Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy. Facilitating Positive Emotions

7/25/2019 Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy. Facilitating Positive Emotions

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Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) has been criticized for neglecting the emotional

processes of clients; however, a review of the literature contradicts this argument andindicates that the use of positive emotions in the change process of SFBT has been

present since its early development. This article reviews how emotional processes have

been conceptualized within SFBT and shows how SFBT scholars and therapists have

used positive emotions in building solutions with clients. This article also reviews

Fredricksons broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and shows how the

research within positive psychology provides additional empirical evidence for the

significance of positive emotions in the change processes of psychotherapy in general

and SFBT in particular. Finally, this article illustrates specific ways that SFBT elicits

positive emotions, further showing how solution-building conversations may increase

positive emotions in clients.

Key words: broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions; positive emotions;

solution-focused brief therapy

Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) is a strengths-based, future-focused thera-

peutic model that was developed under the leadership of two social workers,

Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg, and a team of interdisciplinary colleagues

at the Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee (de Shazer, 1985; de Shazer et

al., 1986). The SFBT approach to helping clients provides a set of therapeutic

techniques for building client competencies and helps clients discover workable

solutions to their mental health problems (Berg & De Jong, 2008). An emphasis

of SFBT is on the process of developing a future solution rather than the past

Understanding Emotional Change in

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy:Facilitating Positive Emotions

Johnny S. Kim and Cynthia Franklin

2015 Lyceum Books, Inc., Best Practices in Mental Health, Vol. 11, No. 1, Spring 2015

Johnny S. Kim, PhD, is associate professor, Graduate School of Social Work, the University of Den-

ver, CO. Cynthia Franklin, PhD, is Stiernberg/Spencer family professor in Mental Health, the Uni-versity of Texas at Austin. Parts of this paper were presented at the National Association of Social

Workers 2012 Conference, Restoring Hope: The Power of Social Work, in Washington, D.C.


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manifestation of the problem, with the focus being on identifying past successes

and exceptions to the problem, as well as identifying new and novel ways of

responding in future efforts to solve problems (Franklin et al., 2001).

Orchestrating a positive, solution-focused conversation is unique to SFBT and

is sometimes referred to as solution talk. The aims are to create a context for change

where hope, competence, and positive expectancies for change increase and a

client can co-construct with the therapist workable solutions to his or her prob-

lems. Goals are also believed to be important to the change process and are created

by the therapist and client working together. Thus, it is critical that therapists fos-

ter an open and collaborative working relationship with clients (Dielman &

Franklin, 1998; Lethem, 2002; Lipchik, 2011).

Since its development in the early 1980s, SFBT has attracted increased interest

within the fields of social work and marriage and family therapy and across disci-

plines (de Shazer et al., 2007; Trepper, Dolan, McCollum, & Nelson, 2006). Dur-

ing the past decade, the outcome research on SFBT has also advanced significantly

(Gingerich, Kim, Geert, Stams, & Macdonald, 2012; Kim, 2008a), resulting in

SFBT being evaluated and recognized as an evidence-based practice for mental

health and substance abuse problems (Kim, Smock, Trepper, McCullom, &

Franklin, 2009). One of the strengths of the SFBT approach is that it has proven

to be very adaptable and transportable to a variety of therapeutic contexts includ-

ing behavioral health and counseling clinics, school counseling and mental

health services, organizational consulting, management, child protective services,

and coaching. [See Franklin, Trepper, Gingerich, & McCollum (2012) for reviews

of the many ways that SFBT has been adapted and used in various settings.]

Although SFBT has advanced in its recognition as a useful therapeutic and

counseling approach, the theory behind SFBT and the process research that

explains mechanisms for how SFBT may work to produce changes within clients

has not advanced nearly as much. Most recently, microanalysis research has con-tributed the most to our knowledge of how the change process of SFBT may work.

This research has examined the types of therapy conversations that happen in

SFBT in comparison to those associated with other therapies (Bavelas, De Jong, &

Korman, 2008; Bavelas, McGee, Phillips, & Routledge, 2000; Tomori & Bavelas,

2004). For example, SFBT has been shown to concentrate more on strengths in

clients and to use co-construction of meanings in therapy conversations to facili-

tate solutions with clients (Bavelas, 2012; McGee, Del Vento, & Bavelas, 2005).

