by the supervisor or the management.

The Japanese use the term ZD very often too. They like it because itimplies perfection.

THE KANBAN SYSTEM

The Western approach to production and inventory control isbasically a schedule-based system in which a Master Production Schedule{MPS) is prepared, and from this MPS, subschedules for the making orbuying of the component parts are prepared. It is these schedules that pushthe production people into the manufacturing of the component parts andthen push them out and onward.

The Weakness of this approach is that much guesswork is involved.The MPS depends on the estimates of what the customers want, and theestimated duration in production time. A wrong estimate will result inexcess or shortage of inventories of some parts, even though shop-floorcontrol may be able to correct it to a great extent. To be on the safe side,buffer or safety stock of some parts are therefore maintained

The Kanban System on the other hand, provides, the component partswhen they are needed, in the right quantity and at the right time, but with-out guesswork and therefore eliminatjesexcess inventories of some parts.

There are certain pre-requisites for the operation of the Kanbansystem. It is an information system that harmoniously controls the produc-tion quantities in every process in order to achieve JIT. It requires reducedset-up times and small lot-sizes. Thus, it works well only when JIT is inoperation. JIT works well without Kanban, but Kanban will not makesense without JIT.

The Toyota 2-cards Kanban SystemIn the Toyota 2-cards Kanban system, every component part has its

own special standard containers designed to hold a precise but smallquantity of the part. To each of these containers is attached a Kanban (acard usually put in a rectangular vinyl pocket). The Kanban identifies thepart, the part number, the container capacity and other useful information.

There are two kinds of cards, one of which is called production-order-ing Kanban or simply, production Kanban, used only by the producer workcentre, and the other being the withdrawal or conveyance Kanban, servingonly the user work centre.

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The withdrawal Kanban states the quantity (small quantity) which theuser work centre or process should withdraw, while the production-order-ing Kanban shows the quantity (again small quantity) which the producerwork centre should produce.

An Illustration on How it Works (Please refer to Diagram 1)

Containers collection/depositand Kanban transfer point

Collecting emptiedcontainers attachedwith P-Kanbans

p o o o o o,' 1 Returning emptied containerwith W-Kanbans detached

Collecting filledcontainers accordingto W-Kanbans Returning to

collect filledcontainers with

W-KanbansFILLED

•• {6) Sending filledW w containers with

P-Kanbans

Producer Work CentreProducing Parts a & b DIAGRAM 1

Containers emptied and W-Kanbandetached

User Work Centre using Partsa &' b to assemble A, B & C

Let us assume that products A, B, and C are to be produced at theassembly line. Assume further that component parts a and b are required toproduce A, B and C by a proceeding machining line.

When the assembly line receives the containers containing parts a andb from the collection point with the withdrawal kanbans attached to eachcontainer, the assembly line workers empty them. They then detach thewithdrawal kanbans (1) and put them into the withdrawal kanban collect-ion boxes nearby. The emptied containers are sent back to the collection/deposit point (2).

When the assembly line needs more parts, the carrier collects the with-drawals kanbans at the user work centre and then goes to collection point(3). There he picks up the correct number of containers as specified on thewithdrawal kanbans. At the same time, he detaches the production kanbansfrom the containers, puts them into the collection boxes, and attaches (4)the withdrawal kanbans onto the containers which he then brings to the ass-embly line.

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At the producer work centre, the production-ordering kanbans arecollected periodically from collection point. The P-Kanbans show thequantities of a and b withdrawn and which have to be replaced (5), Thesecards are then passed to the production workers who then produce theexact quantities of a and b as specified in the production-ordering kanbans. The parts a and b produced are then sent to thedeposit point with the P-Kanban attached (6).

The Important Features of the Toyota Kanban System

1. No parts may be produced unless there is a production-orderingkanban authorizing it. In that event, the workers producing theparts may just do something else, like maintenance, cleaning up, orwork on improvement projects.

2. For every container there is attached precisely just one production-ordering kanban or one withdrawal kanban. The number of suchcontainers is carefully decided upon by the management.

3. The quantity of parts in each container is fixed, and standard.With this system inventory control is very much simplified and yetvery effective,

4. It is a pull system, in which parts are pulled through only when needed(by the presence of the production-ordering kanban.)

5. The system is only feasible for discrete manufacturing. At the sametime, it is most beneficial to high-usage with medium to high • costsparts, but not suitable for very expensive or large parts.

How Does The Kanban System Help In Quality Improvement?

The central attribute of the JIT system is in cutting down set-up times andreduction in lot-sizes. This attribute allows the operation of the concept ofdeliberately removing buffer inventory or labour, which is designed toexpose problems and solve problems. The kanban system offers the idealconditions.

With the small lot-sizes in operation, and the number of containers care-fully decided upon (including decision to remove some of them from theline) by management, the workers have to produce the exact quantity asspecified on the kanbans.

In the illustration provided earlier, assume now that the machining lineencounters some trouble in producing the parts a and b. Such problemscould range from an inability to meet specifications or tolerances due to toolwear and tear, machine breakdowns to minor accidents.

20

Such events would slow down the output rate, which would then affectthe output rates of the subsequent lines also.

In order to meet the daily schedule, generally, the foreman woulddirect the workers in the affected lines to work overtime. Not all would behappy to work unplanned overtimes. However, with TQC properly inoperation, these workers would be pleased to have detected a new set ofproblems, which would be a source of satisfaction, when solved. Therefore,with kanban, the workers would become more supportive and enthusiaticabout the productivity and quantity improvement features of the kanbansystem.

The system therefore helps avoid situations where mpre defective partsare produced, such as in the assembly line, where the workers would stopassembling A, B, and C when they are short of parts a and b. Kanban is amechanism by which the desirable objectives expected of JIT can be achiev-ed.

The Single-Card Kanban SystemThe Toyota Kanban system is a Dual-Card System. There exists yetanother more widely used system which uses only one card - the with-drawal card.

1. In the single-card system, component parts are produced or broughtaccording to a daily schedule (a push system), but withdrawal ordeliveries to the user work centre are regulated by the withdrawal kan-ban (a pull system).

2. The stock for the parts just produced at the producer work centretends to be higher than that in the dual-card system, simply becausethey are produced according to the daily schedule even if the demandfor them by the user work centre has slowed down, perhaps as a resultof production or quality problems.

3. Parts are withdrawn only as and when needed, and are delivered rightto the point of use in the right quantities and at the right times.Therefore, there is no need for a stock point at the user work centresince all stock will be used up immediately.

4. The build up of stock at the producer work centre need not becomeserious when there is no difficulty in associating part require-ments with the schedule of the end product. In case of such difficulty,(complex products with too many variations or models) then thedaily schedule for producing each part has to be provided from sizeablebuffer stock, which is undesirable; in which case, a dual-cardsystem or a MRP approach would be more suitable.

5. Its operation is similar to that of a 2-bin system but it differs in that the

21

quantity per container is exact and small, and the number of suchcontainers is also limited to what would be just sufficient for aday's use only. The 2-bin system does not have any of the JITattributes.

OBSERVATIONS AND COMMENTSThe history of quality movement in Malaysia is rather short. However,

the QCC concept itself was introduced in the early 1970's in a couple ofwell-established Japanese based companies. It did, not catch on wellinitially, mainly because it was quite a new concept and very Japanese. Inaddition, there was lack of knowledgeable and skilled personnel in QCCand no training on QCC was available then.

Since QCC was nationally promoted in the early 1980's, much has beenachieved. More people, both from the private and public sectors, haveattended QCC training courses and seminars. These activities were or-ganised by the many well-established institutions like NPC, InstituteTadbiran Awam Negara (INTAN), Institute of Quality ControlMalaysia (IQCM) and many other private management consulting firms.

Malaysia has started to move into the quality movement era with manyactivities directed towards quality promotion. The movement is particular-ly significant during the current economic downturn. New markets have to befound, existing markets have to be expanded and enlarged in face of theever increasing competitiveness and challenges. Therefore, new effect-ive strategies have to be formulated. One of the most effective strategies formanufacturers to adopt would be to secure a strong foothold in this compe-titive environment and to think or to rethink about quality - The MalaysianQuality. The "Buy Malaysian Campaign" certainly needs such thinking orrethinking. The Japanese were determined to do it about 30 years ago, andthey have succeeded to an extent that even the world leaders in productivityand quality feel sufficiently threatened to realize the need for a rethink.

Looking at the trend of the development of QCC in Malaysia, it is nottoo difficult to observe that QCC activities have concentrated by and largeon workers' levels. It is rare to find complementary activities pertaining toquality and productivity improvement organised for the managers or themanagerial staff. One is prompted to ask oneself whether such an approachis wise.

Quality problems in an organisation are far too many. These problemstransttend iajl levels of the organisation jManagers need to be aware that poorquality and low p/oductivity is also caused by the managers themselves. Byapplying the Pareto's 20-80 or 15-85 rule, there is not much point, then inputting all the quality and productivity problems on the workers for whatis basically management caused but left to workers to solve! Things that are

22

not done right first time are usually management-controllable, such as de-fective supplies and materials, poor instructions, inadequate tools or wrongequipment. Management have to do something about themselves whiledeveloping their people or in other words put its own house in order first!

TQC, which calls for total involvement, that is, sharing of theQC responsibility by all employees, comes in very fittingly to correct a lop-sided approach. TQC pursues quality by a top down approach and ismeshed-in with the QCC bottom-up movement.

TQC should be the overall quality movement where corporate goals anddirections are documented in written policies and clearly and systematicallycommunicated to all levels in an organisation. Only then can TQC providethe framework so that all efforts can be channeled to work towardsensuring top-down support for the bottom-up activities like QCC and ZD.

With the above approach, it will render it easier for managers to be reallyinvolved in the quality movement especially QCC as early as possible.QCC is a vehicle to help managers accomplish the corporate quality andproductivity goals, and not just for solving operational problems as it iscurrently considered to be and practised.

Once management commitment to and involvement in quality is firmlyestablished through TQC, management must then get every employeeinvolved in the same commitment. Quality and productivity improve-ment should be a way of life for all, and all have ,to have that feeling ofshared responsibility.

Commitment to and involvement in quality paves the way for all toaccept that quality and productivity improvement is a way of life. Tosupport this, management should also have to have the full commitmentto people-building to develop long term relationships. Employees will beeager to do an effective job of'selecting problems themselves, to determinetheir needs for the relevant data for problem investigating and analysis,to set their goals and priorities before making recommendations to manage-ment for implementation and to learn how to implement their recommend-ations. Through these means employees learn what it takes to effect solut-ions and changes from first hand experience. They develop more effectivecommunication ability with their own peers and with management, andteamwork is engendered in the process.

Training, or rather a lack of training as well as ineffective traininghas often been cited as an important cause for the failure of qualitymovement. This can be confirmed by many studies and surveys conductedin the US, in Singapore and in many Malaysian companies and institutions.Training is indeed very important. Having understood and accepted the

23

TQC concepts and a conducive work environment, people must be provi-ded with proper and effective tools through proper training and education.Training on quality and productivity improvement should be developedinto a tradition.

CONCLUSIONWhat The Future Holds For TQC In Malaysia

Quality is not only free (Philip B.Crosby; Quality is Free) but is alsoproductivity. When quality goes up, productivity also goes up. It is verysimple. When everyone and every machine performs right first time andevery time, there would be reduced need for quality inspections, rework orscrap and therefore reduced costs of labour, which would enable moreproductive works to be handled and done, resulting in higherproductivity which would benefit all.

The prospects and future of TQC and its associated concepts andtechniques are extremely good,with the present favourable environmentattributable to the following factors:

1. The need is there and is felt. The nation has been awakened to theurgency for improving productivity and quality. The national carproject has made its impact felt. The nation is very aware of how theJapanese took the challenge and won. The Malaysian people also knowhow to proceed.

2 The government's backing and push for productivity and quality im-provement has been very strong and with good impact. The activitiesare being reinforced through the emphasis on productivity, given byboth the political and industrial leaders.

3. The Japanese have done it successfully and others have followed themvery closely and have been equally successful; the Americans havereacted quite spontaneously and positively, hoping to regain theleadership in productivity, quality and profitability. And inMalaysia, a "CAN DO" attitude prevails.

4. Malaysia is a very young nation, and it has a greater, more comfortableand favorable take-off pad than Japan had in the post World War IIperiod.

5. The "Look East Policy" has helped hasten the introduction anddiffusion process of the TQC and its related concepts.

6. Comparatively, labour costs in Malaysia are still low which is an ad-vantage to TQC.

24

7. TQC, unlike JIT, does not involve high start-up cost.

8. The Malaysian education system, though to a large extent orientatedto the British and Western systems, has not been too emphatic on

career specialisation such as in the West. This is advantageousas it is favourable to labour mobility and job enrichment.

REFERENCES

1. Richard J. Schonberger- Japanese Manufacturing Techniques, 1982, Free Press

2. James F. HalpinZero Defects, 1966, McGraw-Hill

3. National Productivity Centre-Annual Reports, 1981,1982,1983- National Workshop on Productivity, 1982.

4. National Productivity Board, Singapore- Report on the QC circles study mission to the United States

of America, 9—20 July, 1984- Q.C. Circles Survey 1983

5. KENSHU, Autumn 1984, Winter 1984—19856. Hewlett-Packard

- TQC News, May/June 19857. Lim Yew Chong/Soo Cheong Futt

- An approach to Quality Management in the 1980's, September 1983

25

PRODUCTIVITY THROUGHSELF-MOTIVATION

BY GERALD F. COX

BIODATA

Gerald F. Cox was born in Arkansas, USA. Hereceived his B.A. degree from the University of CentralArkansas and his M.B.A. from the University ofHouston, Texas. He is also a member of CertifiedPublic Accountants, Texas.

Gerald joined Exxon Corp. in 1951 and heldvarious financial positions in Exxon's domestic affiliate,Exxon U.S.A. before being assigned Financial Directorof Esso Libya in 1966 and President of the Companyin 1973. Prior to coming to Malaysia, in November 1980,he was Vice President of Esso Middle-East in New York.

He is now Chairman and Chief Executive of Esso Malaysia Berhad and Esso ProductionMalaysia Inc.

After serving as Vice President of the Malaysian International Chamber of Commerce& Industry (MICCI) for two years, he was named President of the MICCI in July 1985. LastOctober, he received the Manager of the Year Award, an honour bestowed for the first time bythe Harvard Business School Alumni Club of Malaysia; The Award was presented by theDeputy Prime Minister on behalf of the Club.

He is married to Dolores land has 2 children, a son in Fort Worth, Texas and a daughterin Australia.

