Understand Life 2004

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ThePhysiologicalSociety

Understanding Life -from single cells...

to systems...

to whole humans


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What is Physiology?

What does a Physiologist do?

Physiology is the science of

how the body works. You can

think of anatomy as where

it all is and physiology

as how it all

works. These two

subjects together

form the basis of medicine

and veterinary science.

Physiologists can be foundin a great variety of working

environments. In order

to understand what has

gone wrong with the body

during disease, the normal

functioning must first be

understood.

Therefore physiologists are

often to be found at the

forefront of biomedical

research.

Similarly the benefits of taking a

drug to cure a disease or illness must

be weighed against the potential

side effects, and so the need for

physiologists by drug companies

is never ending.

But not all physiologists are to

be found in laboratories.

Many work in the area

of sports physiology, working

alongside athletes and

sportsmen to try and bettertheir performance, or spend

their lives globe-trotting,

travelling around conferences

reporting on the work of others for

papers and journals.

As scientists become more and

more answerable to the public,

many graduates are now engaged in

digesting and communicating complex

work either for government ministers

or for the public themselves. Others

may be found in schools, inspiring the

next generation, or in courts of law,

arguing over complex patent cases.

Whichever style of work you would like

to have, there will be a career out there

for you once you have your degree in

Physiology!

What is Physiology?

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3/12

Nutrition and nutritional supplements

are of vital importance to top class

athletes. Many football managers like

Alex Ferguson monitor the diets of their

players carefully, working with dieticians

and physiologists to maintain correct

nutrient intake. Ingesting complex

carbohydrates such as pasta and rice

allows players to maintain their energy

levels, and not lose performance or

pace towards the end of a gruelling 90

minutes game.

Expert opinion is divided about the

never-ending ability of athletes to break

world records. Is this the result simply of

hard slog and better training techniques,

or the use of drugs? Drug abuse in sport

began as early as the 1950s, when

weightlifters began injecting themselves

with testosterone. Since then, the

synthetic anabolic steroid Dianabol,

human growth hormone (HGH) and

human chorionic gonadotrophin have

all been abused. Use of these drugs is

now illegal, for the very good

reason that long-term use ofthese would be damaging to

their health. However, sporting

authorities have been slow

to react to these chemical

challenges. When completely

legal dietary supplements are

broken down in the body,

they can produce the same

substances as when drugs

such as nandrolone are broken

down, thus allowing for dispute

over test results. The battle to

maximise performance but

avoid prosecution is tough and

bloody. Every top athlete now

has a team of scientists and

coaches working alongside them, trying

to find the balance between exploiting

their potential to the full and not testing

positive for a banned substance. If you

are keen on both sports and science, this

could be you!

Sports Physiology

picture courtesy of Susan Shireffs

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Understanding the workings of the brain

is one of the major challenges facing

scientists this century. Physiologists

working in this area are taking on a variety

of approaches, from studying movements

of ions in and out of single nerve cells

to working with patients suffering with

mental illnesses such as schizophrenia

and Alzheimers. And the aim is not only

to cure disease. The use of illegal drugs,

such as Ecstasy (E), is rising dramatically.

Ecstasy increases the natural release of

serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain,

and also prevents it being inactivated.High levels of serotonin in the brain are

thought to be responsible for the loved

up feeling MDMA (the active component

of E) produces. Overuse of this pathway

causes desensitisation, meaning that

less pleasure will be gained from normal

activity. This can result in mood swings,

the reported mid-week blues following

a weekends indulgence.

However, if this were the only

disadvantage of the drug, it would be

unlikely to deter clubbers.

The horrifying deaths of Lorna Spinks and

Leah Betts brought the dangers of taking

Ecstasy very much into the public eye.They died from different causes - Lorna

from heatstroke and Leah from ingesting

too much water which caused her brain

to swell and now many more young

people understand the need to regulate

water intake when using the drug.

However, even measures such as these

cannot negate the effect that causes most

worry long-term mental

damage.

