Understanding the Universe Term Paper

8/9/2019 Understanding the Universe Term Paper

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GEK1520/PC1322 Understanding the Universe

Observation and Studyof Impact CratersTerm Paper 39: Group eport

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction Crater and Impactors ..................................................................................... 1

2. Types of craters ................................................................................................................... 2

2.1. Simple Craters .............................................................................................................. 2

2.2. Complex Craters ........................................................................................................... 3

2.3. Elongate Craters ........................................................................................................... 4

2.4. Multi-ring Basins ............................................................................................................ 4

3. The Observations Moon Crater ......................................................................................... 5

4. Craters on the Moon ............................................................................................................. 5

5. Observation Procedure......................................................................................................... 6

6. Our Observations ................................................................................................................. 8

6.1 Distinct Craters on Moon ............................................................................................... 8

6.1.1. Tycho (Crater) ........................................................................................................ 9

Drawing the crater Tycho.............................................................................................. 9

6.1.2. Copernicus (Crater) .............................................................................................. 10

7. Purpose of Experiment ....................................................................................................... 11

8. Conduct of experiment ....................................................................................................... 11

9. Procedure of experiment .................................................................................................... 11

9.1. Experimental environment ........................................................................................... 11

9.2. Experimental setup and procedures ............................................................................ 12

10. Results ........................................................................................................................... 16

10.1. Variable: Height of Drop ........................................................................................... 16

10.2. Variable: Mass of Object .......................................................................................... 17

10.3. Variable: Angle of Impact ......................................................................................... 18

11. Observations made from experiment .............................................................................. 19

11.1. Terminologies .......................................................................................................... 19

12. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 20

13. References ..................................................................................................................... 21


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1. Introduction Crater and Impactors

Impact Crater

&n impat rater is de4ined as an approimate-, iru-ar depression in the sur4ae o4 a so-id

!od, in the o-ar ,stem6 The, are 4ormed !, the h,perve-oit, impat o4 a sma--er !od, 7ith

the sur4ae6 uh sma-- !odies are most-, meteoroids or asteroids6 The iru-ar shape is due to

materia- 4-,ing out in a-- diretions as a resu-t o4 the ep-osion upon impat8 not a resu-t o4 the

impator having a iru-ar shape6 mpat raters t,pia--, have raised rims and 4-oors that are

-o7er in e-evation than the surrounding terrain6 The, range 4rom a sma-- and simp-e !o7- shape

to -arge8 omp-e8 mu-ti;ringed !asins6 Impact Crater, Wikipedia %n6d6+

Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

eteoroids genera--, re4er to sma-- parti-es o4 omets or asteroids that or!it around sun and

are sma--er than asteroids6 t an range 4rom a sis ?no7n as a meteorite6 Marc Lallanilla %15 @e!ruar,8 2013+

Asteroids

&n asteroid is a sma-- ro?, or meta--i !od, that is in or!it around the un6 The, are -arger than

meteoroids8 ,et sma--er than a p-anet6 ome soures re4er to them as -e4tover 4ragments 4rom

the 4ormation o4 the so-ar s,stem6

There are mi--ions o4 asteroids or!iting the sun most o4 them an !e 4ound in the asteroid !e-t8a vast ring o4 asteroids -oated !et7een the or!its o4 ars and Aupiter6 &steroids an !e as -arge

as hundreds o4 ?i-ometres 7ide6

Basiona--,8 some o4 the asteroids an !e de4-eted into the inner o-ar ,stem8 due to the

strong gravitationa- in4-uene !, ars and Aupiter8 and an ome into -ose proimit, 7ith Earth6

Asteroid8 Wikipedia%n6d6+


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2. Types of craters

The si


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2.2. Comple$ Craters

Comp-e impat raters have a sing-e or mu-tip-e pea?s in the midd-e o4 the rater6 These raters

have diameters !et7een a!out 20 and 15?m8 and the entra- up-i4t is usua--, one or a 4e7

pea?s6Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning%n6d6+

The main di44erene !et7een omp-e raters and simp-e raters is the gravit, o4 the !od, !eing

hit and the strength o4 the target materia-6 Bn the oon8 a -arger asteroid or omet %10;20?m+

is needed to redue a omp-e rater 7ith the orret harateristis6 Chris Dann %15 arh8