Microanalysis studies examining therapeutic conversations also demonstrate that

therapists employing SFBT as opposed to other therapies use more of the clients

exact words, use more positive words, and make more positive reflections with

clients.

Despite such efforts to understand the therapeutic process of SFBT, knowledge

about the possible theoretical and therapeutic mechanisms for change withinSFBT is in its infancy relative to actual empirical studies that examine these mech-

anisms. In the most recent review of SFBT process research, however, McKeel

(2012) noted the lack of information on how SFBT techniques create client hope

26 Best Practices in Mental Health


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and optimism. There is definitely a need to identify mechanisms for how change

may happen within SFBT. In particular, one approach that shows promise is to

examine how focusing on strengths and solutions may increase positive emotions

and thereby affect a clients ability to discover new ways to resolve presenting

problems. With the recent popularity of positive psychology and studies on posi-

tive emotions such as hope, there is an opportunity to reexamine how SFBT works

in relationship to this research, in particular, the role positive emotions play in the

change process of SFBT.

This article will review how emotional processes are conceptualized with-

in SFBT, focusing on theoretical explanations and examples that demonstrate

how positive emotions are an integral part of the SFBT change process and are

an important resource for client change. This article will also discuss how

Fredricksons (1998) broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions adds to the

knowledge base about the SFBT change process, potentially providing additional

theory and empirical evidence for SFBT therapists and researchers trying to

understand how SFBT may be useful to clients. Research evidence from the

broaden-and-build theory that explains how positive emotions may make people

better problem solvers, for example, has potential to be used in future efforts to

study how the change processes of SFBT may work. Finally, this article illustrates

specific ways that SFBT elicits positive emotions, further showing how solution-

building conversations may increase positive emotions in clients.

Positive Emotions and Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

The empirical research on positive emotions has been increasing over the last

two decades (e.g., Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005) and at the same time many

disciplines that train therapists have been shifting their focus from client deficits to

client strengths (Kim, 2008b; Seligman, 1999). Positive emotions theory arguesthat positive emotions are not simply the absence of negative emotions (e.g., anger,

sadness, frustration, or hopelessness) or just a good feeling a client has, but rather

that they can serve as a therapeutic value in clinical practice (Fitzpatrick &

Stalikas, 2008a). Most of the research and discussion in therapeutic practice

viewed positive emotions as a desired outcome (i.e., I want to be happy again)

and neglected the possibility of positive emotions serving as a vehicle for change

(Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b).

Although the clinical significance of focusing on client strengths and positive

emotions is a fairly new development within the empirical research literature, the

therapeutic literature is replete with descriptions about the important role that

positive emotions play within SFBT (e.g., Berg & De Jong, 1996, 2008; Berg &

Dolan, 2001; Kiser, Piercy, & Lipchik, 1993; Kondrat & Teater, 2012; Lipchik,

2011). For example, positive expectancy, hope, faith, courage, and trust are posi-tive emotions that have been discussed as being important within the SFBT prac-

tice literature. Very early in the development of SFBT, de Shazer (1985) discussed

the importance of increasing positive expectancy (i.e., hope) and suggested that

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy 27


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the perception that change is possible is a critical part of the SFBT processes that

help clients change. Visser and Schlundt Bodien (2009) set out to provide evidence

for de Shazers assertion that clients are able to find solutions to problems and start

solution-building conversations when they are able to describe their positive

behaviors and expect positive changes to occur. They offer a conceptual model

illustrating how positive expectations and behaviors elicited from subtle interven-

tions interact with each other and lead to the change processes that are inherent

in SFBT.