The long-term effects of Ecstasy on

the brain are very contentious. Some

physiological studies have shown

neuronal damage in heavy users, but

others have refuted these findings.

The studies tend to have very

small sample sizes, and many

subjects who use E also use other

substances thus confounding

results. The poverty of the data

in this area is alarming on

the one hand lseots of young

people may be permanently

damaging their brains, andon the other our Government

may be spending unnecessary

money to police the use of

the drug. The answer surely

is for good scientific research,

on which the public and

police can rely. Wouldnt

you like to be involved in

solving this mystery?

Neurophysiology - Use of Ecstasy

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Curing disease

Cholera kills more than 150,000 peoplein developing countries each year. The

majority of these deaths occur among

young children. The dehydration

produced by acute diarrhoea results in a

high fever, which if not treated can lead

to death. Often the cost of treatment

for disease in developing countries

is prohibitive, however, in this case

understanding the physiology of fluid

regulation within the body provides a

cheap and effective method of dealing

with this deadly disease. Oral rehydration

therapy is based on administering

cocktails of household sugars and salts.

First, the patient receives a rehydrating

solution containing salt, sugar, baking

soda and potassium chloride. This

replaces lost electrolytes, and lowers the

osmotic potential of cells and interstitial

fluid. Next, a maintenance solution

is given. This solution contains the

same salts, but at lower concentration.

This means that the patient is able

to reabsorb more water from the

maintenance solution, and in addition

will not lose the absorbed electrolytes.

Where properly administered, this

therapy can provide a complete cure for

cholera and other diseases whose major

symptom is diarrhoea.

The key to the development ofsuccessful rehydration therapy lay in

understanding the transporters that

take glucose into cells. These cannot

work without sodium hence the need

for both sugar and salt in the mixture.

Huge numbers of physiologists work on

the movement of substances in and out

of cells, as problems with ion channels

are responsible for a range of diseases.

Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common

channelopathies, and many potential

therapies are based around correcting

the faulty chloride channel responsiblefor this deadly disease. So far, although

some avenues look promising, a cure

still remains elusive. Would you like to be

responsible for developing a successful

treatment?

Laura Cowell (pictured, left) looks like

any normal teenager. However, she

suffers from cystic fibrosis and must take

over 50 tablets a day and 4 injections

to combat the disabling symptoms. Her

life expectancy at the moment is only

around 30 years. Only a new treatment

can save her. Wouldnt you like to be

responsible for finding one?

picture courtesy of UNICEF India

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Over 80,000 people in the UK have

multiple sclerosis and an estimated

2,500 people are diagnosed with MS

every year. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a

chronic, debilitating disease that affects

your central and peripheral nervous

system.

It is thought to be an autoimmune

disease. Antibodies and white blood cells

attack the myelin sheaths surrounding

nerves, leading to inflammation and

injury to the sheath and finally to the

nerves themselves. The damage slowsor blocks muscle coordination, visual

sensation and other nerve signals.

Symptoms may include weakness or

paralysis in one or more limbs, impaired

vision, fatigue, muscle spasms and

slurred speech. The majority of sufferers

experience muscular pain, tingling and

electric shock sensations.

A cure or vaccine for MS is still eluding

researchers. Current treatments combat

individual symptoms, and of these

dealing with chronic and acute pain is

a priority. The pain relieving qualities

of cannabis have been exploited for

centuries.

However, as an illegal drug in this

country, research into its properties

is controversial and funding difficult

to secure. Opponents would say that

it is possibly addictive and leads to

other drug use, but patient groups

are campaigning for its widespread

prescription. Do you think we should be

researching in this area?

Multiple sclerosis and cannabinoids

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Post-genomic physiologySequencing the human genome has

been compared with splitting the

atom, going to the moon and even

the works of Shakespeare. It is certainly

long over 750,000 pages would be

filled if it was typed on A4 paper. Gene

technology holds the key to science

and medicine in the 21st century, with

predictions of designer drugs, designer

babies and even immortality!