ABSTRACT

Managing productivity requires appropriate physical and human re-sources, and management. Management must set the goals and a frame-work within which to achieve these goals. Effective communication is alsonecessary to ensure that management policies are understood and are con-sistent with the goals set.

26

An effective downward-directed communication system alone is agood formula for success. It is better when supplemented with a goodsystem of upward communication but maximum productivity is achievedonly when each employee is self-motivated — when each decides on hisown to produce at his best in the way he feel best and finds himself free todo so.

Financial incentives can encourage greater effort but cannot generateself-motivation. Self-motivation comes from an employee's self-esteem andself-respect, and an awareness that others hold him in comparable esteemand respect. A self-motivated employee will accept the goals of his organi-sation as his own and this is the key to productivity.

On November 2 1985, Mr Gerald F. Cox., Chairman and ChiefExecutive of Esso Companies in Malaysia made an address at a Talk forManagement. The Function was organised by the National ProductivityCentre, Malaysia as part of the month long National ProductivityCampaign activity.

Journal Productivity feels that his talk is of interest as he draws on hiswealth of knowledge and experience gathered over a period of a distinguish-ed carrer in industry. His talk is reprinted here with minor editorialclassifications.

The theme for this year's Management Productivity Talk is "ManagingProductivity in Challenging Times". Within that theme I have chosen thetopic of "Productivity Through Self Motivation". I think it would be desir-able to talk about a few of the words in that title first so that you will knowwhat I mean when I use them.

Productivity: Productivity, like many words, does not mean muchstanding alone. To be meaningful it must be combined with one or moreother words. For my talk today, let's add the word objective or goal. I willbe talking about productivity that moves an organization toward its goals,adding value in the ways the organization has defined as being important.We are not talking about jbeing busy for the sake of being busy (whichsomeone once called the "activity trap"). Neither are we talking aboutbeing productive on tasks that add little toward achieving organizationalgoals.

Challenging Times: A word or two on challenging times. All times arechallenging, maybe some more than others and maybe challenging indifferent ways. But when an organization begins to feel i* can relax, lookout! Inconsistency is the enemy of productivity. Put another way, an

27

erratic pace can make the times we face more challenging than they reallyneed to be.

A good^steady sales effort throughout the month or quarter or year ismuch more productive than a crash effort to catch up. The final result maybe the same but the cost and effort involved in a steady pace is normallymuch less. An organization that is allowed to relax during 'non-challenging'times and then is called upon to charge ahead or change pace drastically onshort notice is generally not a very productive organization.

Managing Productivity: The last of the definitions. Managing Pro-ductivity. The connotation of 'managing' to me is very positive. One coulduse words like demanding productivity, controlling productivity or buyingproductivity but managing is a much better word. It carries with it the im-plication both of necessary skill on the part of the manager and of a signifi-cant value of what is being managed.

So much for definitions.

Basic essentials for productivity: There are a lot of people making a lotof money writing books on how to manage. I've tried to read some of thembut I generally give up early in the book, mainly because the examples givenor the case studies used are so extreme. The authors take an impossiblesituation, apply a gimmick or a stroke of management genius and solve theproblem. We have all heard of the man who went to the track and won onthe 100-1 shot, but you know as well as I do that those who consistently betthe 100-1 shot lose their shirts. It is the same in the business world. We donot depend on strokes of genius to reach our goals; we depend on funda-mental, tried and tested management techniques. If there is a genius involv-ed, it lies in the talent for narrowing the odds through the application ofthose techniques.

What are some of those management principles that achieve a highlevel of productivity? Well, even before we can start to discuss manage-ment, we need two things which are essential to any successful and produc-tive work effort: the appropriate physical and human resources.

Physical Resources:We need a decent, quiet place to work, and amenities like adequate

lighting and ventilation.We need the tools necessary for the job, like modern, efficient equip-

ment, so that we can devote our energies to production work and notstand waiting for repairs.

We need a process, a series of logical steps that converts raw materialsinto finished products.

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Human Resources:

We need good peopleAdequate trainingAdequate payThe appropriate number and mix of people in experience, skills, etc.

These two requirements — Physical and Human Resources aresubjects themselves and I do not intend to say more about them. I want tospend my time on the third requirement, management.

Management:

As I said earlier, I've read about managers who defy all standard tech-niques and achieve miracles but this is so foreign to my experience thatthere is no point in my trying to speak about it.

What are those simple things management should do to create the rightclimate for a productive organization? First, we have agreed earlier thatproductivity must be directed towards the goals of the organization.Management must set the goals of the organization. "Of course", you say,"everyone knows our goals!" But do they?

FIGURE 1

PHYSICAL RESOURCES

HUMAN RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT- GOALS/OBJECTIVES- POLICIES- DISCIPLINE

29

Next, there must be a framework within which your organizationworks to achieve the goals. Management must set policies. Yes, you'vedone that you say. But, these policies must be consistent with your goals,and both must be understood by the organization. Maybe that needs a bitmore thought, and I will come back to it.

Third, management must establish checks and balances that alert theright people when the organization is deviating from the path toward thegoals. Call this discipline. And every organization must have it.(see Figure 1):

Let's move now to management systems or techniques, (see Figure 2):FIGURE 2

t If It 1* rT v . .̂ p . ,̂ p

I t * t IT T T T T T '

You've seen a "standard chart like that shown here before I'm sure andyour own is probably very similar to it.

I don't think any expert has ever found a substitute for the basic needto have a boss and a chain of command.

Clear and effective downward communication is essential to successand again we tend to take downward communication for granted. In mostorganizations there are many opportunities for improving productivitythrough improving on the way this basic system works. How realistic arethe goals that have been set? How well are the policies written? Are they

30

consistent with the goals? How well are they communicated? How well arethey accepted? What is your system and follow-up? Are there systems inplace that respond to the need for changes in policies and procedures?

There are very many successful companies that have nothing more so-phisticated than what I will call simply this Basic System of organizationalstructure and downward communication. They spend their time keeping itworking well rather than looking for new innovations. There is a lot to besaid for this approach.

However, as is the case with almost any basic system, it can be supple-mented with ideas and techniques that will add to its productivity. Let meemphasize here that I am not talking about systems that substitute for an or-ganization and downward communication, I'm talking about systems thatsupplement them. I've seen managers who could not get this basic system towork and embarked on studies to find something else that would work. Ithink they are doomed; this system must be reasonably adequate beforeyou can build upon it

The most simple concept for improving productivity beyond what canbe achieved from this basic system is upward communication or feedback.There is nothing new in that concept, and it is a very simple one, but oh! sohard to implement.

Let's be honest; it may trouble us as managers when our subordinatestell us how the company should be'run, or when they bring us a simple ideawe should perhaps have thought of ourselves. To encourage upward com-munication does not come as naturally to us as does the downward com-munication we initiate. We must be trained, or train ourselves, to encour-age feedback and, most important, to be receptive to the feedback we get,and that makes it more difficult.

However, in my experience this is one of those things that, once we doaccept it and get it working, we never quite understand why it took so longin the first place, and why everyone else isn't doing the same.

In theory there really should be nothing to it. For example, as part ofour downward communication we normally say, "This is what I want youto do to improve quality." To supplement this system we merely need toadd "What do you think we should do to improve quality?" The responseto this question can come from such activities as quality control circles,formal programs for rewarding cost saving ideas, rap sessions, etc. Bynow we all are familiar with the terms, and it is certainly fashionable toinstall the formal mechanism to show how progressive we are.

Unfortunately, some managers ;set up the formalities of QCC's and

31

other programs before they are sincerely willing to ask their employees,"What clo you think?" and more importantly, before they are truly willingto listen to the response. Frankly 1 think most formal systems, to promoteupward communication, are needed more to get the people at the top awarethat they should seek to listen, than to get the subordinates to generateideas. Employees have the ideas, make no mistake about it, but they arenot sure management want them.

As I said earlier, many successful companies have nothing more than agood system of downward management. Those that not only have that butare also to supplement it with effective upward communication, are thekind of companies I hate to have as competitors! Such companies havedone a good job of defining their organizational goals and their employees'needs, so that employees understand what their management expects ofthem and vice-versa. That is a tough combination.

The topic of my talk is Productivity Through Self Motivation; and Ihave yet to use that phrase. I will, shortly, but let me digress a few minutesand talk about the oil business from a perspective which I hope will illus-trate my theme.

FIGURES

ENERGY/ 1-0GNP RATIO

1972 1978 19820-8

• EXCLUDING THE CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMIES

In 1973 the average price for Saudi crude oil was US$2.70/barrel andthe world was using 48 million barrels per day (MBD) of crude oil. (seeFigure 3). This chart shows the total volume being consumed. Most

32

experts then forecast growth of about 6—7% annually and in the industria-lized world every 1 % growth in GNP was expected to be accompanied by a1% growth in use of energy. Had that materialized, the worldconsumption of oil would have been around 80 MBD by 1982.

As you know that did not happen. In 1978 the price of oil went toUS$12.70/bbl and in 1982 it reached US34.00/bbl and the world at the timewas using 45 MBD.

The managers of the world over this period had a productivity pro-blem. How could their various organizational goals (increasing profits, forone) be achieved without using energy; at least not nearly as much energyas before, because the answer to this question could spell the difference be-tween survival and bankruptcy.

There was downward communication from governments in variouscountries:

— Fixed limits on energy imports— Restrictions on energy exports— Speed limit restrictions on highway traffic— MPG requirements on auto manufacturers— Less heat and airconditioning, fewer lights, etc.

There are upward communication to governments:

— Give us tax incentives to invest to cut energy costs, betterinsulation, better use of heat, etc.

— De-regulate— De-regulate the energy part of the economy to encourage explora-

tion and development of marginal resources.

The response through these two systems did much to alleviate theenergy problem, but in my opinion they were only partly responsible forthe 'productivity improvement' in the use of energy. Let's look at what wasachieved, (see Figure 4).

I mentioned that the relationship between energy consumption andeconomic growth in the early 1970's was about 1 to 1, with a 1% growth inenergy for each 1% growth in GNP. However that relationship changeddrastically over the decade, particularly in the industrialized countries. By1982 the relationship was down by 1/5, such that for each 1% increase inGPN only a 0.8% in energy consumption occurred. Put another way,economic growth could be achieved using 20% less energy in 1982 than wasrequired in 1972, and we can only barely imagine what the savings inmoney terms were.

33

100-

1972 YEAR 1978 1982

FIGURE 4

I don't think anyone will try to argue that government activities andfeed-back from users alone accomplished this feat. In fact it is quite possiblethey accomplished only a small part of it.

What happened was that people (millions of individuals) decided ontheir own initiative to change their habits. They were directly affected bythe energy problem, and became extremely creative in dealing with it.

He was going to buy a smaller car, yes, but he decided on his own todrive it less, and organize his necessary driving better. He was encouragedto insulate his house and set his thermostat lower but he decided to turn thelight off when he left the room and light his home as needed rather than likea hospital operating theatre. The list goes on and on. Individuals devisedways of saving energy themselves which no manager could think of and noformal idea system would have revealed.

Something triggered the user to become self motivated to reduce theuse of energy and that achieved a level of productivity far beyond any goalanyone would have dreamed to have set in 1972.

Yes, you say, but they were forced to do this, they couldn't afford todo anything else. Or, the market worked, by giving people a strong financi-al incentive to change their behavior. True enough. But the fact is this

34

phenomenon also extended to people who had enough money that the costof energy to them was almost insignificant.

Now I can't prove to you how much energy was saved by such people,but I do know they existed in great numbers, and that is really my point.Another common misconception about productivity is that our employeeswon't produce at all without direction from above and formal programs forupward communication which cause them to be productive. I don'tagree. My personal view is that the vast majority of our employees want tobe productive. I think an employee must be trained, in a perverse sort ofway, to adopt the attitude that the less he can do to get the most pay, thebetter he likes it. I believe he will take the initiative where he can unless weteach him that he shouldn't. Certainly we do not lead him in this directionintentionally, but I'm afraid responsibility for a non-productive attitudemust be shared by many people other than the employee himself. However,once this attitude is instilled, and perhaps reinforced over several genera-

tions or in various different jobs, it becomes a formidable task to turn itaround. This too is a subject in itself and I will say no more about it here.

Back to the subject of managing productivity. I mentioned earlier thata good downward-directed system alone is a good formula for success, andthat when it is supplemented by a good system of upward communica-tion it would put your competitors on the run. Using my oil example, itboggles the mind to think what would happen if, as a second supplemen-tary system, each worker at all levels decided on his own to produce at hisbest in the way he felt best, and found himself-free to do so. I sincerelybelieve the results would be like'what, those in the oil example, far beyondanything any of us would be brave enough to forecast.

I suppose you think I'm now going to tell you how to cause yourpeople to decide to do their best — the formula for "Productivity ThroughSelf Motivation".

Not on your life!

If I knew, I would keep it a secret for Esso or even better write a bookon my own time and sell it to you for $20 a copy.

Man has yet to learn what buttons to push to cause people to behavevoluntarily,the way he wants them to behave. Part of managing is to per-suade people to do things, but there is no simple prescription for havingthem decide for themselves to do it. Frankly, I hope it stays that way.

But over the years I have seen organizations which had more self-motivation than others and I've seen employees who seemed to be moreself motivated than others. Based on what I have seen I will share with

35

you, at no cost, some observations. These are not subject to rigorousempirical proofs, but I believe in them strongly just the same.

Managements that sincerely believe their people want to be productiveand have the intelligence to be so are more likely to have self motivatedpeople. In fact a management which believes it gets only what it demands iscertain not to have self motivated people. Teachers see this every day in theclassroom. Managers can see it every day in their plants and offices, if theywere ready to look for it.

A second observation.

Your people must think what they are doing individually and as agroup is important. No one is truly self motivated by doing what someoneelse thinks is important or what he is told is important. I don't think afinancial incentive actually generates self motivation. It can encouragegreater effort, yes, but not self-motivation in the sense I have described it.Much of it comes from an employee's self-esteem and self-respect, and anawareness of the fact that others (perhaps most important, his co-workersand management) hold him in comparable esteem and respect. In fact, Ihave sometimes referred to this approach as a "self-fulfilling prophecy",not because it can be forecast but because when it is adopted and trulyfollowed by management each employee will help his organization advanceby fulfilling his own personal objectives.

A simple example. You ask two bricklayers the question, "What areyou doing?" The first may say, "I'm laying bricks" and be absolutelycorrect. The second says, "I'm building a house." They both know exactlywhat they are doing, but one has a task, the other a vision.