2010+

Figure % !arts of a Comple$ Crater Figure & !icture of a Comple$ Crater

@igure ': Different Types of Impact Craters, Janus %n6d6+

@igure 5:Chris Dann %15 arh8 2010+

Figure '(uler crater, a comple$ crater )it* a

diameterof 2+#m and a dept* of 2.m

Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning

(n.d.)


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2.". (longate Craters

E-ongate raters depend on the ang-e o4 the impat o4 the asteroid or omet 7ith the sur4ae6

&t an ang-e %e6g6 10+ to the sur4ae8 the impat o!=et tends to g-ane o44 and resu-t in a rater

that appears e-ongated6Chris Dann %15 arh8 2010+

Figure !icture of an (longate Crater Figure + Sc*iller Crater

hi--er rater is approimate-, 1)0?m in -ength

and 0?m 7ide6 eoffroynon %2 @e!ruar,8

2012+

2.%. Multi-ring asins

u-ti;ring !asins are !asia--, the -argest raters 4ound on the

oon sur4ae6 & !asin has a rim diameter greater than 300?m6

There are over '0 impat !asins on the oon6 D1' The, are

produed !, the asteroid or omet hitting the hard oon

sur4ae and ausing ripp-es in the -a,er !eneath the

asthenosphere6 The asthenosphere is visous and moves upon

impat6 The -a,er a!ove the asthenosphere8 the -ithosphere8

ripp-es !ut is muh 4irmer8 and there4ore ra?s 4orm in ir-esaround the impat6 Chris Dann %15 arh8 2010+

Figure 1/ Sc*rodingner

hrodinger is 320?m in diameter8 and has an inner ring8 7hih

is 150?m in diameter and a!out 5F omp-ete6

Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning%n6d6+

Figure 0 Multi-ing asin


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". T*e bser3ations Moon Crater

oon is se-eted as our o!servator, o!=et as it has undergone the ate .eav, om!ardment 3

!i--ion ,ears ago8 -eaving !ehind man, raters on its sur4ae6

%. Craters on t*e Moon

mpat raters on the moon are the remains o4 o--isions !et7een an asteroid8 omet8 or

meteorite and the oon6 These o!=ets hit the oon at a range o4 speeds resu-ting in di44erent

t,pes o4 raters8 o4 var,ing shapes and si


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These raters range in si


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B!servation 7as made 4rom "U UTo7nHs To7n Green on 2)th

arh 2013 at 9615pm6

Figure 1" Set up demonstration pictures

16 et the tripod 7ith the eJuatoria- mount attahed in a standing position !, spreading

the -egs apart and tighten a-- !o-ts and 7ing nuts to ensure proper sta!i-it,

26 P-ae the te-esope optia- tu!e onto the eJuatoria- mount !, removing the t7o !o-ts

and 7ashers 4rom the te-esope tu!e mount !ra?et6 Put the !o-ts through the sadd-e

!ra?et8 into the te-esope tu!e mount !ra?et and tighten6

36 Bne te-esope is read,8 point it to7ards the moon

'6 B!serve the moon and a-so ta?e photos o4 moon !, p-aing amera -ens in 4ront o4 the

e,epiee

@rom our o!servations8 2 distint raters ou-d !e seen 7ith other sma-- raters on the moonHs

sur4ae6 The raters varied in si


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'. ur bser3ations

'.1 4istinct Craters on Moon

Figure 1% !ictures of moon ta#en using a 4S5

Jedidiah Lim%25tharh 2013+

@rom the photograph8 7e o!served distint 4eatures on the moon6 n partiu-ar8 2 impat raters

stand out 4rom the others8 7hih are named T,ho and Copernius6

Figure 1& Selenograp*ic Coordinates of

t*e moon

!elenographic Coordinates, Wikipedia%n6d6+

t is to !e noted that the perspetive o4 our

photographed moon has a di44erent

orientation as the one provided a!ove due

to our position at the eJuator %the ra!!itI

in our photograph is rotated 90 degrees

anti-o?7ise 7hen ompared to the photo

on the -e4t+6


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@or the photograph %7ith oordinate -ines+ a!ove8 &stronomers de4ined the 4undamenta-