Insoo Kim Berg also frequently discussed the importance of fostering hope in

clients and described how solution-focused conversations create a sense of compe-

tence important for helping clients change (e.g., Berg & De Jong, 2008; Berg &

Dolan, 2001). Steve de Shazer and colleagues (2007) further commented that,

One of the most important aspects of SFBT is the general tenor and stance taken

by the therapist. The overall attitude is positive, respectful and hopeful (p. 4). Hope

has also been suggested as a common factor that is important to therapeutic

change, and the techniques of SFBT, in particular, have been suggested to utilize

this common factor (Miller, Duncan, & Hubble, 1997; Snyder, Michael, & Cheavens,

1999). Reiter (2010) explained the importance of the positive emotion of hope in

SFBT: The more that people expect a hopeful outcome, the more they will increase

their agency thinking and, subsequently, their pathways thinking (p. 136). In

other words, the more clients and practitioners expect a hopeful outcome, the more

clients will believe that they can solve their own problems. Furthermore, a new

sense of choice and personal empowerment will help them broaden their attention

toward alternative ways to develop a solution and consequently expand their

options and plans for ways to solve their problems.

Early in the development of SFBT, Kiser, Piercy, and Lipchik (1993) also noted

how positive emotions were integrally a part of helping clients create solutions for

their problems. These authors illustrated numerous ways that therapists couldincrease positive emotions to facilitate solutions with clients. For example, one of

the SFBT techniques suggested by Kiser and colleagues for increasing positive

emotions is translating emotional states into more concrete behavioral states so

that a clients situation may be viewed differently and more positively, thus open-

ing up options for change. In this case, a therapist might say, So, when you are

less angry with your husband, what will be happening with you? Another

approach suggested by Kiser and colleagues is joining with the negative emotion

of clients in a paradoxical way so that a client may reverse his or her thinking and

feeling about the situation and be propelled to become more positive. For example,

the therapist would say, What do you imagine things will be like at their worst?

or alternatively, Have you hit rock bottom yet? Using future-oriented questions

and incorporating emotions into goal settingasking clients to focus directly on

positive emotionsis another therapeutic approach recommended by Kiser andcolleagues.

When focusing on generating more positive emotional states, the solution-

focused therapist also purposefully asks clients to reverse negative emotional



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states. For example, if a client said, I am angry. I want to stop yelling at my son,

the therapist might respond, How will you feel differently when you are not

yelling at your son so much? (Kiser et al., 1993, pp. 236238).

As indicated in the above examples, formulating answers to solution-focused

questions requires clients to think about their relationships and talk about their

experiences in different ways, turning their problem perceptions and negative

emotions into positive formulations for change. In research studies, Bavelas and

colleagues (Bavelas, 2012; Bavelas, De Jong, & Korman, 2008; Tomori & Bavelas,

2004) discovered that there is a unique method to the therapeutic conversations

that happen in SFBT and that these conversations are different from what occurs

in other therapy models. During therapeutic conversations SFBT therapists listen

carefully to each formulation made by clients for specific words and openings in

the conversations where they can punctuate client words and experiences and ask

questions in unique ways to highlight strengths and solutions instead of prob-

lems. Although microanalysis research does not specifically address changes in

client emotions resulting from these types of therapeutic conversations, other

process research suggests that clients may feel more hopeful and optimistic after

receiving one or more sessions of SFBT. These findings need to be further investi-

gated in more rigorous research studies (McKeel, 2012).

Theoretical Controversies over the Use of Emotion in

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

Both SFBT developers and scholars agree that there is a role for emotions, in

particular positive emotions, within the change processes of SFBT. Nevertheless,

the role that emotions play in client change has been a point of controversy

among SFBT developers. For example, SFBT has been criticized for neglecting the

emotions of clients by converting emotional references into contextual and behav-ioral descriptions [e.g., What will your friend notice about you when you are feel-

ing calm and are less anxious? How will your behavior be different when you are

not so worried about your friend? (de Shazer et al., 2007)]. Lipchik, Kiser, and

Piercy were among the early developers of the SFBT approach and called for bet-

ter integration of emotional processes and therapeutic alliance into the cognitive

and behavioral descriptions often associated with SFBT techniques. They were

also the most vocal proponents for explaining the role of positive emotions in the

SFBT change process and defended SFBT against critics who suggested that

clients emotional experience is not an important part of the change process in

SFBT (Kiser, Piercy, & Lipchik, 1993; Lipchik, 2011).