Now I know and you know that not every single one of our employeeshas that kind of vision or self-esteem. But isn't there a tendency to build ourorganizations and systems as though none of them did? I don't think itneeds to be that way, and I firmly believe everyone profits — individual,management and organization — if we assume the reverse.

A third observation. Even the best employee must know what his'management, wants. It is more than good communication. I think this isone of the most unrecognized and serious problems affecting productivity.There is too much inconsistency and lack of knowledge of the goals of anorganization, and that's our responsibility as managers.

"What do you want?" is a simple question but it you do a survey of-your people asking the question "what does Mr. X wants?" you will beastonished at the answers.

These are broad concepts I know but what we are looking for is a

36

'spark', not a road map, and 'sparks' of the imagination and attitude comegenerally from such broad concepts.

Self-motivation is fay definition directed towards a positive goal. Thereare some little things that might give you a signal about the level of self-motivation in your organization.

1. Would your licensing clerk describe his job as, "to be sure no one gets alicence unless he qualifies," or would he describe it as, "to be sureeveryone who qualifies gets a licence"?

2. Would your people say their objective is to get a report out on time orto avoid going past the deadline?

3. Would they say they want to produce products that meet specificationsor not produce products that fail to meet specifications?

In my experience a self-motivated employee takes his given task as abeginning, not an end, and defines his goals as broadly as he is able to,instead of as narrowly. Another simple diagram may help to show what Imean, (see Figure 5):

FIGURE 5

•)?

FINDOPPORTUNITIES

POSITIVE

37

You say, you get the same result either way? I don't agree. There hasbeen a tremendous amount of academic and institutional study done on thecarrot and stick approach to management, examining what kind of carrotworks best, how big a stick works best, and even minute analysis of whatwe can do to cause someone to do what we want them to do. But not allthat much has been done to tell us what causes someone to want to do whatwe want them to do. I suspect we might be surprised at the subtleties involv-ed in the self motivation of people, but it has to start with sharing of under-stood objectives. With commonality'of purpose you really don't need thecarrot or the stick.

In summary, to me, management of productivity is a building blockconcept. There are no gimmicks or substitutes for the fundamental struc-ture. Much can be done in all our organizations to improve productivitythrough well known established management techniques. But if we want toreally set our goal for the ultimate we can try to bring into our organizationthat spark for self motivated productivity.

I would like to close with a question:"How far down in your organiza-tion would you have to go before your people would fail a test having thefollowing questions?

1. What does Mr. X expect from you?2. What are his objectives?3 How does he want you to approach the job, and4. Is what you are doing as important to you as it is to him?

Another question; how far down the organization would you have togo before the employee would ask Mr. Who?

38

PENGALAMAN PDPN DALAMMENGENDALIKAN PROGRAM

PERBANDINGAN ANTARA FIRM A

OLEHHJ. ABDUL RAHMAN IBRAHIM

BIODATADilahirkan di Melaka pada tahun 1947.1971 memperolehi Sarjana Muda Ekonomi (EkonomiGunaan) dari Universiti Malaya.

PengaJaman Bekerja1971 — 1974 bertugas sebagai pegawai PentadbirMelayu di Pusat Pengajian Pembangunan Malaysia,

•*• dan ditempatkan dibeberapa jabatan seperti Pejabat- Daerah Kuala Rompin, Pahang, Pejabat Pengarah

. ' ; Tanah Dan Galian Kuantan dan di Bahagian Kaji:. A :~-s.*Zfi .*.;:;• Teknik Makanan, Serdang.

1974 bertugas di Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara di Bahagian Perhubungan Perusahaandan kemudian ke Bahagian Perakaunan Pengurusan dan kemudiannya ke BahagianPerkhidmatan Bumiputera (Pembangunan Keusahawanan). Memperolehi Diploma inManagement Consultancy for Small & Medium Business di Republik Persekutuan Jermanpada tahun 1975/76.

1980 — 1982 memperolehi Master of Business Administration (Finance) di AmericanUniversity, Washington D.C.Sekarang beliau menjawat Penolong Pengarah PDPN.

1. PengenalanRencana ini akan membentangkan Kaedah Perbandingan Antara

Firma yang banyak menekankan analisa nisbah-nisbah prestasi peserta-peserta. Saya tidak menyentuh bagaimana cara mengukur produktiviti,tetapi akan menunjukkan contoh prestasi berdasarkan setiap pekerja(Lampiran 2b) yang merupakan satu ukuran produktiviti yang mudah.

Tajuk-tajuk yang akan dibentangkan di sini ialah:-1.1 Apakah Program Perbandingan Antara Firma (P.A.F)?

1.2 Faedah-Faedah Program P.A.F. kepada peserta.1.3 Bagaimanakah program P.A.F. dijalankan?1.4 Mentafsirkan dan menggunakan hasil-hasil program P.A.F.1.5 Penggunaan Kaedah Multiple Regression: Meramal dan merancang-

kan Tulangan Ke atas Pelaburan" melalui Persamaan Regression(Regression Equation}.

2. Apakah Perbandingan Antara Firma (PAF)Perbandingan Antara Firma ialah satu program memperbandingkan

maklumat perniagaan (firma) dalam sesebuah industri dengan cara ter-

39

susun. Kebanyakan maklumat yang digunakan adalah berdasarkan mak-luniat akaun dan operas!. Maklumat-maklumat ini diringkaskan dalatnbentuk nisbah (Ratio) dan prestasi yang menggambarkan produktivitisetiap pekerja (per employee).

Maklumat-maklumat yang dibandingkan adalah dirahsiakan danhanya nisbah-nisbah (bukan nilai-nilai mutlak, ringgit dan sen) yang akandibandingkan dan dianalisa, Firma-firma peserta juga diberi nombor kodyang diubah setiap pusingan untuk mengelakkan pengenalan.

3. Faedah-Faedah Program P.A.F.Firma-firma yang menyertai -program PAF mendapat faedah-faedah

yang meningkatkan PRODUKTIVITI dan KEUNTUNGAN. Di antarafaedah-faedah itu ialah:-

3.1 Rangkaian nisbah membolehkan Pengurus mentaksir prestasi syari-katnya disamping syarikat-syarikat lain. Ini dapat memberikannyakeyakinan dan bimbingan untuk mentaksir kemajuan prestasi masing-masing.

3.2 Perbandingan nisbah antara tahun membolehkan pengurus melihatkeberkesanan dasar, strategi dan rancangan seperti yang diperlihat-kan oleh turun naiknya nisbah-nisbah itu.

3.3 Dengan adanya nisbah terperinci yang umum dapat diujudkanstandard prestasi untuk melihat kedudukan syarikat peserta sendiridalam seluruh industri.

3.4 PAF menggalakkan kerjasama dan semangat saling membantu di-antara peserta dalam industri yang sama — mencari dan mengatasimasalah bersama.

4. Bagaimanakah PAF dijalankanFirma-firma peserta dari jenis industri yang sama dikehendaki meng-

isikan borang dengan maklumat-maklumat akaun, operasi dan angka-angka penting seperti bilangan pekerja, tenaga digunakan, keluasankawasan pengeluaran dan lain-lain.

Untuk menjaga kerahsiaan maklumat mereka satu sistem mengguna-kan 'pusat mengekod' (coding centre) boleh diikuti. (Keterangan lanjutada disertakan di Lampiran la dan Ib).

Sete\ah maklumat asal diproses dan beberapa analisa dan laporandibuat oleh Pentadbir PAF, peserta-peserta akan dikirimkan laporan-laporan itu (melalui Pusat Mengekod). Laporan-Iaporan ini berdasarkanmaklumat asas prestasi firma-Hrma seperti di Lampiran 2.a) Senarai nisbah dan angkatunjuk prestasi firma itu sendiri disamping

prestasi tertinggi, sederhana dan terendah '{Lampiran 3).b) Nisbah-nisbah kewangan setiap firma, disusun dalam rangkaian yang

menunjukkan perkaitan antara nisbah-nisbah itu. (Lampiran 4).c) Prestasi setiap firma melebihi (+ ) atau kurang (— ) dari paras seder-

hana (atau purata industri). Lampiran 5.d) Pembentangan prestasi di atas atau di bawah paras sederhana secara

40

gambarajah, mengikut prestasi angkubah-angkubah tertentu (Lam-piran 6A-C) dan penjelasannya (Lampiran 6D).

e) Analisa dan ulasan prestasi setiap firma dengan huraian yang lanjut,bagi tiap-tiap nisbah angkatunjuk dan cadangan-cadangan pembaik-an (bagi kelemahan-kelemahan) atau pengukuhan strategi yangdidapati betul dan berkesan.

5. Mentafsirkan dan Menggunakan Hasil-Hasil PAFContoh Prestasi Yang Terbaik: Firma A (Lihat Lampiran 2).

Secara amnya, nisbah yang paling baik untuk memperlihatkan pres-tasi sesebuah firma ialah Pulangan Ke Atas Pelaburan, (ROI), iaitu Un-tung Bersih Kendalian/Jumlah Harta Kendalian. Firma A dengan ROI =25.1% adalah yang terbaik sekali. ROI ini dipengaruhi oleh dua jenisnisbah yang utama iaitu Bahagian Untung dari Jualan (Untung BersihKendalian/Harta Kendalian), = 19%, dan Putaran Harta (Jumlah Jualan/Harta Kendalian), = 1.32 kali.

Selanjutnya, Bahagian Untung Bersih ini adalah tinggi kerana di-sebabkan oleh Peratus Kos Pengeluaran yang rendah iaitu (62.8%). Pe-ratus Kos Pengeluaran ini pula sangat rendah kerana Kos Bahan danBuruh yang agak rendah. Inilah sebab yang asas bagi ROI yang tinggi bagiFirma A.

Satu lagi nisbah yang menyebabkan ROI yang tinggi ini ialah PutaranHarta (1.32 kali). Putaran Harta ini dapat disebutkan dengan sebutanyang mudah dalam bentuk Jumlah Harta bagi tiap $1,000 jualan. Bagifirma A, hanya diperlukan $758.00 bagi mendatangkan $1,000 Jualan.Ertinya firma ini memerlukan pelaburan dalam harta tetap yang rendahbagi mendatangkan hasil yang sama ($1,000) dibandingkan dengan firma-firma lain.

Firma A mempunyai peratus Harta Tetap daripada Jumlah Harta38.6%, yang paling rendah sekali, dan peratus Harta Semasa yang palingbesar sekali iaitu 61.3%. Ini menunjukkan satu dari bukti kejayaansyarikat ini. Semua peserta-peserta lain mempunyai peratus harta semasayang lebih kecil misalnya 52% untuk firma I, menandakan kelembapanoperasi dan kegiatan.

Diantara butir-butir harta semasa, stok Kerja Dalam Proses (WIP),menzahirkan kesimpulan yang paling unique, iaitu firma yang berjaya(Firma A contohnya) mempunyai paras stok WIP yang agak rendah. Inibarangkali disebabkan rendahnya paras modal yang terikat dalam stok-WIP. Semua pihak, pengurusan dan pekerja, dapat dimobilisasikan untukkerja-kerja yang lebih produktif, daripada mengendalikan barang separuhsiap (WIP) yang berlebihan.

Butir-butir harta semasa yang lain didapati tidak dapat menggambar-kan kesimpulan yang lebih menarik.

Semua butir-butir harta tetap pula sangat rendah di bawah parassederhana. Di sinilah letaknya faktor penentu bagi kejayaan Firma A; ia-itu 'kepantasan' penggunaan harta-harta tetap dalam mendatangkan hasiljualan.

41

Seperkara lagi yang patut disebutkan ialah tentang kesanggupanFirma A berbelanja untuk program promosi, seperti yang ditunjukkanoleh kos agihan dan pemasaran yang agak tinggi (10.9%).Contoh Prestasi Yang Lemah — Firma F (Lihat Lampiran 2)

Firma F mempunyai ROI yang paling rendah (4.1%). Ini disebabkanoleh Peratus Untung (4.7%) dan putaran harta yang paling rendah juga(0.87 kali), Peratus Untungnya sangat rendah disebabkan kos pengeluaranyang terlalu tinggi (80.2%). Ini disebabkan oleh kos-kos yang palingtinggi seperti kos bahan (35.8%), kos buruh (28.9%) dan juga Kos-KosPengeluaran Lain (15.5%).

Firma F sangat lembab pusingan hartanya, atau sangat lembab dalammempergunakan harta untuk mendatangkan hasil (iaitu memerlukan$1,149 bagi tiap-tiap $1,000 jualan). Harta Tetap diperlukan sebanyak$541 bagi tiap-tiap $1,000 jualan. Peratus Harta Tetapnya daripadaJumlah Harta ialah 47%, paling tinggi sekali.

Harta Semasanya juga tinggi, ($608) bagi mendatangkan hasil $1,000.Stok barang dalam proses ($245 bagi tiap-tiap $1,000 jualan) adalah jugapaling tinggi iaitu 195% melebihi paras sederhana. Banyak pelaburan danperbelanjaan terikat di dalam stok WIP ini, dan dengan itu, menjatuhkanuntuk bersih dan ROI firma ini,

PENGGUNAAN KAEDAH MULTIPLE REGRESSION ,Maklumat-maklumat dari Program P.A.F. kami telah digunakan untuk

mewujudkan beberapa persamaan Regression. Tujuannya ialah supaya ramal-an boleh dibuat bagi firma-firma yang kurang baik untuk mempertingkatkannilai ROJ atau Angkubah Y-nya.

Sebagai contoh untuk memperlihatkan kaedah ini, maklumat dari bahanrujukan seperti di Lampiran 2a dan 2b, telah digunakan untuk analisaregression ini. Hasilnya ialah seperti di lampiran 7a.

Persamaan Pertama di Lampiran 7bROI Angkatap Untung Putaran Kos Kos Buruh

Bersih Harta Pengeluaran

Y = 77.59 + 0.01651X! + 2.06474X2 ± 0.86333X3 + 0.11641X4(0.681) {.435) (-6.582) (1-918)

Harta Tetap Kerja dalamProses

- .0094X5 .01891X6(-.737) (-1.94)

R2 = .98475 F = 86.1 SE = 1.19441

Pemerhatian:1. Angkubah-angkubah penjelas mempunyai angkali dengan tanda yang

betul, kecuali X4 (Kos Buruh) yang bertanda positif (+). Pada teorinya,

42

untung bersih dan seterusnya ROI akan bertambah jika kos buruh me-nurun. Tetapi tanda positif pada angkali X3 ini menyatakan sebaliknya.Ini adalah disebabkan masalah Multicollinearity antara X3 dengan X2sebab X3 adalah sebahagian dari X2 (Kos Pengeluaran). Angkubah X3patut digugurkan.