So wheres the catch? Well, much

as we have a fairly good idea of the

sequence of the 30,000 or so genes,we have little idea what proteins the

majority of these produce or how these

interact with each other in the body.

In order to understand a disease such

as Alzheimers, we will not only need

to know which genes and therefore

proteins are involved, but also how

their healthy counterparts work. And

not all of the work will be targeted

towards understanding disease.

In Japan, a research group is sequencing

the entire genome of humankinds

nearest relative, the chimpanzee, in the

hope of shedding light on the origins

of language, logic and thinking. Once

again, understanding the interactions

of proteins will be crucial.

Most scientists agree that this next

step trying to use all the information

gathered, will be much harder than

the last. Which discipline will have

the correct knowledge of how the

whole body works, and be able to

put together the work of biochemists,

geneticists and molecular biologists?

Which group of scientists will be at the

forefront of this new era for science,

and will you be a part of it?

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Alcohol is the worlds favourite

recreational drug. In the UK an average

man drinks over 550 pints of beer a year,

a figure that has been rising steadily over

the last decade. However, in one way

or another alcohol is responsible for 20-

50,000 deaths a year. We are all familiar

with the risks of attempting to drive

while drunk, but what about simply

enjoying a few glasses of wine a day?

Can that really be a problem?

Unfortunately, it can.

Cirrhosis, a deadly disease

of the liver, has been linked

with drinking as few as 2

units a day for a woman

and 3-4 for a man (a unit is equivalent

to a half pint of normal strength beer).

The liver, the largest organ in the

body, is essential in keeping the body

functioning properly. It performs a host

of functions from neutralising poisons

(such as the breakdown products

of alcohol) to making proteins that

regulate blood clotting. You cannot live

without a functioning liver.

For years, the only complete cure was

to have a transplant. Owing to a better

understanding of the immune system,

and improved drugs and surgical

techniques, many more people survive

transplants than they used to. However,

a liver transplant is a major operation

and even if the patient is fit enough tosurvive there are never enough donor

organs to go around. Stem cell research

offers new hope in this area. A stem

cell is a cell

that can give

rise to many

others that is

its pluripotent.

The most

obvious source

of these cells is

from embryos,

but parts of the

body such as the bone marrow are also

a possibility. Some lines of research are

looking at applying cloning technology,

and transferring a nucleus of a patients

liver cell into a de-nucleated embryo,

in the hope that this will divide and

make more liver cells. These would

be identical to the persons own liver,

and could therefore be transplanted

back in with no fear of rejection. Other

researchers have found that some stem

cells are effectively hidden from the

immune system, and could therefore

be transplanted between people with

ease. Either way, this hope of growing

new organs has the potential to help all

those in need of a new liver, heart or any

other organ.

Research like this requires clinicians,

physiologists, immunologists

and many other

scientists working

side by side in the

fight against

disease.

If you like

working in a

team, and want to

work at the cutting

edge of medical

science, why not

consider a career in

physiology!

Liver physiology and alcohol abuse

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9/12

Tim Davis, Research Assistant, Drug

Discovery, Pfizer Ltd

Tim graduated from Newcastle

University in July 2000 with a BSc (Hons)

in Physiological Sciences. After that

he spent a year doing temporary jobs

including working as a lab technician

and an admin job at Pfizer.

What does he do?

I am currently working on an AIDS

project. I am responsible for screening the

library of potential drugs (compounds)

here at Pfizer to see if we have any that

are effective against the AIDS virus. I work

with leading-edge technology and have

learned so much since I started. A good

scientific background is important but

you dont have to be a genius. Most of

my everyday understanding of my work, I

have picked up since I joined the company

enthusiasm and flexibility are very

important.

The application and interview

process for Pfizer is pretty tough.

Was it worth it?

Pfizer is currently the worlds leading

Pharmaceutical company and is now

the 4th biggest company in the world!