Theoretical differences appear to have heightened the controversies over the

role of emotional processes in client change. Solution-focused brief therapy was

developed in a context in which therapists and researchers were trying to discovereffective brief therapy techniques based on clinical observations of therapy ses-

sions. Theoretical explanations for how these change techniques work and guid-

ing theories were determined in a descriptive manner as developers discussed the



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results that they were observing with clients (Lipchik, Derks, LaCourt, & Nunnally,

2012). This allowed for a type of emergent approach by which the developers

allowed more open-ended explorations of possible theoretical mechanisms and

resulted over time in divergent ideas about how to ground SFBT in theory. A diver-

gence of opinions over theory, for example, can be seen in SFBT developers con-

ceptualizations of how emotions work in the change processes within SFBT.

Most of the theoretical controversies appear to be related to the functions of

emotions and their role in behavioral and cognitive change. For example, SFBT

developers have debated the exact definitions of emotions and the phenomenology

of emotional experiences and they have further disagreed about how emotional

experiences may be best addressed within SFBT [see Miller & de Shazer (2000) and

Piercy, Lipchik, & Kiser (2000) for examples of these debates]. These debates and

a lack of empirical investigations on how SFBT facilitates emotional changes have

resulted in different theoretical understandings of how emotional processes work

in SFBT.

Theories Guiding the Emotional Change Processes within

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

Miller and de Shazer (2000) differentiate SFBT from the processes often associ-

ated with emotional change in more traditional psychotherapies. Relying on

philosophical writings of Wittgenstein and theories from phenomenological tradi-

tions within sociology, these authors argue for a contextual and social construc-

tionist view of emotions, rejecting the idea that emotional change is absolutely

necessary for achieving behavioral change in clients. In more recent literature, de

Shazer and colleagues (2007) further clarified their position on emotional

processes in SFBT, emphasizing the solicitation of positive emotions and explain-

ing how these positive emotions are important to constructing solutions with

clients:

Clearly then, SFBT deals with emotions in ways that emotions are not dealt

with traditionally. But this does not mean that emotions are either ignored

or minimized. Rather, the approach focuses on the outside, observable factors

and context that define emotions. Furthermore the approach helps clients

focus on the hard work of remembering better feelings by helping to keep

these feelings connected to the contexts that are their home in everyday life.

SFBT does not view emotions as problems to be solved but rather views them

as some of the many resources that clients have for constructing something

better. In other words, helping clients construct situations where they

feel better, and where they can remember that they feel better is one part

of successfully constructing and reinforcing solutions. (de Shazer et al., 2007,

p. 149)

The implications of this viewpoint are that human emotions are to be seen as

a resource for change. Emotional descriptions and reactions are highly dependent



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on social relationships and different behavioral contexts. Thus, it is most effective

for therapists to work with these interactions when considering emotional change.

Although the solicitation of positive emotions is beneficial in helping clients con-

struct solutions, emotional change is not the main reason that clients are able to

create solutions to their problems.

Other authors have attempted to integrate knowledge from systems theory,

interpersonal theory, and contemporary ideas from research on emotion and neu-

roscience to explain the importance of emotional processes within SFBT (Kiser et

al., 1993; Lipchik, 2011; Lipchik et al., 2005; Piercy et al., 2000). These authors

suggest that emotions, cognition, and behavior interrelate in ways that influence

one another in a reciprocal fashion. In this view, emotional experiences may have

a powerful influence over cognitions and behavior and shape the perceptions of

clients; in turn, cognition and behavioral contexts may also influence emotional

states. This systemic view further suggests that therapists can work directly with

the emotional experiences of clients, including their negative emotions, to

increase positive emotions in the same way that one may work with increasing

positive behavior or cognition through solution talk to bring forth solutions.

These authors appear to favor directly addressing emotions and, in particular,

negative emotions of clients and believe that this is a helpful process that may

lead to cognitive and behavioral change. Additionally, SFBT techniques may be

used to increase the positive emotions of clients and this may help clients build

solutions just as the SFBT techniques may be used to amplify positive behavior

and cognitions.