2. Nilai F bagi persamaan ini (86.1) adalah melebihi nilai F dalam jadualnya(3.58),pada 'degree of freedom' k-1 = 7-1 = 6 dan n- k = 15- 7 = 8 .Oleh itu semua Angkubah-angkubah Penjelasnya ada mempunyai'overall significance'.

3. Tetapi hanya satu sahaja Angkubah itu yang ada hubungan yang ber-makna dengan Y, pada paras significance 5%, iaitu angkubah X3 (KosPengeluaran). Nilai t-nya (-6.582) melebihi (atau melewati) nilai t di dalamjadual (t — Distribution), iaitu — 2.306.

4. Coefficientof Multiple Determination (R2) adalah tinggi iaitu .98475. Inibermakna sebahagian besar dari 'variance' dalam ROI (Y-,) diterangkanoleh Variance' di dalam Angkubah-Angkubah Penjelasnya (X^ X2; X3;

Kita boleh menggunakan persamaan ini untuk meramalkan ataumenganggarkan ROI yang lebih baik, bagi firma-firma yang lemah,misalnya firma I. Kita boleh meramalkan dengan agak tepat, pada parassignificance 5%, bahawa firma I akan mendapat ROI antara 4.59%dengan 10.11%, jika Angkubah-angkubah yang lemah Xl diubah kepada7.9%, dan X3 kepada 77% dan X^ kepada $210.

Contoh seperti berikut:Y = 77.59859 + 0.01651 (X1) + 2.064 (Xj) - .86333 (X3)

+ 0.11641 (X4) - 0.00941 (Xs) - .01891 (\)- 0.01891 (X6) ± f s Y.123456

AY = 77.59859 + 0.01651 (7.9) + 2.06474 (0.87) - .86333 (77)

+ .11641 (28.9) --00941 (541) - .01891 (210)AY = 77.598 + 0.1304 + 1.7963 - 66.4764

+ 3.3642 - 5.0908 - 3.9711= 7.3506% ± 2.306*(1.19441)7.3506% ± 2.7543

ROI- 4.5963- 10.105%

*(2.306 ialah nilai t pada paras significance 0.05, 1.19441 ialah StandardError of Estimate).Angkubah-angkubah yang lain (yang kurang-baik) boleh juga dibaiki di

tahun-tahun akan datang bagi meningkatkan ROI lebih daripada paras diatas.

43

Pemerhatian Ke atas Persamaan-persamaan ke 2,3 dan 4 di Lampiran 7:Maklumat untuk Regression ini adalah daripada Lampiran 4a (iaitu pres-

tasi melebihi/kurang dari Paras Sederhana).1. Secara ringkas dikatakan di sini lebih banyak lagi Angkubah-angkubah

yang tiap-tiap satunya ada hubungan yang bermakna dengan Y2 {ROIdalam bentuk peratus melebihi/kurang dari Paras Sederhana), iaituAngkubah-angkubah X^ X^ X6 • Xg.dan X, .

2. Ketiga-tiga persamaan ada mempunyai overall significance.

3. R bagi ketiga-tiganya adalah tinggi.

Ramalan dan pembaikan ROI boleh juga dibuat berdasarkan persamaan-persamaan regression ini.

Pemerhatian ke atas Persamaan-persamaan di Lampiran 8. (Sektor Memproses Makanan)Persamaan-persamaan dibaris 4 dan 10 boleh diberikan beberapa ulasan.

1. R? kedua-duanya adalah tinggi, dan nilai F juga tinggi, menandakan ada-nya 'overall significance'.

2. Hanya Angkubah Putaran Harta (X_,) yang ada hubungan yang bermaknadengan Y2 (ROI) pada paras 5% (nilai t-nya (14.45) melebihi t dalamjadual (12.7).

3. Tanda bagi Angkali pada Angkubah Xj (jualan bagi setiap pekerja) se-patutnya positif, bukan negatif.

Walaupun persamaan-persamaan ini ada kecacatannya, tetapi boleh jugadigunakan sebagai contoh Perkiraan sahaja, untuk menunjukkan bagaimanafirma yang lemah boleh membaiki ROInya.

Misalnya:tsy = -12.63568 + l.OTlSXj + 10.82755X2 - 0.15639D-03X3 + 0.00159X4

tsy 1234tsy = 12.63568 + 1.0713(4.23) + 10.82755(1.4) - 0.156390-03(16532.88)

+ 0.00159(700) + tsy .1234- 12.6357 + 4.5316 + 15.1586 - 2.5856 + 1.113 + tsy. 1234

5.5819±4.303 (0.94166)5.5819 + 4.052

ROI = 1.53%—9.64%

Firma-firma yang lemah boleh membuat pindaan kepada angkubah-angkubah berkenaan seperti contoh di atas, untuk mencapai ROI yang lebihtinggi.

Kita dapati kesan dari tanda negatif pada angkubah X^ sangat .ketara se-kali. Kita sepatutnya dapat meningkatkan ROI jika jualan setiap pekerja me-

44

ningkat, tetapi angkali X, yang negatif itu menyatakan sebaliknya. Ini mung-kin disebabkan adanya masalah Multicollinearity antara X, dengan X, (Un-tung Bersih Setiap Pekerja) iaitu korelasi r = 0.895.

Satu lagi masalah yang mungkin menyebabkannya ialah masalah Auto-correlation iaitu angkubah itu berkorelasi dengan angka-angka bagi Ang-kubah itu sendiri, iaitu angka-angka bagi firma lain. Tetapi dalam regressionini, masalah Autocorrelation yang biasanya dikenali dengan petunjuk Dur-bin — Watson (D.W), tak dapat diperlihatkan.

Selain dari itu, masalah atau kecacatan persamaan ini mungkin jugadisebabkan oleh data yang sangat terhad, iaitu hanya ada 6 peserta sahaja.Insya Allah, dengan penyertaan yang lebih ramai, persamaan regression iniakan lebih baik dan menghasilkan parameter dan ramalan yang lebih bermak-na.

Pemerhatian ke atas Persamaan-persamaan di Lampiran 9: Sektor PengangkutanDua persamaan yang akan diperkatakan di sini ialah (persamaan ke 3 dan ke 6 di

Lampiran 9):

a. Y = 20 22683 + 0.13154 X1 + 14.16603 X2 - 0.03774 X3(.809) (1.661) (-1.421)

R2 - 0.91421; F - 3.55225. ; SE = 2.284

b. Y = 37.04754 - 0.02997 X4 - 0.17588 - 0.84493D - 03(-0.389) (-2.22) (-.259)

R2 = 0.88088; F •» 2,4649; SE = 2.692

1. Dalam persamaan a, Angkubah-angkubah Penjelasnya mempunyaitanda seperti yang dijangkakan {positif bagi Untung Bersih (\) danPutaran Harta (XJ, negatif bagi Kos Langsung (Xjj),

2. Dalam persamaan b pula, kesemua angkubah mempunyai tanda negatifseperti yang disangka.

3. Tetapi bagi kedua-dua persamaan, nilai F nya lebih rendah dari F dalamjadual, menandakan kedua-duanya tiada 'overall significance .

4. Tidak satu pun dari Angkubah-angkubah kedua-kedua persamaan ituyang ada hubungan bermakna dengan kerana nilai t-nya juga rendah darinilai t dalam jadual.

Persamaan-persamaan di atas tidak dapat memberikan contoh pengang-garan yang baik kerana kurang maklumat dan banyak kecacatan.Nyata sekali, kekurangan data tidak dapat menghasilkan persamaanregression yang bermakna.

45

Seperti yang kita lihat dalam regression yang pertama di lampiran 7 de-ngan bilangan peserta yang lebih ramai (15), persamaan peranggaran yangdihasilkan adalah lebih bermakna dan dapat dipergunakan.

KESIMPULAN1. Program Perbandingan Antara Firma dapat memberi sumbangan yang

bermakna kepada usahawan sendiri untuk melihat kedudukan sendiridalam industri masing-masing. Kelemahan-kelemahan boleh dikenalpastidan tindakan pembetulan boleh diambil.

2. Bagi sektor pembuatan, ternyatalah Stok Kerja-kerja Dalam Proses (WIP)sangat perlu diminimakan seberapa boleh, kerana sudah terbukti firmayang paling berjaya (tinggi ROI nya) ialah yang mempunyai peratus WIPyang paling jauh di bawah paras sederhana, dan sebaliknya.

Ini ialah kesimpulan yang paling menonjol sekali bagi firma-firmapembuatan.

3. Kos bahan yang paling rendah di bawah paras sederhana ialah sebab yangutama bagi kejayaan firma-firma yang baik.

4. Kos Buruh juga memperlihatkan bukti yang sama seperti Kos Bahan.

5. Firma yang terbaik mempunyai Putaran Harta yang tinggi, kerana nilaiHarta Tetapnya (bagi tiap $1,000 jualan) adalah paling jauh di bawahparas sederhana. Harta Tetapnya paling aktif digunakan bagi mendatang-kan jualan.

6. Sebaliknya pula, Harta Semasa (bagi tiap-tiap $1,000 jualan} bagi firmaadalah diparas sederhana sahaja. Ini bertentangan dengan firma yangbaik, yang mempunyai Harta Semasa melebihi sederhana.

Tetapi firma yang baik mempunyai peratus Harta Semasa dari JumlahHarta yang tinggi menandakan operasi yang pesat. Begitulah sebalik-nya.

7. Paras simpanan stok barang siap (nampaknya lebih bergantung kepadapolisi firma sama ada menyimpan stok untuk menunggu penjualan, ataumengikut pesanan atau tempahan.

8. Berhubung dengan kaedah Multiple Regression, semakin ramai penyer-taan maka semakin baiklah persamaan peranggaran yang dihasilkan.Ramalannya pun lebih tepat dan boleh dipakai.

9. Memandangkan pentingnya diwujudkan NORMA yang khusus bagi tiap-tiap bidahg industri pembuatan, perdagangan atau perkhidmatan, maka

46

eloklah digalakkan kaedah P.A.F. ini ke semua bidang. Di negara kitabelum ada wujud 'Purata' atau 'Norma Industri'.

Kaedah ini patut diluaskan merangkumi pelbagai bidang dan pering-katindustri, (kecil, sederhana, besar).

Setelah ada standard, barulah pembaikan yang terus menerus dapatdibuat, dengan cara membanding prestasi diperingkat dalam negeri danjuga standard antarabangsa.

10. Lebih banyak lagi nisbah dan angka tunjuk prestasi dan produktivitidapat digunakan apabila kaedah ini diterima dan meluas.

47

LAMPIRAN l(a)

PENGGUNAAN SISTEM PUSAT MENGEKODUNTUK MEMELIHARA KERAHSIAAN MAKLUMAT

Borang maklumat yang telah dipenuhkan oleh peserta dimasukkan kedalam sampul surat yang dimeteraikan (sealed). Sampul ini dimasukkandalam satu sampul lagi sebelum di hantar ke Pusat Mengekod. Pusat Meng-ekod (pihak ketiga yang berkecuali dan dipercayai) menuliskan nombor kodke sampul pertama tadi dan menghantarkannya ke Pentadbir PAF (PDPN),dalam sampul surat lain.

Dengan cara ini, Pusat Mengekod hanya boleh mengenali firma pesertatetapi tidak mengetahui apa maklumatnya. Pihak PDPN pula tidak mengenalisiapakah firma yang menyertai, tetapi mengetahui dan memproses maklumat-nya, Dengan demikian, terselamatlah pengenalan dan kerahsiaan data pe-serta-peserta PAF.

Seterusnya, Pentadbir PAF akan memperoses data peserta-peserta yangterkumpul dengan mikrokomputer (software' Lotus 1-2-3 atau Symphony)dan menghasilkan senarai nisbah-nisbah kewangan dan angka-tunjuk prestasibagi setiap pekerja,

Maklumat ini beserta laporan-laporan lain akan dimasukkan ke dalamsatu sampul surat dengan nombor kod peserta dan dimeteraikan sebelumdihantar ke Pusat Mengekod. Pusat Mengekod pula menghantarkan sampulitu tanpa dibuka, terus ke firma peserta di alamat masing-masing.

48

LAMPIRAN l(b)

SISTEM ALIRAN MAKLUMAT YANG MEMELIHARA KERAHSIAAN

FIRMA PESERTA.

MAKLUMATASAL DALAMSAMPUL YANGDIMETERAI

PUSAT MENGEKODMEMBUKA SAMPULLUAR SAHAJA.NORBOR KODDITULISKANDI SAMPULBERMETERAI

PUSAT MENGEKOD

PENTADBIRPROGRAM P. A. F.

KEPUTUSANP.A.F. DALAMSAMPUL YANGDIMETERAI

SAMPUL BERMETERAIDENGAN NOMBOR KODDIHANTAR KE PUSAT

MENGEKOD, YANGTERUSMEMASUKKANNYAKE DALAMSAMPUL LAINYANG BERALAMATPESERTA.PUSAT INI TIDAKMEMBUKA SAMPULKEPUTUSAN.

PENTADBIR P.A.F, MEMBUKA SAMPUL BERMETERAI,MEMPROSES MAKLUMAT ASAL, MEMASUKKANKEPUTUSAN KE DALAM SAMPUL BERMETERAI,DENGAN NOMBOR KOD.