-oation in the se-enographi oordinate s,stem !, the sma--8 !o7-;shaped sate--ite rater

>Lsting &>6

'.1.1. Tyc*o 6Crater7

T,ho is the -argest prominent rater o!served on the moon

sur4ae6 @rom our perspetive %eJuator+8 it is -oated around

the 2 oH-o? diretion %as pointed out in @igure 1'+6 t is a

iru-ar rater surrounded !, a !right e=eta !-an?et6

Figure 1'Image of Tyc*o

Tycho, Lunar and "lanetary Institute%n6d6+

@rom the e-enographi oordinates s,stem, it is 4ound near to the southern po-ar region o4 the

moon 7ith oordinates o4 '3631 1163(#6 The !right and de4ined e=eta !-an?et suggests that

it is a re-ative-, ,oung rater ompared to the other raters 7ith du-- sur4aes6

tudies sho7 that it has a diameter o4 approimate-, )5 ?m8 depth o4 '6)?m and is a!out 10)

mi--ion ,ears o-d8 7hih is re-ative-, ,oung ompared to other raters6 Tycho Crater, Wikipedia

%n6d6+

Drawing the crater Tycho

Figures 1+ and 10Mra7ings o4 T,ho on paper

"oe-,n Tan %2)

th

arh8 2013+


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'.1.2. Copernicus 6Crater7

The seond prominent rater is Copernius rater8 7hih is -oated at the south o4 the moon

4rom our o!servation6

Figure 1A !icture of Copernicus

Crater Copernius is a iru-ar rater 7ith prominent ra,s8 and is easi-, identi4ia!-e 7ith a

te-esope6 @rom our perspetive %eJuator+8 it is -oated a-ong the ( oH-o? o4 the moonHs image

%as pointed out !, the arro7 a!ove6+

Figure 1 !icture of Copernicus

!pace Telescope !cience Institute # Crater Copernicus, Wikipedia%n6d6+


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t has a e-enographi oordinate o4 96" 2060# and is -oated s-ight-, north7est o4 the enter

o4 the oon>s Earth;4aing hemisphere6 The iru-ar rim has a diserni!-e heagona- 4orm and a

terraed inner 7a--6

tudies sho7 that Copernius Crater has a diameter o4 93?m8 a depth o4 36)?m and is a!out )00

mi--ion ,ears o-d6 Copernicus, Lunar and "lanetary Institute%n6d6+

. !urpose of ($periment

B!servations made 4rom the te-esope main-, sho7ed iru-ar raters6 To !etter o!serve the

di44erent strutures o4 the rater8 and a-so to understand ho7 the, o!tained their respetive

shapes8 7e deided to ondut an eperiment to simu-ate the 4ormation o4 impat raters6

+. Conduct of ($periment

To get the di44erent t,pes o4 impat raters8 as -isted in the introdution8 7e have identi4ied 3

main 4ators that a44ets its 4ormation ; the speed8 mass o4 the impator8 and the ang-e o4

impat6 Kno7ing that it is di44iu-t to Juanti4, the hanging speeds o4 the impator8 7e indiret-,

varied the speed !, hanging the height8 7hih in turn varies the Gravitationa- Potentia- Energ,

and orresponding Kineti Energ,6 #hi-e the 4ore o4 impat is di44iu-t to Juanti4, a-so8 the

mass o4 the impator is varied to hange the resu-tant 4ore o4 impat6 Changing suh

independent varia!-es 7i-- a--o7 us to reate di44erent t,pes o4 raters6 The hange in ang-e o4

impat 7ou-d a--o7 us to hange the shape o4 the rater6

.ene8 in our eperiment8 7e var, the height o4 drop %7hih represents variane in ve-oit, and