Bannink (2007) further argues for a cognitive and behavioral view of emotional

change within SFBT. She contends that a change in behavior appears to be the best

way to modify emotional knowledge and emotional change in SFBT and can be fur-

ther explained through a process similar to the Bio-Information Theory of Lang

(1985). Bannink states that, According to Langs theory a change in the emo-tional reaction to certain events and situations implies changing the associative

networks that lie at the basis of those emotional reactions (2007, p. 92). These

associative networks are changed through similar processes that are used within

behavioral analysis and cognitive behavior therapy. The difference is that, within

SFBT, behavioral analyses are made of the exceptions rather than the problem

behavior; this leads to helping clients amplify positive behaviors and cognitions and

in turn to positive changes in emotions. The implications of this viewpoint are that

the focus on exceptions and discussing and repeatedly imagining solutions and fur-

ther experimenting with tasks based on possibilities for solutions help clients

change their cognitive and emotional reactions to problems, resulting in more com-

petent behavioral responses. This concept is similar to that of an athlete who

repeatedly visualizes and practices psychological and behavioral skills for success.

When the athlete is confronted with the actual competition, this type of positivemental rehearsal and cognitive preparation helps him or her improve performance.

Most recently, SFBT authors have suggested that knowledge gained from stud-

ies within positive psychology on emotional processes are consistent with SFBT



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techniques, the strengths perspective, and beliefs about how clients change (e.g.,

Bannink & Jackson, 2011; Glass, 2009; Lipchik et al., 2005; Liston-Smith, 2008).

This association of SFBT with positive psychology has been spurred on by a wave

of research (Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006; Rashid, 2009) into the

effects of positive emotions (e.g., joy, happiness, hope, trust, and love) and has sub-

sequently caused SFBT researchers and clinicians to turn their attention to how

positive emotions may help clients to change. The research and theory from posi-

tive emotions, however, have not been examined in detail in relationship to how

they might be used in future research studies to inform the change processes

within SFBT. In order to add to the literature on emotional processes within SFBT

and more specifically the role of positive emotions, this article will describe

Fredricksons broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (1998) and illustrate

how change processes of SFBT may work using this theory. In particular, the

authors believe that Fredricksons theory may provide some of the most com-

pelling evidence for explaining how SFBT works and may be used in future

research studies to examine change processes within SFBT.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions

Since its introduction, the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions has

developed strong empirical support for its claim that positive emotions can help

generate change in clients (Fredrickson, 1998, 2009; Fredrickson & Branigan,

2005; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2000; Garland et al., 2010). The broaden-and-build

theory of positive emotions emerged because studies on the effects of positive emo-

tions were neglected within psychological research. Fredrickson (1998) sought to

examine what role positive emotions play in individuals momentary thought-

action repertoires and how this might guide specific interventions to improve psy-

chological well-being. To help test the broaden-and-build theory, Fredrickson andcolleagues conducted several laboratory studies that found support for the broad-

ening of thought-action repertoires, undoing of lingering negative emotions,

increasing resiliency, and improving psychological well-being [see Fredrickson

(2001) for review].

In an effort to apply the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions to clin-

ical practice, Fredrickson (2001) hypothesized that interventions that help build

or reinforce positive emotions can help treat typical problems rooted in negative

emotions such as anxiety, depression, and aggression. Consistent with this

hypothesis, SFBT incorporates specific techniques and questioning that can help

create these positive emotions that will enhance clients intellectual and social

resources (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b; Visser & Schlundt Bodien, 2009).

Fredrickson (2004) noted that an individuals emotion starts by appraising the

subjective significance of some antecedent event, which Lazarus (1991) referredto as the person-environment relationship. Solution-focused brief therapy centers

on identifying and magnifying what clients are doing well in relation to solving

their own problems. The premise of SFBT is that the therapist will observe not



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what the clients are doing wrong, but rather what they are doing well, which can

help create positive emotions for them. Another example involves using compli-

ments, which are an important part of working with clients and can be used to

build positive emotions (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b).