49

LAMPIRAN2a

PRESTASI FIRMA-FIRMA MENGIKUT NISBAH-NISBAH (DALAM %}

NISBAH-NISBAH

PULANGAN ATAS HARTA KENDALIAN

1. Untung Kendalian /Harta Kendalian %

BAHAGIAN UNTUNG DARI JUALAN2. Untung Kendalian/Jualan %

PUTARAN HARTA3. Jualan/Harta Kendalian (kali)

NISBAH KOS AM ( % DARI JUALAN)4. Kos Pengeluaran5. Kos Penyelidikan & Perkembangan6. Kos Agihan & Pemasaran7. Kos Pentadbiran

KOS PENGELUARAN ( % DARI JUALAN)8. Kos Bahan9. Kos Buruh

10. Lain-lain Kos. Pengeluaran11. Nilai Kerja sab-kontrak

FIRMA-FIRMA PESERTA

A

25.1

19.0

1.32

62.8.5

10.96.8

3216.514.3

B

23.9

19.9

1.20

63.51.0

11.64.0

28.722.112.7

C

18.9

15.1

1.25

71.1.9

4.78.2

33,923.214

-

D

16.1

9.9

1.63

74.7JLZ7.27.5

30.128.39.27.1

E

13.3*

10.3

1.29

72.50.76.2

10.3

39.715.710.46.7

F

13.2

11.5

1.15

71.91.15.89.7

31.624.111.34.9

G

8.8

8.7

1.01

; 75.4

' 1.47.37.2

33.624.811.45.6

H

7.9

8.9

0.90

77 '.4-

4.69.1

34.727.415.3

"

I

4.1

4.7

0.87

80.20.26-4 .,8.5

35.828.915.5

"

Olo

*Paras sederhana (nilai yang di tengah-tengah sekali diantara nilai yang tertinggi dan terendah)

MAKLUMAT INI TIDAK DIBAHAGIKAN KEPADA PESERTADALAM PROGRAM PAF YANG SEBENAR

(Sambungan Lampiran 2a)

NISBAH-N1SBAH

JUMLAH HARTA-HARTA KENDALIAN SEMASADAN TETAP (SBAGI TIAP-TIAP $1000 JUALAN)

3a. Harta Kendalian12. Harta Semasa13. Harta Tetap

BUTIR-BUTIR HARTA SEMASA(SBAGI TIAP $1000 JUALAN)14. Stok Bahan15. Kerja Dalam Proses (WIP) (Barang Separuhsiap)16. Stok Barang Slap17. Hutang Pelanggan

BUTIR-BUTIR HARTA TETAP($ BAG! TIAP $1000 JUALAN)IS. TanaK dan Bangunan19. Alat Perkakas & Jentera20. Harta-harta Tetap yang lain

FIRMA-FIRMA PESERTA

A

758465293

8043

132210

130160

3

B

833581352

11040

102229

158189

5

C •

800412388

8166347

221

194190

4

D

613350263

796237

172

169895

E

775369m

688339

179

2Q8194

4

F

869449420

9210645

206

214203

3

G

990549441

10016844

217

311123

7

H

1.111582529

-

10122553

203

277246

6

I

1.149606541

J§224557

204

268264

9

Cfl

LAMPlRAN2b

Y

25.124.323.918.916.11513.313.211.028.88.47.95.224.13.04

\

191819.915.19.911.210.311.59.58.778.96

4.73.8

X2

1.321.351.21.251.631.341.291.151.161.011.2

.90.870.870.8

x,

62.863.163.571.174.773.372.571.974.475.47677.478.580.281.2

*4

16.514.622.123.228.313.615.724.19.924.810.227.415.428.915.7

X,

293241352388263320m420420441460529510541580

\

436540636270.82106140188210225230245120

X,

89091095096389996810529048808459261003940856820

**

539452004299415131774225670137513550340035803660343029622828

x,

366834O%3052274020012882355123632180207422192379211278961719

*iO

20.317.215.722.211.215.225.69.39.710.49.28.78.58.38

•\i

24652150172817538582020223819511665115618992309210217361656

to

Maklumat unbuk 15 firma ini sebenarnya diujudkan berdasarkan maklumat bagi 9 firma yang asal saperti di Lampiran 2a. Dengan bilangan firmayang lebih banyak, keputusan analisis regression adalah lebih bermakna. Angkubah-angkubah berkenaan ialah:

Y = Pulangan ke atas Pelaboran\ = Uniting BersihXj = Putaran HartaX-j = Kos PengeluaranX4 = Kos BuruhXj = Harta Tetap Hap $1000 jualanXfe = Kerja-dalam-prosesX7 = Kos Buruh setiap Pekerja

Xg = Nilai Pengeluaran setiap PekerjaX, = Nilai Nilai Ditambah setiap PekerjaXyj = Jualan setiap kaki persegiXjj = Darjah Penggunaan Mesin

LAMPIRAN 3

PROGRAM PERBANDINGAN ANTARA FIRMA (PAF)Senaral Nisbah Firma Anda disamping

Prestasi Tertinggi, Sederhana, Terendah

Senarai Nisbah-Nisbah

PULANGAN KE ATAS PELABORAN (ROI)1. Untung Kendalian/Harta Kendalian (%)

PERATUS UNTUNG KE ATAS JUALAN2. Untung Kendalian /Jualan (%)

PUTARANHARTA3. Jualan /Harta Kendalian (kali)

NISBAH-NISBAH KOS AMNYA(•dari Jualan)

4. Kos Pengeluaran5. Penyelidikan & Pembangunan (R & D)6. Kos-kos Pemasaran dan Agihan7. Kos Pentadbiran

KOS PENGELUARAN(• dari jualan)

8. Kos Bahan Langsung9. Kos Buruh Langsung

10. Kos-kos Pengeluaran Yang Lain11. Kos Kerja Sabkontrak

JUMLAH HARTA-HARTA($ dalam tiap-tiap $1,000 Jualan)12. Harta Kendalian13. Harta Semasa14. Harta Tetap

BUTIR-BUTIR HARTA SEMASA($ dalam tiap-tiap $1,000 fualan)15. Stok Bahan Mentah16. Stok Kerja dalam Proses (separuh siap)17. Stok Barang-barang Siap18. Akaun Akan Terima (Hutang Pelanggan)

BUTIR-BUTIR HARTA TETAP($ dalam tiap-tiap $1 , 000 Jualan)19. Tanah dan Bangunan20. Loji dan Jentera21. Harta-Harta Tetap yang lain

RrmaAnda

25.1

19

1.32

62.8.5

10.̂6.8'

3216.514.3

-

758465293

8043

132210

130160

3

Tertinggi

25.1

19.9

1.63

80.2*1.4

11.610.3

39.728.915,57.1

1149608541

110245132229

311264

9

Sederhana

13.3

10.3

• 1.2

72.50.7-6.48.2

33.624.112.75.2

833465406

828347

210

208190

5

Terendah

4.1

4.7

.87

62.80.24.64.0

28.715.79.24.9

613350263

684037

172

130893

Somber Rujukan: INGHAM, HERBERT and HARRINGTON, TAYLOR, InterfirmComparison, The Latest Techniques for ComparingBusiness Performance, London, Heinemann, 1980.

S3

LAMPIRAN4

NISBAH-NISBAH ASAS1 UNTUNG KENDALIAN = 25.1%

HARTA KENDALIAN

UNTUNG KENDALIANJUALAN

19% 3 JUALAN = (1.32 kali)HARTA KENDALIAN

3a H. KENDALIANJUALAN

$758

4 KOS PENGELUARANJUALAN

= 62.8%

KOS AGIHAN&PASARAN

JUALAN= 10.9%

12 HARTA SEMASA = 465JUALAN

13 HARTA TETAP - $293JUALAN

KOS PENYEUDIKAN& PERKEMBANGAN

JUALAN= 0.5%

KOSPENTADBIRAN

JUALAN= 6.8%

8 KOSBAHANJUALAN

= 32%

KOS BURUHJUALAN

- 16.5%

10 LAIN-LAINKOS PENGELUARAN

JUALAN= 14.3%

11 KERJA SAB-KONTREK

JUALAN

18 TANAH&BANGUNAN

JUALAN

= $130

1 STOKBAHANJUALAN

= $80

19 ALAT 20 LAIN-LAINPERKAKAS & HARTA TETAPJENTERA

JUALAN= $160 = $3

JUALAN

1 1 E.15 KERJA 16 STOK 17 HUTANG

DALAM BARANGPROSES SIAP

JUALAN JUALAN- $43 $132

PELANGGAJUALAN

= $210

PRESTASI SYARIKAT-SYARIKAT MELEBIHI (+) ATAUKURANG DARI PARAS SEDERHANA DALAM %

LAMPIRANSa

tn

PULANGAN ATAS HARTA

PULANGAN ATAS HARTA1. Untung Kendaiian/Harta Kendalian %

BAHAG1AN UNTUNG DARI JUALAN2. Untung Kendalian/Jualan %

PUTARAN HARTA3. Jualan/Harta Kendalian (kaki)

NISBAH KOS AM (% DARI JUALAN)4. Kos Pengeluaran5. KOS Penyelidikan & Perkembangan6. Kos Agihan & Pemasaran7. Kos Pentadbiran

KOS PENGELUARAN (% DARI JUALAN}8. KosBahan9. KosBuruh10. Lain-Iain Kos Pengeluaran11. Nilai kerja sub-kontrek

A B C D

88.7' 79.7 42.1 21.0

84.5

10

93.2 46.6

4.2

-3.9

35.8 7.5

F G H I

0.75 -33.8 -40.6 -69.2

11.7

-4.2

-15.5

-15.8

-13.6

-25

-54.4

-27.5

-13.3-28.670.3

-17.1

-4.76-31.512.6

-

-12.442.881.3

-51.2.

-14.6-8.3

0-

-1.9328.6

-26.60

-0.89-3.7310.2

-

3.03012.5

-8.54

10.417.4

-27.615.4

00

'-3.1325.6

18.2-34.8-18.1

8.9

0.8357.1

-9.3818.3

-5.950

-11.0-20.3

410014.0

• -12.2

01.66

-10.2-S.9

6.76-

-28.110.9

3.313.7-20.5

_

10.6-71.4

03.66

6.5519.922.0

_

Nota-nota: a Prestasi ROI Firma A di atasParas Scderhana - 25.1 - 13.3 X 100

13.3

b. Maklumat-maklumat dari Lampiran 2a:ROI Firma A = 25.1%

88-7%* ROI Firma E =13.3%(13.3% ialah nilai yang ditengah sekali)

DJUMLAH HARTA HARTA KENDAUAN SEMASA& TETAP (S BAG! T1AP $1,000 JUALAN)

•3a. Harta Kendalian12. Harta Semasa13. Harta Tetap

BUT1R-BUTIR HARTA SEMASA($ BAGI HAP $1,000 JUALAN)14. Stok Bahan15. Kerja Dalam Proses16. Stok Barang Siap17. Hutang Pelanggan

BUTIR-BUTIR HARTA TETAP($ BAGI HAP $1,000 JUALAN)18. Tanah & Bangunan19. AJat Perkakas & Jentera20. Lain-lain Harta Tetap

PRESTASl FIRMA-FIRMA MELEBIHI (+ )/KURANG (- ) DARIPADA PARAS SEDERHANA

(Satnbungan Lampiran 5a)

G H I

-90

-27.8

-2.4-48.2180

0

-37.5-15.8-40

03.4

-13.3

34.1-51.8117

9.0

-24.0-0.50

-4-11.4-4.43

-1.2-24.1

05.2

6.730

-20

-26.4-24.7-35.2

-3.6-25.3-21.3-18.1

-18-.8-53.1

0

-7-20.6

0

-17.00

-17.0-14.8

02.1

-20

4.33.4

-3.4

12.227.7-4.31.9

2.96.8

-40

18.818.08.62

21.9126.5

-5.43.3

49.535.240

33.425.130.3

23.117112.8-3i3

33.129.520

3830.7.33.3

019521.36.6

28.o38.980

Lampiran 5b

Y2

88.779.742.121.00

-75-33.8-40.6-69.2

XI

84.593.246.6-3.90

11.7-15.5-13.6-54.4

X2

1004.2

35.87.5

-4.2-15.8-25-27.5

X3

-13.3-12.4-1.933.03

00.83

46.76

10.6

X4

-31.5-8.3-3.7317.4

-34.801.66

13.719.9

X5

-27.8-13.3-4.43

-35.20

-3.48.62

30.333.3

X6

-48.2-51.8-24.1-25.3

027.7

126.5171195

X7

-1.5+ 5.1+ 6.5

-0.5+ 16.4

0-«.5

+ 11-5.3

X8

43.814.610.7

-15.378.60

-9.4-2.4

-21

X9

54.228.315.2

-15.949.3-0.7

-12.80

-20.3

X10

81.340.2980

128.6-16.9

7.122.325.9

Xll

37.5-3.60

-52.124.88.8

-35.528.8-3.0

Maklumat ini berdasarkan mahlumat di lampiran 2b

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LAMPIRAN6(A)CARTA1

PROGRAM PERBANDINGAN ANTARA F1RMA

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Untung Bersih dari Jualan dan Putaran Harta

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LAMPIRAN 6b

melebihi Paras Sederhana

PROGRAM PERBANDINGAN ANTARA FIRMACarta Menunjukkan Prestasi Fjrma PesertaDari Aspek Perhubungan antara Kos Buruh danSeparuh Siap dengan Pulangan ke atas Pelaburan,Untung Bersih dari Jualan dan Putaran Harta.

FIRMA

PARAS

SEDERHANA

I

KETERANGAN:

1

55 J,11^,^Z~—

PUTARAN HARTA

UNTUNG BERSIH DARI JUALAN

PULANGAN KE ATAS PELABURAN

KOS BURUH

STOK BARANGAN SEPARUH SIAP (WIP)

TOH PRESTASING RENDAH

PARASSEDERHANA

C/l

FIRMA A

I

CARTA 3

PROGRAM PERBANDINGAN ANTARA FIRMACarta Menunjukkan Prestasi Firma Peserta Dari Aspek PerhubunganAntara Harta Tetap, Harta Semasa dan Stok Barangan Siap denganPulangan ke atas Pelaburan, Untung Bersih dari Jualan danPutaran Harta.

LAMPIRAN6c

FIRMA F

\Harta Semasadi Paras

Sederhana

CONTOH PRESTASITERBAIK

CONTOH PRESTASISEDERHANA

PARAS

SEDERHANA

CONTOH PRESTASIPALING RENDAH

KETERANGAN:PUTARAN HARTA

UNTUNG BERSIH DARI JUALAN

PULANGAN KE ATAS PELABURAN

HARTA TETAP

HARTA SEMASA

STOK BARANG SIAP

LAMPIRAN 6d

PROGRAM PERBANDINGAN ANTARA FIRMA (PAF)KESIMPULAN DARI CARTA-CARTA 1-3

Carta 1: Perbandingan Prestasi Firma dengan Kos Bahan1. Didapati Firma yang terbaik mempunyai Pulangan ke atas Pelaboran

(ROI) dan Untung Bersih dari jualan yang jauh melebihi paras medianatau purata (sederhana).

Putaran Hartanya pun paling tinggi di atas paras median, manakalaFirma F dan I putaran hartanya dibawah median.

2. Firma yang sederhana sahaja prestasinya mempunyai Untung Bersih saha-ja melebihi median sedikit, putaran harta dan pulangan ke atas pelaburanadalah di bawah median (paras sederhana). Bagaimanapun prestasi FirmaF adalah di paras median (sederhana).