?ineti energ, o4 the impator+8 the mass o4 impator %7hih varies 4ore o4 impat+ and the

ang-e o4 impat %7hih varies the shape o4 the rater+ to o!tain the 4ormation o4 di44erent t,pes

o4 raters6

0. !rocedure of ($periment

0.1. ($perimental en3ironment

The eperiment 7as onduted in an en-osed area8 under non;7ind, onditions6 This 7as done

to redue an, deviation in the path o4 -ight;7eighted impators 7hih ou-d have hanged the

ang-e o4 the impat and a-so the spread pattern o4 e=eta ra,s6


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Figure 10 etup o4 the eperiment

0.2. ($perimental setup and procedures

Part 1: General setup of the platform for the crater to form

1+ Prepare an a-uminium tra, to ho-d the 4-our and ensure that there are no ho-es to avoid

-ea?age o4 the 4-our6

2+ &dd 4-our into the tra, unti- the -eve- is a!out ) m deep to ensure that there is su44iient

depth 4or a !ig rater to 4orm6

3+ "et8 sprin?-e o44ee po7der on the sur4ae o4 the 4-our8 ma?ing sure that it is =ust

su44iient to over the 4-our and a--o7 a !ro7n sur4ae to !e seen6

Figure 1+ Coffee po)der spread on t*e surface of t*e flour

Part 2: Experimental part for varying masses of all earings

use!" maintaining the si#e of all an! height of !rop$

'+ tarting 7ith the -ightest !a-- !earing %)625 g+8 p-ae a

metre ru-er %100m+ !eside the tra, and drop the !a--

!earing 4rom a height o4 50m into the !o6 To ensure

greater aura,8 another ru-er is p-aed perpendiu-ar-,

at the mar? to ensure that the !a-- !earing is 4a--ing 4rom

the orret height6


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5+ B!serve the spread o4 ra,s %4-our+ on the o44ee po7der and p-ae a short ru-er net to

the NraterH 4ormed6 easure the -ength o4 the ra,s and the diameter o4 the rater using the

ru-er6 Use vernier a--ipers to measure depth o4 rater6 Ta?e a photograph o4 the NraterH 4or

eva-uation6

(+ emove the !ro7n o44ee po7der in the NraterH6 eset the eperimenta- set;up !, 4i--ing

the NraterH 7ith the 4-our and overing the sur4ae 7ith o44ee po7der again6

+ epeat step %3+ to step %(+ 7ith the other !a-- !earings8 in asending order o4 their

masses %7ith 1(6)5g8 111692 g+6 This 7ou-d on-ude the eperimenta- part 4or var,ing

masses6

Part %: Experimental part for varying height of !ropping the all earing

)+ n this part8 the mass is ?ept onstant !, using the same !a-- !earing o4 mass 111692 g6

Using the same tra, used in Part 28 set the starting point on the ru-er to the shortest height

4irst %'0 m+ and p-ae it at the side o4 the !o8 the same 7a, it 7as done in step %'+6

9+ P-ae the !a-- !earing o4 mass 111692 g at the '0 m mar? o4 the metre ru-e and drop it

into the tra,6

11+ &gain8 o!serve the spread o4 the 4-our on the o44ee po7der %ra,s+ and p-ae a short

ru-er against the NraterH 4ormed6 Ta?e a photograph o4 the NraterH 4or eva-uation6 &-someasure the diameter o4 the rater and the -ength o4 ra,s 4ormed6

Figure 2/ ($ample of obser3ation of t*e 8crater9 for 3arious *eig*ts


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12+ emove the !ro7n o44ee po7der in the NraterH6 eset the eperimenta- set;up !,

4i--ing the NraterH 7ith the 4-our and overing the sur4ae 7ith o44ee po7der again6

13+ epeat step %9+ to step %12+ !, var,ing the height in asending order %7ith 5m8 (0 m8