Under the broaden-and-build theory, positive emotions further elicit thought-

action repertoires that are broad, flexible, and receptive to new thoughts and

actions whereas negative emotions elicit thought-action repertoires that are lim-

ited, rigid, and less receptive. The broadening aspect of this theory posits that, after

a person experiences a positive feeling, he or she is more open and more receptive.

As Fitzpatrick and Stalikas (2008b) state, In an open state, they feel the urge to

contemplate new ideas, develop alternative solutions to problems, reinterpret their

situations, reflect on behaviors, and initiate new courses of action and creative

endeavors (p.139). This may be the key step in helping clients observe exceptions,

make new meanings, and do something different that is touted in SFBT practice lit-

erature (de Shazer, 1991).

In addition to broadening, this theory also posits that positive emotions help

build durable resources that can be drawn upon for future use. Whereas positive

emotions may be brief and fleeting, they have lasting positive effects on an individ-

uals ability to function (Garland et al., 2010). Experiencing and accruing positive

emotions help increase clients personal resources and help them transform them-

selves into more creative, resilient, and knowledgeable individuals (Fredrickson,

2004). Also, because positive and negative emotions are opposites in a continuum,

an individual cannot experience both simultaneously. Therefore, it is this incom-

patibility between positive and negative emotions thought-action repertoires that

helps to explain how interventions such as SFBT that focus on building positive

emotions can help change an individuals negative emotions (Fredrickson, 2000).

Furthermore, one of the key aspects of positive emotion is the possibility of it negat-

ing or even reversing negative emotions, which often narrow an individualsthought-action range (Fredrickson, 2001). Therefore, clients who experience posi-

tive emotions work toward change by replacing their negative perspective that lim-

its their thoughts and behaviors (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b). In other words,

they may be able to see more options for change and act upon a range of solutions

that they had not before considered.

Another aspect noted in the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions is

the idea that there is an upward spiral process that is set in motion as clients con-

tinue to experience positive emotions. This is counter to the downward spiral path

that can be activated by negative emotions and is often seen in clients who are

experiencing emotional and psychological distress. It is common for clients expe-

riencing psychological problems such as depression or anxiety to dwell on nega-

tive thoughts and beliefs about themselves or a particular situation; these

thoughts then lead to dysfunctional behaviors and further perpetuate a down-ward spiral of psychopathology (Garland et al., 2010). With positive emotions,

the opposite can occur: Upward spirals of positive emotions help clients build

enduring resources of new thoughts, perspectives, and options (Fitzpatrick &



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Stalikas, 2008b). However, in order to counteract the negative emotions, clients

must experience a greater number of positive emotions. Research suggests that, at

minimum, a 3:1 ratio of positive to negative emotions experienced is necessary to

help generate sustained positive changes and undo the impact of negative distress

(Garland et al., 2010).

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy Techniques and Positive Emotions

The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions adds to our understanding

of how SFBT will create better client-therapist relationships and clinical engage-

ment. Solution-focused brief therapy recognizes the potential impact of compli-

ments and subsequent positive emotion on clients ability to focus on the positive.

As Garland and colleagues (2010) suggest, one possible way of raising overall pos-

itivity ratios is by focusing attention toward positive experiences and encouraging

positive aspirations or memories, which is also an important component in SFBT.

Figure 1 illustrates how SFBT change processes might be conceptualized using thebroaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.

Solution-focused brief therapy clinical techniques were developed to coach

clients in a solution-building process, which may be interactive with the thought-

action repertoire process that has been described. Figure 1 depicts how the

solution-building process serves as the overarching framework for engaging the

client in an intervention and provides a method for behavioral and positive emo-

tional change to happen. A process that takes place in a relationship between

client and therapist, solution building starts with a conversation about what the

client wants by identifying a very specific, self-determined goal. The solution-

building process proceeds to explore how the client is already competent to

achieve the goal and further co-constructs the conversation between the client


Figure 1 SFBT Change Process


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and social worker toward identifying behaviors and envisioning steps that can

happen in the future for the goal to be realized in the clients day-to-day life (Berg

& De Jong, 1996). This process might include the client amplifying behaviors and

social interactions that are already present and/or adding newly identified behav-

iors and interactions that are needed to achieve the goal. Solution building also

elicits commitment from the client to enact the solutions that are identified and

uses compliments and reflections about the clients competent behaviors to rein-

force the clients resiliency to sustain his or her commitment and persistence

toward the accomplishment of the goal.