3. Prestasi Firma yang terendah ternyata lemah sekali, semuanya jauh dibawah paras sederhana.

Apabila dikaitkan dengan Kos Bahan dapat dikatakan Firma A mem-punyai prestasi yang terbaik disebabkan (satu daripada sebabnya) KosBahan yang lebih rendah daripada paras median. Bagi Firma F juga KosBahannya sama-sama dibawah median, tetapi prestasinya sederhana saja.Sebab-sebabnya boleh dicari lagi dari petunjuk-petunjuk/nisbah-nisbahyang lain pula.

Firma I ternyata merosot prestasinya disebabkan Kos Bahan yangtinggi, melewati paras median.

Carta 2: Perbandingan Prestasi Firma-Firma dengan Kos Buruhdan Kerja Dalam Proses (Separuh Siap)

1. Didapati firma yang terbaik prestasinya mempunyai Kos Buruh yangpaling rendah sekali di bawah paras median, dibanding dengan firma-firma lain. Nilai kerja separuh siapnya (WIP) juga jauh di bawah median.Dengan itu, wang tak terikat di dalam stok kerja separuh siap itu menye-babkan kurang kos faedah bank, stor dll.

2. Firma yang sederhana prestasinya mempunyai kos buruh betul-betuldiparas median, manakala kerja separuh siapnya adalah melebihimedian sedikit.

3. Firma yangt paling rendah prestasinya mempunyai Kos Buruh yang ter-tinggi sekali (lebih daripada median) dan kerja Separuh Siapnya yangsangat jauh melewati median (195% melebihi median).

Carta 3: Perbandingan Prestasi Firma dengan Harta Tetap,Harta Semasa dan Stok Barang Siap

1. Firma yang terbaik memperlihatkan Putaran Harta yang jauh di atasmedian, kerana Harta Tetapnya jauh sekali di bawah paras median. Harta

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semasanya betul-betul berada diparas median. (Ini mengurangkan wangterikat dalam stok harta semasa dan kos-kos yang terlibat dengannya).

Firma A pula didapati menyimpan stok barang siap yang terlalutinggi. Barangkali ini baik untuknya sentiasa bersedia untuk melariskanjualan dan menyenangkan pelanggan. Mungkin juga dasar syarikat ialahmengeluarkan barang-barang untuk di stok.

Pulangan ke atas Pelaburan sangat tinggi kerana Putaran Hartanyayang tinggi dan peratus Untung Bersih yang amat tinggi juga.

Perkara yang menarik perhatian sekali ialah disamping stok Barang-siap yang paling tinggi, harta semasanya masih diparas median. Barang-kali disebabkan harta-harta semasa yang lain sangat rendah di bawahmedian (seperti Barang Separuh Siap dan Stok Bahan), dan hutang pe-lahggan yang betul-betul diparas median.

2. Firma yang sederhana prestasinya (F) mempunyai Untung Bersih terlebihsedikit daripada median, dan Putaran Harta dan Pulangan ke atas Pe-laburan yang di bawah median sedikit. Harta Tetap dan Stok BarangSiap juga terkebawah sedikit daripada paras median, manakala HartaSemasa hanya terlebih sedikit daripada median. Kebanyakannya adalahsangat rapat disekitar paras median.

3. Firma yang paling rendah prestasinya (I) memperlihatkan ciri-ciri yangbertentangan dengan ciri-ciri firma yang terbaik. Putaran Hartanyasangat rendah di bawah median. Lantaran Harta Tetapnya (juga HartaSemasa) terlalu tinggi di atas paras median. Dipercayai Pulangan ke atasPelaburannya jatuh sekali kerana Putran Harta yang lemah (juga UntungBersih yang rendah, yang telah disebabkan oleh Kos Bahan dan Buruhyang tinggi, atau mungkin juga kos-kos lain).

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VARIABLE

MULTIPLE R

R SQUARE

ADJUSTED RSQUARESTANDARD

ERROR

ANALYSIS OFVARIANCE

(S) ENTERED ON STEP

.99235

.98475

.97331 REGRESSION

1.19441 RESIDUAL

NUMBER 6.. V2 XI

DF SUM OF MEAN SQUARESQUARE

6 737.00030 122.833388 11.41291 1.42661

86.10133 SIGNIF F .0000

NPC-ABDUL RAHMANFILE CPC00001 (CREATION DATE 2/28/1986)

VARIABLES IN THE EQUATION

VARIABLEV4V3V7V5V6(CONSTANT)

B-.863332.06474-.01891.11641

-.00941.01651

77.59859

SEE.13117

4.74686.00974.06071.01277.02426

7.24873

BETA-.69548.06453

-.19222.10334

-.13307.04397

TSIGT-6.582.0002

.435.6751-1.940.08831.918.0914-.737.4824.6815153

10.705.0000FOR BLOCK NUMBER POUT 2.200 LIMITS REACHED.

(PRINTOUT UNTUK PERSAMAAN PERTAMA,DILAMPIRKAN 7b)

MULTIPLE R

R SQUARE

ADJUSTER RSQUARESTANDARD

VARIABLEV5V4V3V2

(CONSTANT)

.99983 ANALYSIS OFVARIANCE

.99966 DF

.99830 REGRESSION

.53254 RESIDUAL

F 737.05838 SIGNIF F .0276

VARIABLES IN THE EQUATION

B SEB.00159 .4195D-03

--15639D-03 .3687D-0410.82755 .749271.07130 .15224

SUM OF MEAN SQUARE

836.10187 209,02547

.28359

-12.63568 1.93668

FOR BLOCK NUMBER 1 POUT 2.200 LIMITS REACHED.

.28359

BETA.54852

-.40343.58116

.49162

T3.779

-4.24214.451

7.037-6.524

SIGT.1647.1474.0440

.0899

.0968

(Printout untuk persamaan cti baris 4. (Lampiran 8)

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LAMPIRANTb

PERSAMAAN-PERSAMAAN REGRESSION

GJ

PersamaanPertama

PersamaanKedua

PersamaanKetiga

PersamaanKeempat

ROI Angkatap Untung% Bersih

Y1 = 77.59859 + 0.0165lXj(0.681)

PutaranHarta

+ 2.06474X2(0.435)

Kos "Pengeluaran

- 086333X3(-6.582)

Kerja dim. „, cKos H31*3 ProsesBuruh Tetap (WIP)

+ 0.11641X4 - 0.00941X5 - 0.018*0^ 0.98475 89.1(1.918) (-0.737) (-1-94;

PERATUS MELEBIHI/KURANG DARI PARAS SEDERHANA

ROI Angkatap UntungBersih

V2 3.71804 + 0.63016XJ(1.14) (4.37)

HartaTetap

Y, - 33.15291 + 0.25861Xs(3.183) (0.448)

PutaranHarta

+ 0.92433X2(8.575)

KerjaDalamProses

- 0.4716X6(-3. 02)

KosPengeluaran

- 0.02984X3-0.0819

Kos BuruhSeHapPekerja

+ .0612X7(.017)

Nilai Ditambah Darjah PenggunaanSeHap Pekerja Mesin

Y = -1.406 + 3.01931X,2 (4.6)

- .S2962X10(-1.14)

KosBuruh R2 F

- 0.72532X4 0.99914 289.95-2.217

NilaiPengeluaranSetiapPekerja

+ 0.9379Xg 0.98809 41.48(3.138)

Jualan SetiapKaki Persegi

- .59136X,,-1.002 0-977 14

PERSAMAAN-PERSAMAAN REGRESSIONSEKTOR MEMPROSES MAKANAN

LAMPIRAN8

Variable(Angkubah)YangdiregresskankepadaY

X4 dengan Y

X3; \ dgn. Y

*2; X3; X,,dgn. Y

X^ X2; X3; X4dengan Y

X6 dengan Y

X&; X? denganY

x^x^x,dgn. Y

\; Xj dgn. Y

x^x^Xsdgn. Y

\; X2; X^; Xjdengan Y

Angkatap(Constant)

4.34896

6.38434

44202

-12.63568

5.70979

1.74426

- 3.45245

12.10691

9.27302

-11.5695

PeratusUntungBersihdariJualan\

1.07130

1.22298

PutaranHarta

X2 '

6.96148

10.82755

3.20601

10.17929

JualanSetiapPekerja

X3

-0.29315D-03

-0.38607D-03

-0.15639D-03

UntungBersihPekerja

X4

0.00259

0.00454

0.0042

0.00159

0.00488

0.00460

0.00127

JumlahHartaSetiapPekerja

X5

.76376D-O3

-0.81495D-03

- .83594D-03

-0.27800D-03

JumlahKosPengeluaranSetiapPekerjaX6

0.00239

0.00213

JumlahPerbelanjaanKendalianSetiapPekerjaX,

0.35527D-03

-.00976

0.0160

R2

0.80189

0.21957

0.98287

0.99966

0.45058

0.94728

0.97033

0.95167

0.9675

0.99894

F

16.191

17.14956

38.25080

737.05838

3.28039

26.95183

21.80579

29.53375

19.84555

235.55673

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

LAMPIRAN9

Persamaan-persamaan RegressionSektor Pengangkutan

Angkubah(Variable)yang diregresskankepada Y

X3dgn.Y

*2-, X3; dgn. Y

Xj; X2; X3

dgn.Y

Xs;dgn.Y

X4; Xg dgn. Y

X5; X,; X,;dgn.Y

ROAY<%)

Y=

Y=

Y=

Y=

Y=

•Y=

Angkatap

(Constant)

26.13852

33.15728

20.22683(1.096)

28.79572

30.13076

37.04754(1.306)

PeratusUntungBersihx,

0.13154(.809)

PutaranHarta*2

11.8875

14.6603(1.661)

KosLangsungX3

-0.03468

-0.05365

-0.03774(-1.421)

KosBuruhX4

-0.01052

-0.02997(-.389)

KostakLang$ungXs

-.19371

-0.18151

-0.17588(-2.22)

Harta Tetapbagi Hap$1,000HasilX6

-0.84493D-03(-.259)

^

0.67104

0.85812

0.91421

0.83105

0.87287

0.88088

F

6.11961

6.04833

3.55225

14.75708

6.86602

2.46491

KAEDAH ISLAM DALAMMENYELESAIKANTANAH TERBIAR

OLEH SYED OMAR SYED AGILUniversiti Islam Antarabangsa

'̂ BfODATA

Lahir di Wadi Hassan, Johor Baharu pada tahun 1960.Mendapat didikan awal di Sekolah Rendah IskandarShah, Pontian Kecil, Johor pada tahun 1967. Tahun1972 berpindah ke Sekolah Sultan Abdullah Kuantan,Pahang dan sewaktu tingkatan I beliau berpindahke Sekolah Menengah Air Putih Kuantan. Selepastiga tahun di Air Putih, beliau berpindah ke SekolahMenengah Sultan Abu Dakar, Kuantan sebelumberpeluang memasuki Sekolah Menengah Sains Pahanghingga tingkatan Lima.

Pengalaman BekerjaPada tahun 1978 beliau dihantar ke Amerika Syarikat untuk melanjutkan pelajarannya

di Northern Illinois University hingga mendapat Masters pada tahun 1984 di dalam bidangekonomi. Sekembalihya^ dari Amerika beliau telah mengajar dan membuat kelas-kelasbimbingan dibeberapa tempat sebelum bertugas dijUIA.

Beliau meminati ekonomi Islam sewaktu menuntut di Amerika melalui pembacaan danceramah-ceramah yang dihadiri di sana. Sekarang menjawat sebagai pensyarah di FakultiEkonomi Universiti Islam Antarabangsa, Petaling Jaya.

(1) PANDANGAN ISLAM TERHADAP TANAHIslam membuat penegasan bahawa tanah dan segala sumber asli yang

lain adalah kepunyaan mutlak Allah s.w.t, yang diberikan kepadamanusia untuk dipergunakan sebagai alat produksi berdasarkan kepadakehendak pemilik yang mutlak itu. Ini bermaksud di antara lain bahawamanusia diberikan peranan sebagai pemagang amanah kepada sumber-sumber tersebut, termasuk tanah, di mana apabila manusia memperguna-kan kombinasi akal dan tenaganya, maka dapatlah ia menghasilkan sesuatudaripada sumber-sumber tersebut. Hasil-hasil daripada usahanya inilahyang membolehkannya hidup dan melaksanakan tanggung-jawabnyasebagai hamba Allah dengan lebih sempurna. Oleh itu tugas manusiasebagai pemegang amanah berhubung dengan penggunaan tanah adalahuntuk memakmurkan kesemua tanah yang diperolehinya.

"Dan apakah tnereka tidak memperhatikan bahawasanya kami meng-halau (awan yang mengandung) air ke bumi yang tandus, lain kamitumbuhkan dengan air hujan itu tanam-tanaman yang daripadanya dapatmakan binatang ternak mereka dan mereka sendiri, Maka apakah merekatidak memperhatikan 1 (Surah As-Sajdah, Ayat 27).

Ayat ini juga dengan jelas mengenal past! tanah sebagai alat produksi

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yang penting bagi mengeluarkan berbagai tanaman yang bermanfaatuntuk kegunaan manusia dan binatang-binatang ternakan.

(2) PENYELESAIAN TANAHTERBIARMasalah tanah terbiar di Semenanjung Malaysia adalah satu masalah

yang amat ketara yang memerlukan kepada penyelesaian yang tepat danberkesan. Kejadian tanah terbiar di Semenanjung Malaysia dianggarkanseluas 900,000 hektar, yang mana hampir 161,000 hektar darinya terdiridari tanah-tanah sawah (Dr. Sahak Mamat, Utusan Malaysia 16/7/85).Ini sudah tentu menjejaskan produktiviti sektor pertanian, yang di ketahuiumum mempunyai produktiviti yang paling rendah dibandingkan dengansektor-sektor ekonomi yang lain.

Islam menyelesaikan masalah tanah terbiar ini dengan menyediakangaris panduan dan syarat-syarat pemilikan tanah yang wajib dipatuhi olehsetiap pemilik tanah untuk memastikan bahawa hak untuk memilih tanahtersebut tidak dimansuhkan. Syarat-syarat tersebut ialah seperti berikut:-

(i) Tidak ada tuntutan hak milik sebelumnya.(ii) Penggunaan secara produktif dan berterusan.

(iii) Tidak menggunakan tenaga orang lain, walaupun jika dibayarupah, di dalam proses pengambilan tersebut.