As such, they do look after you and it is

a very exciting place to work. I wanted

a job where I could use my science degree

and also a job where my work was going

to be meaningful. Each day I have to

think for myself, plan experiments and

present my results to the projectteam. Ultimately my findings

could lead to discovering

a drug which could

enhance the lives of

thousands of people. Im

really enjoying it so far

and would recommend a

career in the industry. Its an

excellent starting point for anyone

considering a career in science.

Tims advice for prospective

students?

Always choose a degree that truly

interests you. Dont be put off by careers

that you think will be too hard to get

into. You dont know unless you try and

enthusiasm gets you a long way!

John Reid, Senior House Officer,

Aberdeen Royal Infirmary

Rather than go straight to medical school,

John chose to do a first degree in BiologicalSciences specialising in neuroscience at

Edinburgh University.

Fascinated by diseases of the brain, he

then went on to do a PhD at Oxford

looking at the role of potassium channels

in the brain in Parkinsons disease. Having

obtained his PhD, he then studied for

a further 3 years at Southampton to

become a doctor of medicine.

My science background made exams

easier during the training. I want to

specialise in neurology and my degrees

in neuroscience definitely help when

applying for jobs. In the end, I want to

combine research and medicine and the

doctorate will be invaluable then.

Being a senior house officer is hard work.

John is on call overnight one night a week,

and has to work a lot of weekends.

So why does he do it?

I enjoy getting to know the patients, and

working in a challenging environment

where Im always learning new things.

What advice would you give

someone considering their career

options?

Follow your interests! Physiology can

lead to many different careers, and even if

you are just fascinated by biology thats a

good enough reason.

Real stories of real physiologists...

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Real stories of real physiologists...John Macgill

John Macgill is the

Director of a Scottish

firm of political

consultants, a role

he moved to at the

beginning of 2002

after seventeen years

as a journalist.

John graduated from Dundee University

in 1985 with a BSc (Hons.; 2.1) in

Physiology. Although he enjoyed hisdegree, John was clear that he wanted to

follow a career as a broadcast journalist.

Having gained voluntary work experience

on local radio stations, John was accepted

onto the BBCs Local Radio Journalist

Training Scheme.

My physiology degree helped,

says John, not least because

it made me different from

the hundreds of graduates

with degrees in English or

Media Studies. The skills I

developed studying for a BSc

were almost identical to those

required of a journalist: time

management, research, presenting

and summarising facts and being

able to defend your work under scrutiny.

Journalists have to be able to communicate

in a way that is appropriate for their

particular audience. They need to have

enquiring minds, and must not be afraid

to ask questions or disagree with accepted

wisdom. These are skills which should be

second nature to any scientist.

John has worked across radio and

television including posts as a reporter and

correspondent, and later as a magazine

editor before being lured away to political

consultancy.

I suspect my time in the Physiology

Department at Dundee is to blame for

the many arguments over science and

medicine stories that I had with editors

while I was a reporter.

It certainly influenced my approach, as an

editor, to consumer scares and apparent

medical breakthroughs.

Even in my present job, which is all about

research and the presentation of facts on

behalf of clients, the skills and disciplines

acquired as a science undergraduate

continue to play an important part.

Zai Ahmad, MPhil student and

research assistant, University of

Leeds

Zai has a variety of qualifications,

including an HNC in applied biologyand a BSc in Marine studies. However,

she now knows she wants to pursue

an academic career in neuroscience.

She is currently taking an MPhil using

immunohistochemistry to determine

how the brain regulates blood pressure,

which will form an excellent basis for a

PhD and academic career.

Why has Zai chosen to stay in

academia?

Research in academia allows you to

work independently. I have always

been interested in medical research,

but was not sure which field to pursue

until I started studying neuroscience. Im

enjoying taking the MPhil and it will give

me a greater understanding and hands-

on experience which I will need to develop

my own research project. Although my

supervisor is normally on hand to discuss

ideas, you are encouraged to drive your

own research, which makes the project

feel like your own.

Travelling to conferences is excellent,

as you get to present and discuss your

research with a broad spectrum of

people, some of whom may present

you with ideas you hadnt considered

before.