Solution-focused brief therapy techniques coach clients to identify small

behavioral steps (behavioral changes box) that they are already competent to take

and that will make a difference in their presenting problems. As clients see ways to

change their situation and further follow through with this change process, they

feel more hopeful and competent (positive emotions box). This increase in positive

emotions also interacts with the clients behaviors to provide motivation to follow

through on homework tasks and continue amplifying behaviors that are working.

This in turn results in new ways to think and behave (thought-action repertoire

box) and in greater resiliency to keep enacting solutions (solution-building process

box).

Solution-focused brief therapy techniques are most often discussed as methods

to use in a behavioral change process to help clients set goals and envision steps to

solve their problems. As discussed in the SFBT literature for the past twenty years,

however, these same clinical techniques may also increase the positive emotions in

clients (Berg & De Jong, 1996; Berg & Dolan, 2001; Kiser et al., 1993; Lipchik,

2011). The miracle question, for example, is one of the most well-known solution-

focused therapy change techniques. This technique asks clients to shift thinking

and feeling as they visualize and describe a future where the problem no longer

exists. Typically, the miracle question asks, Suppose that one night, while youwere asleep, there was a miracle and this problem was solved. How would you

know? What would be different? How will your husband know without your say-

ing a word to him about it? (de Shazer, 1988, p. 5).

The miracle question has many functions including providing a way to help

clients to describe a concrete goal; it is especially useful when people have difficulty

describing exceptions to their problem patterns. When asking the miracle ques-

tion, the solution-focused therapist asks clients to describe differences that would

occur when emotional problems were solved. This helps clients shift negative

meanings concerning emotional reactions toward more hopeful and positive

interpretations, thus potentially decreasing negative emotions and interpretations

of behavior. This is a less explored aspect of the miracle question that is part of the

change process that helps clients to shift from negative to positive emotions. For

example, clients are offered opportunities to discover how they may become morecompetent, hopeful, and optimistic as they begin to visualize and talk about how

their lives will change. They may also be asked to describe in vivid detail the parts

of their lives where pieces of the miracle may already be happening. This is



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followed by a therapist identifying, with clients, the next steps from the miracle

picture and asking clients for a commitment to take those steps, with an expecta-

tion for follow-through. As clients follow through with the next steps, they become

more hopeful and competent and find new resilience to solve their problems.

Best Practices

Despite the SFBT focus on the importance of positive emotions, SFBT develop-

ers and therapists have not shown agreement on how to understand emotional

processes within SFBT. Instead, there have been a number of theories and debates

about how emotions and/or positive emotions work in the SFBT change process.

The SFBT literature on emotion is rich in theoretical ideas, but weak in empirical

investigations resulting in anecdotal discussions of SFBT change processes and

techniques. The authors of this article suggest that research into the broaden-

and-build theory of positive emotions may be laying the groundwork for addi-

tional empirical investigations about the role of positive emotions within SFBTthat may involve moderating roles and/or factors that have not yet been examined

in other studies. The authors also believe that SFBT has many advantages that

may enhance positive psychology research because it provides several therapeutic

techniques and proven conversational processes that can potentially enhance

strengths and competencies of clients to solve problems.

Therapeutic techniques for increasing positive emotion are fairly new to positive

psychology and are being invented; however, techniques for increasing strengths of

clients including positive emotion are not new to SFBT, but have existed for many

years and have been successfully applied in diverse practice settings. The fact that

SFBT has now accrued an increasing amount of outcome research (Gingerich

et al., 2012; Gingerich & Peterson, 2013) makes it even more important to begin

to investigate how SFBT methods work and how they may also have potential for

shifting the negative emotional experiences of clients toward positive emotions. For

example, in a review of controlled outcome studies, Gingerich and Peterson found

that SFBT was effective in treating depression in adults; therefore, it may be impor-

tant to understand how this change process happens.