(iv) Tidak melanggarkan prinsip persamaan peluang. (1)Jika dikaji dan diteliti sehalus-halusnya kita akan dapati bahawa

syarat-syarat tersebut bukan hanya mengatasi masalah tanah terbiardengan mempastikan bahawa setiap inci tanah yang berada di tanganseseorang individu dapat dieksploitasikan secara berterusan dan sepenuh-nya, tetapi juga di samping itu, kesan daripada syarat-syarat tersebut,produktiviti tanah pertanian dapat di pertingkatkan. Ini adalah keranasetiap usaha seorang individu ke atas tanahnya dan hasil daripada usaha-nya akan dinilai samada ianya produktif ataupun tidak. Sekiranya setelahdibuat penilaian, didapati bahawa hasil tanah tersebut tidak produktifmaka kerajaan sepatutnya membuat penyelidikan dan mengenal pastisebab-sebabnya. Sekiranya didapati bahawa sebabnya adalah di atasmasalah kewangan atau masalah-masalah lain sepertikekurangan bahan penyubur tanaman (baja dan sebagainya), dan tidakada sistem pengairan yang baik, maka kerajaan bertanggung-jawabmemberi bantuan dengan kelengkapan-kelengkapan yang diperlukan.Sekiranya didapati bahawa di antara sebab-sebabnya adalah keranamasalah pengusaha tanah itu sendiri yang enggan atau tidak berdayamengusahakannya maka kerajaan berhak memindahkan tanah tersebutkepada mereka yang sanggup dan bersungguh mengerjakannya. Denganini pengagihan semula tanah dapat dilaksanakan dengan teratur dansistematik agar setiap individu yang bersungguh-sungguh yang berupayasahaja yang diberi hak memiliki tanah. Dengan cara ini:-(1) Masalah tanah terbiar dapat diatasi.

(1) Ekonomi Islam, Dr. Monzer Kahf, M.S. 34.

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(2) Pengumpulan tanah yang melampau di'kalangan segelintir manusiadapat dihapuskan.

(3) Peningkatan produktiviti pertanian.

Masalah tanah terbiar ini pernah berlaku di zaman Khalifah'Umar Al-Khattab dan beliau telah mengatasi masalah ini berdasarkankepada prinsip-prinsip tersebut. Rasulullah s.a.w. semasa hayat bagindapernah memberikan tanah Al-Aqiq kepada Bilal. Di waktu 'Umarmemerintah beliau telah berkata kepada bilal:

"Sesungguhnya Rasulullah s.a.w. tidak memutuskan anda untukmencegah orang banyak, tapi ia putuskan anda untuk bekerja. Makaambilah yang anda mampu memakmurkannya dan kembalikanselebihnya" .<2>

Rasulullah s.a.w. telah memberi tempuh tiga tahun kepada individuyang mempunyai tanah untuk mengusahakannya. Dan sekirartya tanahtersebut tidak dimakmurkan tiga tahun berturut-turut maka orang lainakan diberi hak untuk memiliki tanah tersebut, Beliau telah bersabda:

"Tidak ada hak bagi seorang pemagar sesudah masa tiga tahun".(3)

(3) INSENTIF UNTUK BERUSAHAIslam telah menyediakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga insentif; untuk

menggalakkan individu-individu berusaha dengan gigih terhadap tanahyang mereka perolehi, iaitu:-

(i) Pemulihan tanah(ii) Kadar 'ushr yang rendah

(iii) Pengharaman Mukhabara

PEMULIHAN TANAHIslam memberi peluang pada setiap individu untuk memiliki tanah

dengan menyediakan insentif untuk mendapatkan hak tersebut sekiranyaia berusaha untuk menerokai tanah yang belum dimiliki oleh sesiapa. Apayang perlu individu tersebut (yang berminat untuk menceburi bidangpertanian) lakukan ialah mengkombinasikan akal dan tenaganya untukmembersihkan kawasan tanah tersebut agar ianya dapat digunakan dansesuai untuk aktiviti ekonomi yang berkaitan dengan pertanian dan aktivitilain yang produktif. Tanah tersebut akan menjadi haknya dan berterusanmenjadi haknya selagi ia mematuhi keempat-empat syarat pemilikan yangtelah disebutkan. Tetapi ini tidak akan menjadi suatu halangan kepadaindividu tersebut kerana yang berusaha untuk menerokai sebidang tanahdan membersihkannya sudah tentu akan memastikan bahawa segala titik-

(2) Sistem Ekonomi Islam, Prinsip-prinsip dan tujuannya, oleh Dr. Ahmad MuhammadAl'Assal dan Dr. Fathi Ahmad Abdul Karim, M.S. 103.

(3) Ibid.

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peluhnya akan mendatangkan hasil yang lumayan dan tidak akanmembazir begitu sahaja. Pengawasan daripada pihak kerajaan adalah amatdiperlukan untuk memastikan bahawa individu-individu yang berusahamenerokai tanah tersebut menerima bantuan yang sewajarnya untukmeneruskan rancangannya memulihkan tanah tersebut.

KADAR 'USHR YANG RENDAH

Sistem ekonomi tidak dapat dipisahkan daripada sistem politik dalamsesebuah negara Islam. Ini dapat diperhatikan dengan jelas kalau kitamengkaji insentijf yang disediakan melalui 'Ushr. 'Ushr adalah sejenis zakatyang dikenakan ke atas hasil tanaman daripada tanah yang diusahakanoleh petani Islam. Rasulullah s.a.w, semasa hayat baginda telah menentu-kan kadar 'Ushr berdasarkan kepada cara sesuatu bidang tanah itu diairi.Rasulullah s.a.w. pernah bersabda yang diriwayatkan oleh Bukharibahawa tanah yang diairi oleh hujan atau sungai di kenakan 'Ushrsebanyak 1/10 daripada hasil tanaman dari tanah tersebut, manakalatanah yang diairi oleh sistem pengairan buatan manusia dikenakan 'Ushrsebanyak 1/20 daripada hasil tanaman. Para ahliFiqh telah memberikansebab-sebab mengapa dikenakan 'Ushr sebanyak 1/20 daripada hasiltanaman dari tanah yang diairi oleh sistem pengairan buatan manusia.Mereka mengatakan bahawa tanah tersebut memerlukan lebih banyaktenaga dan modal untuk mengairinya, daripada tanah yang disuburkanoleh air hujan dan sebagainya.

Kaedah pembayaran seperti ini amatlah sesuai sekali dengan konsepkeadilan yang menjadi asas kepada sistem ekonomi Islam. Kaedah sepertiini dengan sendirinya menjadi' insentif kepada individu-individu yangmengusahakan tanah supaya tidak menyerah bulat-bulat kepada takdirIlahi untuk menyuburkan tanah, tetapi berusaha untuk menyediakansistem pengairan yang teratur dan berkesan agar tanaman-tanaman dapatdiairi walaupun tiba untuk menghadapi musim kemarau.

Kesan daripada insentif-insentif ini ialah wujudnya satu sistempenggunaan tanah pertanian yang teratur dan sistematik beserta dengansistem pengairan yang lengkap menggantikan tanah-tanah yang terbiardan kering kontang, dan seterusnya meninggikan produktiviti sektorpertanian. la juga dapat menyelamatkan berjuta-juta ringgit yang di-gunakan untuk mengimpot bahan-bahan makanan bagi memenuhikeperluan hidup rakyat.

PENGHARAMAN MUKHABARA

Mukhabara ialah menyewakan tanah di mana penyewa tanah di-mestikan menyediakan benih selain daripada usaha dan tenaganyamengerjakan tanah tersebut dengan perjanjian bahawa hasil tanah tersebutakan dibahagikan bersama dengan tuan puny a tanah. Setengah para

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Mujtahidin telah berpendapat bahawa hukumnya adalah ha ram.'41 Inisesuai dengan pandangan Islam terhadap tanah dan konsep perkongsiankeuntungan dalam apa-apa perniagaan. Oleh kerana Mukhabara adalahsatu bentuk perjanjian dalam perniagaan maka kedua-dua pihak yangterlibat, pemilik tanah dan penyewa tanah, hanislah penghadapi risikomasing-masing untuk mengeluarkan hasil daripada tanah tersebut. Pemiliktanah tidak sepatutnya memperolehi sebahagian daripada hasil tanahtersebut dengan hanya menyediakan tanah untuk diusahakan oleh pe-nyewa, atas dasar bahawa tanah tersebut bukanlah hak mutlaknya tetapiadalah hak mutlak Allah s.w.t. yang Maha Pencipta.

Oleh itu menyediakan tanah semata-mata bukanlah risiko bagipemilik, dan sekiranya tanah tersebut tidak mengeluarlcan hasil, oleh sebabbencana alam dan sebagainya, maka pemilik tidak akan menghadapisebarang kerugian. Sebaliknya si penyewa, yang juga pengusaha tanahtersebut, terpaksa menghadapi risiko yang besar, kerana menyediakantenaga dan juga modal untuk memakmurkan tanah itu. Kegagalan tanahuntuk mengeluarkan hasil merupakan kerugian kepada si pengusaha yangtelah bersusah payah mengeluarkan titik peluh dan modal (benih, wangdan sebagainya) untuk mengeluarkan hasil. Kalau pun tanah tersebutmengeluarkan hasil, bahagian keuntungan yang diserahkan kepada penyewatanah amatlah sedikit apabila di tolak dengan kos modal yang dikeluarkan,berbanding dengan tenaga yang dicurahkan. Walhal pemilik tanah akanmemperolehi bahagian keuntungan yang amat besar. Ini merupakan satubentuk tekanan dan eksploitasi terhadap penyewa dan pengusaha tanah.Oleh itu amatlah wajar Islam mengharamkan Mukhabara, kerana iamerupakan penghalang kepada peningkatan taraf hidup petani yangmenyewa dan melemahkan semangat mereka (disinsentif) untuk berusahamenyara hidup mereka. Sebaliknya pengharaman Mukhabara, adalah satuinsentif yang disediakan oleh Islam kepada penyewa tanah untuk me-ningkatkan produktiviti tanah yang mereka usahakan, agar mereka dapatmemperolehi bahagian keuntungan yang lebih.

(4) PERLUNYAMANUSIABERAQIDAH ISLAMPada tahap ini kita sudah dapat mengesan peranan yang dimainkan

oleh manusia dalam hubungannya dengan manusia lain, dan hubungannyadengan Allah (HabluminAllah). Manusia memegang peranan yang pentingdalam mengeksploitasikan sumber-sumber asli ciptaan Allah s.w.t. untukkebaikan kehidupannya di dunia ini supaya ia akan dapat melaksanakantugasnya sebagai hamba Allah s.w.t. dengan lebih sempuma untuk

(4) Walaubagaimanapun ada perbezaan pandangan, berhubung dengan perkara ini. Adasetengah Ulama' mengatakan Mukhabara dibolehkan. Saya lebih cenderung kepadapandangan yang mengharamkan Mukhabara, atas penjelasan di atas. Di antara paraUlama' dan ahli Ekonomi Islam yang berpendapat bahawa sipemilik tanah mestilahmelapurkan tenaga atau modal untuk memakmurkan tanah yang disewa oleh si-pengusaha ialah al-Hasan al-Basri, Abu Hanifah, Mahmud Abu Saudr Imam al-Baidawidan sebagainya.

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kejayaan kehldupannya di akhirat. Pelaksanaan sistem penggunaan tanahpertanian dalam Islam bergantung kepada sejauh mana manusia dapattunduk dan patuh kepada undang-undang dan peraturan yang berdasarkankepada Al-Quran dan Sunnah Nabi. Dalam konteks perbincangan klta,ini termasuklah mematuhi segala syarat-syarat pemilikan tanah, meng-hayati pandangan Islam terhadap tanah dan mengeluarkan zakat'Ushr untuk hasil tanaman. Sekiranya manusia gagal mematuhi segalaperaturan ini, sistem tersebut yang berdasarkan kepada konsep keadilanIslam tidak akan dapat dirasai oleh masyarakat, tentang kemanfaatannyaserta kebaikan. Sekiranya ia dilaksanakan juga beserta dengan individuyang menjalankan sistem ini terdiri daripada mereka yang mementingkandiri sendiri dan kedudukan, maka apa yang ditakuti ialah masyarakatakan melihat keburukan sistem Islam itu sendiri, dan sistem pemilikantanah yang dianjurkan oleh Islam akan menjadi bahan jenaka.

Oleh itu apa yang diperlukan ialah manusia yang beraqidah Islamdan berakhlak dengan akhlak Islam, yang sanggup mengenepikankehendak-kehendak hawa nafsu dan kemahuan sendiri dan melaksanakansegala hukum-hukum Islam. Atau sekurang-kurangnya manusia yang sediaada dididik dengan pendidikan Islam yang komprehensif sehingga tertanamdalam jiwanya Roh Jihad, ketaqwaan kepada Allah s.w.t. 'dan sentiasamembuat penilaian terhadap diri sendiri sebelum dinilai di hadapan Allahs.w.t, nanti. Ini amatlah penting kerana masalah tanah pertanian danpenggunaannya adalah masalah yang berhubung rapat dengan kelemahansistem penggunaan tanah (aspek fisikal) dan kelemahan jiwa manusia yangyang mengendalikannya (aspek kerohanian). Islam sebagaMd-Dm datanguntuk menyelesaikan kelemahan dalam kedua-dua aspek serentak hinggake akar umbinya dengan cara yang paling berkesan.

"Sesungguhnya Allah tidak akan menguba apa yang ada pada sesuatukaum hingga mereka mengubah apa yang ada pada diri merekasendiri".(Surah Ar-Ra'd, Ayat 11).

BIBLIOGRAFI(1) "Ekonomi Islam", Dr. Monzer Kahf, dialih bahasa dan disunting oleh Mansur Jusuh,

PERKIM (Penerbit) 1982.(2) "Sistem Ekonomi Islam", Dr. Ahmad Muhammad Al'Assal dan Dr. Fathi Ahmad Abdul

Karim, diterjemah oleh Dr. Abu Ahmadi dan Anshori Umar Sitanggal, Alharamain (M)Sdn. Bhd. (Penerbit) 1984.

(3) "Islamic Economics Theory and Practice", M.A. Mannan, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf(Publisher) 1970.

(4) "Economic Justice in Islam", Dr. S.M. Yusuf, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf (Publisher), 1977.(5) 'The Exploitation of Land and Islamic Law", Mahmud Abu Al-Sauid* in Islamic Review,

1952.(6) "Hukum-Hukum Fiqh Islam". Prof. Dr. T.M. Hasbi Ash Shiddieqy, Bulan Bintang,

Jakarta (Penerbit) 1983, (Cetakan Tujuh).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ONMANAGEMENT II

Compiled by:Annie Thomas,

Librarian,National Productivity Centre,Petaling Jay a.