Is it all a bed of roses?

I wish! Its easy to become disillusioned

when the project isnt progressing as a

result of failed experiments. Sometimes

lab work can be a little repetitive, and

hours can be long. However, your time

is your own, so you can work when and

how you want.

If you had your time over again,

would you do anything different?

I think getting good careers advice

is really important! A degree in

physiology will definitely open up a lot

of possibilities.

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Careers in PhysiologyThe case studies will have given you

a taste of what some of the career

possibilities are if you choose to do a

degree in physiology. There is a wealth

of different possibilities for students

interested in studying in research,

from the commercially driven, cutting

edge world of industry to the blue skies

creativity of a university laboratory.

Working for a pharmaceutical company

often opens up possibilities of moving

into management, marketing or sales

rather than staying on the bench. Good

with words and science?

Why not consider a career in scientific

journalism or publishing, going

around the world to report on

discoveries and ensuring the correct

and effective communication of ideas.

The leisure industryis one of the fastest

growing areas, employing many sports

physiologists. You could even be working

alongside one of our top athletes.

Many A level or Higher students are

interested in medicine or veterinary

sciencebut are intimidated by entrance

grades and long periods of study.

Graduate entry into these courses is

becoming more and more common,

and allows you to both keep your options

open and increase your chances of

securing a place. Physiology is a perfect

grounding for either of these careers. In

fact many physiology graduates go on

to do a postgraduate course in other

subjects allied to medicine, such as

radiotherapy, optometry or speech

science.

There are many other possible career

choices available to you, such as

patent law, science communication,

teaching and technology transfer.

A percentage of physiology graduatesdo not stay in science but choose careers

instead in other areas such as finance,

marketing or the media.

Employers know that science degrees

are rigorous and that science graduates

will have excellent transferable skills.

A degree in business studies will only

prepare you for careers in business,

whereas a physiology degree will keep

all doors open to you. Which would you

rather choose?

Only you will know what is the best

career for you, and make sure you make

an informed a choice as possible. The

Life Science Careers Fairs organised

by a group of societies including the

Physiological Society are the only

careers fairs targeted at biological

science students. They run each year

in November at Universities around

the country. Be sure to attend one in

your 2nd or 3rd year, and also to check

out some of the sources of further

information given below. Remember

there are loads of possible careers out

there waiting for you, it is up to you to

make it happen!

Getting there

OK, so you have decided you want to

do a degree in physiology or a related

science, so what next? Where should

you go? Almost every university offers

a degree of some kind in a physiological

science. Most will want post sixteen

qualificationsinbiologyandchemistry.

Exactly what grades are required varies

hugely and it is best to check individual

universities on the UCAS website for

details. Make sure that whichever course

you go for you get lots of choice for

which modules to take every year, and

that there is a large practical component.

Also if you have a burning interest in the

brain, sports science or bio-informatics

look at University websites for groups

of scientists specialising in these

areas. Dont be scared of contacting a

department you are interested in and

asking for graduate recruitment statistics

or third year project topics.

The choices you are about to make will

affect the rest of your life. Make your

own decisions and make sure they are

the right ones for you!

For further information please contact:

Education Officer

The Physiological SocietyPO Box 11319

London WC1X 8WQ

Email [email protected]

Tel 020 7269 5710

Website www.physoc.org

Other useful websites include:

www.biology4all.com

www.ucas.ac.uk

www.biocareers.org.uk

www.nextwave.org

www.pfizer.co.uk

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The Physiological Society, PO Box 11319, London WC1X 8WQ

Website www.physoc.org

The Physiological Society is a registered charity, no 211585.

This booklet was produced by The Physiological Society, with the help

of Dr David Pepper and Year 12 students Cassandra Cooke, Susie Flexer

and James Hunt from Newcastle Under Lyme School. The Physiological

Society gratefully acknowledges the support of Pfizer Ltd.

Graphic Design by Terry Bambrook - [email protected]

ThePhysiologicalSociety

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Understand Life 2004