This is especially important because SFBT has focused on clinical practice and

effective change techniques and its theoretical underpinnings are not as clearly

stated as its change techniques. The lack of research on SFBT change processes

has resulted in ongoing debates about SFBT theory and differences in how SFBT

researchers and scholars view emotional processes. McKergow and Korman

(2009), for example, explain that the SFBT change process relies on no particular

internal mechanism including emotion to explain how SFBT works. Instead, the

changes that occur in SFBT happen in positive, solution-focused conversations

between clients and therapists and can best be understood to be a part of the nor-

mal processes that occur in human communication and relationships.

Such explanations, however, do not address the change processes that do occur

in SFBT. As this article has suggested, SFBT researchers and scholars support and



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illustrate positive emotions as being important to the SFBT process; therefore, pos-

itive emotions are an important factor to consider. The authors also agree with

Lipchik and colleagues (2005) that SFBT can benefit from a firmer grounding in

theory, but they do not believe that just any theory should be accepted, but only

those theories that are consistent with SFBT processes and are also based in empir-

ical understandings of human behavior and change. That is why they have sug-

gested that the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion provides a way to

approach research for explaining how SFBT works and that it may be used in

future research studies to examine how emotional change processes work within

SFBT. Research into positive emotion, however, is in no way meant to delimit other

research and understandings of how change works within SFBT, such as those

that have been demonstrated in studies on human communication (e.g., Bavelas,

2012), but rather to expand possible areas for investigation.

Conclusion

Although positive emotions have only recently been discussed in detail within

the psychological research as being important to therapeutic change, the practice

literature on SFBT has discussed these processes for a number of years. For exam-

ple, the Kiser et al. (1993) article, written about emotional change in SFBT, is rich

with examples of how solution-focused therapeutic techniques may be used to

increase positive emotions in clients. It further discusses why positive emotions are

important to helping clients reverse negative emotions, foster motivation for

change, and develop new ways of thinking and behaving. Kiser, Piercy, and

Lipchik (1993) state that positive emotions can be useful in discovering exceptions

to problems and highlighting positive emotions can assist clients to take action

(p. 237). The Kiser article and other similar SFBT articles (Berg & Dolan, 2001; de

Shazer et al., 2007; Lipchik, 2011) also make similar points in psychotherapy

about the significance of positive emotions in helping people change. These points

are currently being made within the experimental research that is being com-

pleted in positive psychology (Garland et al., 2010; Kiser et al., 1993).

In discussing the potential benefits of increasing positive emotion in psycho-

therapy, for example, Garland and colleagues (2010) note that clients are more

motivated to apply new behavioral skills learned during therapy when they expe-

rience positive emotions about themselves and others. In particular, research into

the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions illustrates how this process

may work by cancelling negative emotions that restrict the range of thinking and

behavior and opening up attention, cognition, and behavioral options. Thus, as

positive emotions and thinking spiral, clients become more aware of their solu-

tions and are more able to think creatively and to generate new ways to problem

solve.

This article has argued that positive emotions are an important part of SFBT

and that they have been discussed since the early development of this approach. A

review of therapeutic literature clearly supports the argument that the solicitation



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and reinforcement of positive emotions have been conceptualized by SFBT devel-

opers and therapists as being important to the change processes within SFBT and

that emotional processes should be viewed as resources that can help clients

change. In particular, this article has suggested that the broaden-and-build the-

ory of positive emotions shows promise for explaining how increases in positive

emotions create greater cognitive flexibility and client competence for generating

solutions.

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C o p y r i g h t o f B e s t P r a c t i c e i n M e n t a l H e a l t h i s t h e p r o p e r t y o f L y c e u m B o o k s , I n c . a n d i t s

c o n t e n t m a y n o t b e c o p i e d o r e m a i l e d t o m u l t i p l e s i t e s o r p o s t e d t o a l i s t s e r v w i t h o u t t h e

c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r ' s e x p r e s s w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . H o w e v e r , u s e r s m a y p r i n t , d o w n l o a d , o r e m a i l

a r t i c l e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l u s e .

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