BIODATA1974 memperoleh ijazah B.A. (hons) dari Universiti

Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang.1975- menjawat Pegawai Tadbir (perpustakaan di-

Universiti Pertanian, Serdang.1977 cuti belajar selama setahun di R.M.I.T., Mel-

bourne, Australia, (Dip. Lib.)1978 kembali bertugas sebagai Pegawai Tadbir (per-

pustakaan) di UPM cawangan Sarawak.1985 memasuki Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara se-

bagai pustakawan.

Minat khasnya di dalam pengkatalogan.

Accounting P1075

J. JamalMengawal PerbelanjaanMaraniaga (1), Jan.-Feb. 1985:11

Automation P1077

AnonIndustrial automation — meeting the challenge. Hong Kong Pro-ductivity News, 18(7)1985: 5—7. ; . . , > < , :

This article highlights the salient points brought out at the inter-national Conference on Industrial Automation held on 7 & 8March, 1985, Hong Kong Productivity Centre.

Business P1076

AnonMemulihkan sebuah syarikat yang kerugian. Maraniaga, (1), Jan.-Feb. 1985:12—13.'Articles available in NPC Library.

72

4. Galagan, PatriciaBetween family and firm. Training & Development Journal 39(4),April 1985: 68—71.

Family dynamics can kill a family-owned business and in-capacitate the consultant who tries to help without knowing theropes. Here are tips for working in the twilight zone where familyand business systems collide.

5. Kelly, Leslie P2006Keeping it in the family. Training & Development Journal 39(4),April, 1985: 72—74.

Work and family mix quite well for many family-ownedenterprises — until the time comes to pass the business on tosomeone else.

Career Development P1099

6. Clawson, James G.Is mentoring necessary? Training and Development Journal 39(4),April 1985: 36—39.

7. KramKathy P2000Improving the mentoring process. Training & Development Journal39(4), April 1985: 40—43.

8. Leach, John J. P2001The dwindling future of work in America Training & DevelopmentJournal 39(4), April 1985:44-46.

9. Leibowit, Zandy B P1098The 12-fold path to CD enlightenment. Training & DevelopmentJournal 39(4), April 1985: 28-32.

A dozen ways to approach career development as a system.

10. Soverwine, Andrew H. P1095The case for career development. Training & Development Journal39(4), April 1985:15.

The author introduces a special feature on dramatic changesin scope for career development.

11. Verlander, Edward G. P1097The system's the thing. Training & Development Journal 39<4), April1985:20-23.

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A systems approach to career development will give your organi-zation a distinct edge in times of rapid change.

12. Vetter,EricW. P1096Getting human resource planning on the Dean's list. Training & De-velopment Journal 39(4), April: 1985:16—18.

Employees P2019

13. Walls, JimOne of your employees is stealing Supervision x LV11(2) Feb. 1985:14—16.

Be constantly on alert for employee theft and assume it will occurunless you prevent it.

Employment Agencies P1091

14. Schofield, PhilipHow to make effective use of employment bureaux Personal Execu-tive, 4(8), Feb. 1985:11-14.

Employment agencies, if used effectively, can provide a fast,efficient and inexpensive recruitment service. Philip Schofieldoffers some practical advice on choosing and using their services.

Entrepreneurs P1071

15. Kraar, LouisAsia's brains are leading home. Fortune, May 13,1985:14—21.

Drawn by ambition, national pride and family ties, many brightAsian businessmen who went abroad to study and begin careersare returning — bringing experience and knowledge of the West.

Entrepreneurship P1086

16. Steven, Howard H.The heart of entrepreneurship. Harvard Business Review, 64(2),March/April, 1985: 85—94.

Organizations that encourage executives to strike out and createnew products will best adapt and prosper in a rapidly changingworld. But how can managers match an employee's hent forentrepreneurship with company goals and demands? By discern-ing the ways in which administrators and entrepreneurs exertinfluence in the corporation, business leaders can develop aframework for making entrepreneurship feasible.

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Financial Management P1087

17. Davis, DavidNew projects: beware of false economics. Harvard Business Review,64(2), March/April, 1985: 95—101.

New projects, especially those involving high technology, areprone to overrun the original budgets. Companies often findthemselves in a nightmare situation, one that doesn't go awayeven if they manage to finally get the project up and running.Desperate measures taken to stem the haemorrhage of fundsduring development, such as cutting back on contingency pro-gramming, can cripple a project for life. Managers should seekcauses before remedies.

Fund Raising P1080

18. Howe, FisherWhat you need to know about fund raising. Harvard Business Re-view, 64(2), March/April, 1985:18—28.

How can the local nonprofit organization match the effectivenessof its national counterparts in raising money? Success resultsfrom convincing a prospective donor that giving is an opport-unity to advance important goals, A veteran fund raiser spellsout for community groups the strategies that underlie a persua-sive appeal for support.

Health, Industrial P1084

19. Ivancerich, John M.Who's liable for stress on the job?/John M. Ivanovich, Michael T.Matteson and Edward P. Richards III. Harvard Business Review,64(2), March/April, 1985: 60—72.

Recent court decisions place ultimate responsibility for the job-related stress illnesses of employees in the hands of their employers.While monitoring the degree of stress in their workplaces,companies ought to keep tabs on these judicial decisions. Inresponse, the authors counsel that managers must learn toidentify the potential stress trouble spots in their organizations,try to relieve these when necessary, and document their efforts.In that way, should an employee sue for compensation, the com-pany will have evidence to show that it has been aware of theproblems and has taken steps to solve it.

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Hours of Work P1092

20. Tyler, GeoffFlexible hours — the need for control. Personnel Executive, 4(8), Feb.1985:16,

A system of flexible hours calls for efficient management controlif it is to be a success for staff and company alike. The authorreports on how the Colonial Mutual Life Assurance Society tooksteps to improve its flexible ihours scheme.

Industrial Relations P1079

21. Spanner, Robert Alan.Improvements on the non-competition agreement: Harvard BusinessReview 64(2), March/April 1985: 8—10.

Employers who relay on non-competition covenants to preventdisclosure of confidential information may encounter oppositionfrom their employees and the courts. This article presents severalalternatives to these agreements that promise executives greaterflexibility in protecting both their legitimate interest and theiremployee's rights.

Information Management P 2014

22. Ho, Simon S.M.Managing information as a corporate resource. The Executive 6(4),April 1985: 31—33.

The effect of computer technology on information processinghas significant implications which are often misunderstood, ornot known.

Leadership Skills P 2011

23. Robertson, JannieOutward bound. The Executive 6(4), April 1985: 43—50.

In business, the faults of leadership and the mistakes of poororganization may take months, or even years before they arerealised or the consequences noticed. But if you are stuck halfway up a mountain in a thick mist, lost, tired and hungry, leader-ship and organisational skills (or the lack of it) become veryobvious indeed.

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Location of Business P1094

24. Shortland, Sue.Who's who in relocation. Personal Executive, 4(8), Feb. 1985: 29—41.

There are a number of specialist firms in the relocation industrywhich can provide assistance to organisations moving employeeswithin Britain and abroad. Sue Shortland outlines the servicesthat are available and provides a comparative table of who doeswhat.

Management by Objectives P 2017

25. Barnard, Janet.Are your department's goals being displaced? Supervision XLVII (2),Feb. 1985:6—7.

Have you found your self in the position where the means toachieving a goal becomes more important than the goal itself?This is typical of goal displacement.

Management Development P 2004

26. Lean, Elizabeth.No more pencils, no more books Training & Development Journal39(4), April 1985: 62—67.

A new look at how managers learn best.

Management Information P 2012

27. Sheridan, Thomas.Getting the right information The Executive 6(4), April 1985: 62—64.

The lesson from successful managements is that they run theirbusinesses on figures that are few and simple. The secret is toidentify what these figures are, which is why those that can dothis are the winners.

Managers P 2015

28. Baxter, Katie.Ahead hunt. The Executive 6(4), April 1985: 34—35.

Kenneth Hampton, London-based chief executive of top execu-

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tive search firm, PA International, views on where the manage-ment action is likely to be concentrated, career-wise, in years tocome.

Marketing P1074

29. Anon.Strategi Pemasaran: Teknik Pembungkusan MaraNiaga (1), Jan.-Feb.1985: 4.

New Product Development

30. Cooper, RobertG.The performance impact of product innovation strategies EuropeanJournal of Marketing, 18(5), 1984.

New product results and strategy are closely linked, according tothis study of 122 firms. One group of firms was identified whichconsistently out-performed the rest and shared a commonstrategy. What strategies distinguished this elite group of topperformers from the rest are described, and provide a guide tostrategy development.

Occupational Health P2013

31. Anon.Danger money. The Executive 6(4), April 1985:16—17.

Every three minutes somewhere in the world a worker dies of anoccupational injury or illness. Every second that passes at leastfour workers are hurt-more in a week than the entire populationof Hong Kong.

Office Management P1088

32. Stone, Philip J.Your office is where you are/Philip J. Stone and Robert Luchetti.Harvard Business Review, 64(2), March/April, 1985:102—117.

In view of more participative cultures and increased use of elect-ronic equipment, current office designs may make it harder to getwork done.

Privatisation P2010

33. Anon.Denationalization: Private eyes. The Executive, 6(4), April 1985:22—24.

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Privatisation is the new battle-cry in Asia. Several countries, suchas Thailand, Malaysia and Korea, have begun to take policyinitiatives that would shift some of the burden of developmentto the private sector..

Productivity productivity. p 1083

34. Gelb, Betsy D.Preventive medicine and employee Productivity. Harvard BusinessReview, 64(2), March/April, 1985:12—16.

What do classes in exercise and nutrition have to do with wisecorporate planning? Companies that sponsor preventive medicineprograms enjoy high employee productivity and report reducedabsenteeism. This author argues that it is time for employers tojoin the physical fitness bandwagon.

35. LauC.S. P1078Productivity management: is Hong Kong losing out? Hong KongProductivity News, 18(7)1985:16—18.

Singapore's current dedication to improve productivity in selectedindustries, if not matched or followed by Hong Kong, would pro-bably pose a threat to Hong Kong, and produce a long term effecton the relative competitiveness of their services.

36. Walton, Richard E. P1085From control to commitment in the workplace. Harvard BusinessReview, 64(2), March/April, 1985; 77—84.

In hundreds of plants across the U.S., a transformation is takingplace, changing long-established approaches to the organisationand management of work. Shifts in strategy from imposingcontrol to eliciting commitment yield economic and human bene-fits. However converting from one approach to the other presentsstiff challenges to those implementing innovations.

37. Weiss,W.H. P2016Being innovative paysoff Supervision XLVII (2), Feb. 1985: 3—5.

Enterprising companies see that innovation does not only applyto new products or services, but also new equipment, layouts,plants, organizations and other functions.

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Sales Management P1082

38. O'Conor, Charles W.Packaging your business for sale. Harvard Business Review, 64(2),March/April, 1985: 52—58.

Stories are legion of entrepreneurs starting companies on a shoe-string and then selling out for millions of dollars. Are such salessimply chance occurences — the result of having the right con-nections or being in the right place at the right time? More oftenthan not, the successful sale of smaller companies is the resultof a carefully orchestrated long-term strategy. The author out-lines such a strategy as part of an eight-point program designedto carry owners from the initial planning, through the closing,to a satisfactory postsale relationship.

39. Reichard, Clifton J. P1090Industrial selling: beyond price and persistance. Harvard BusinessReview, 64(2), March/April, 1985:127—133.

For many sales executives, selling industrial products calls forblind persistance. Chase enough prospects long enough, andeventually some will buy. Don't give up, argues the author, buthe adds, you don't have to go at it with closed eyes. Indeed, heshows how executives can create a sales approach that can covera period of years.

Supervisors P 2018

40. Talson, PeterSupervisors guide to stock-room layout Supervision XLVII (2), Feb1985: 8—10.

The layout and contents of the stockroom are very importantto the supervisor. Organization may help stop a production delayor save money on overstock.

Trade P1072

41. Smith, LeeWhat the U.S. can sell Japan. Fortune, May 13,1985: 58—64.

Reports of an impending trade war are much exaggerated.Negotiators have made lots of progress beating down officialJapanese trade barriers. If they fall, U.S. electronics companiesare likely to benefit the most, but the huge trade imbalance willprobably persist.

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Trademarks P1081

42. Hemnes, Thomas M.S.How can you find a safety trademark? Harvard Business Review,64(2), March/April, 1985: 36—50.

When selecting company and product names, executives like tothink in marketing terms. How will the name sound and whatwill it suggest to potential customers? But such efforts can turninto legal nightmares if companies ignore trademark law. Execu-tives must be prepared to do extensive trademark searches andpossibly to alter names they have become fond of. They mustalso, says the author, turn away from descriptive and highlysuggestive names and use logo types to give distinction to namessettled on.

Training P1093

43. Johnson Ron. RonWorking with young people. Personnel Executive, 4(8), Feb. 1985:21—23.

In every youth training scheme mature adults need to workalongside and train or supervise young people. Most adults seemto cope with this quite well but sometimes the "chemistry" is notright and often there is a period of adjustment before the matureperson becomes fully effective at helping the young person tolearn. How are the mature adults from whom the young adultswill Jearn selected? How can yeu help these mature people tobecome fully effective more quickly? Ron Johnson describes asimple method for achieving these aims.

44. Kimmerling, George F. P 2002Warning: workers at risk, train effectively. Training & DevelopmentJournal 39(4), April 1985: 51—55.

The American Occupational Safety and Health Administration'sright-to-know standard calls on the chemical industry to informits employees of work place hazards. If the training's not carefullydesigned, however, the rule may prove to be a regulatory strawnan.

45. Luckett, Daniel P2009Rate your training program traits. Training & Development Journal39(4), April 1985: 79—80.

Things to look out for in a good training programme.

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46. McAfee, James K. P 2003Avoid having your day in court Training & Development Journal39(4), April 1985: 56—60.

Find out about your legal vulnerability as a trainer and how toavoid prebate.

47. Marshall, Jeannie P 2007Get a good group response Training & Development Journal 39(4),April, 1985: 75—76.

Tips for the new trainer.

48. Rosenberg, Marc J. P 2008Pick the right self-paced packaging. Training & Development Journal39(4), April, 1985: 77—78.

Transportation P1089

49. Schneider, Lewis M.New era in transportation strategy. Harvard Business Review, 64(2),March/April, 1985:118—126.

The new environment opens up opportunities for managers tosave money and increase efficiency.

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