)0 m and 100 m+6 This 7ou-d on-ude the eperimenta- part 4or var,ing heights6

Part &: Experimental part for varying the angle of impact of the all earing

1'+ @or this part o4 the eperiment8 in order 4or the ang-e o4 impat to !e the on-, varia!-e8

the mass o4 !a-- !earing used is ?ept onstant at 13693 g and the height has to 4ied at 30m6

15+ Using 2 o4 the retort stands and the tu!e8 reate a path 4or the !a-- !earing to ro-- do7n8

as sho7n !e-o7:

Figure 21 Eperimenta- set;up 4or var,ing ang-es o4 impat

The protrator seen in @igure 21 is used to hange the ang-e o4 ti-t o4 the !-a? tu!e8 a--o7ing us

to var, the ang-e o4 impat6

1(+ P-ae the same tra,8 as used in the previous parts8 diagona--, against the end o4 the

!-a? tu!e8 a--o7ing more spae 4or the !a-- !earing to Nro--H6

1+ &d=ust the ang-e o4 ti-t o4 the !-a? tu!e to 30 using the protrator %:T(&d=ust the

height o4 the retort stands 7henever neessar,8 as the retort stands he-ps to provide

support 4or the !-a? tu!e+6


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1)+ Using a metre ru-er8 measure the position on the !-a? tu!e8 7here it is 30 m a!ove

the ground6 %:T(t is important to maintain the same height8 in order to ensure that the

ang-e o4 impat is the on-, varia!-e+6

19+ P-ae the !a-- !earing o4 mass 13693 g at the measured position and )it*out pus*ing;

a--o7 the !a-- !earing to ro-- do7n the !-a? tu!e6

20+ B!serve the spread o4 the 4-our on the o44ee po7der and p-ae a short ru-er against the

NraterH 4ormed6 Ta?e a photograph o4 the NraterH 4or eva-uation6 easure the diameter o4

the rater 4ormed and the -ength o4 ra,s reated6

21+ emove the !ro7n o44ee po7der in the NraterH6 eset the eperimenta- set;up !,

4i--ing the NraterH 7ith the 4-our and overing the sur4ae 7ith o44ee po7der again6

22+ epeat step %1+ to step %21+ !, var,ing the ang-e o4 ti-t in asending order %7ith (0 and

90+6 This 7ou-d on-ude the eperimenta- part 4or var,ing ang-es o4 impat6


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1/. esults

1/.1.


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1/.2. ect

Constants: Height of drop = 50.0cm

Angle of impact = 90.0

Diameter of Ball = 3.0cm

Experiment Mass of

Object (g)

Diameter of

Crater with

Rays (cm)

Diameter of

Crater without

rays (cm)

Length of

Rays (cm)

Depth ofCrater (cm)

F 8.25 8.875 2.625 6.250 1.290

G 16.785 10.955 3.675 7.280 1.605

H 111.92 13.545 4.000 9.545 2.985

Correlation Co-efficient,

r = 0.9722

Figure 23: Length of Rays against Mass of Object

Conclusions: By plotting a graph of length of rays (cm) against mass of object (cm), there

exists an almost perfect positive linear correlation between the two variables (r = 0.9722).

Therefore as the mass of object increases, the length of rays produced increases almost

proportionately.

)62508 (6250

1(6)58 62)0

11169208 965'5

0600

2600

'600

(600

)600

10600

12600

060 2060 '060 (060 )060 10060 12060

5engt*

of 1ays

6cm7

Mass of 2b>ect 6g7

5engt* of ays 6cm7 against Mass of b>ect 6g7

Gengt

h o4

a,s

%m+


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1/.".


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11. bser3ations made from e$periment@rom the eperiments onduted8 7e notied the !asi strutures o4 raters and s?ethed them

out6 #e notied that -arger raters tend to have 4-atter 4-oors 7ith a entra- up-i4t6 Pitures o4

-arger raters on-ine a-so sho7ed signs o4 terraes6

Figures 2& and 2'?ethes o4 Craters

$oelyn Tan%23rd

arh8 2013+

11.1. Terminologies

Floor The !ottom o4 a rater8 either !o7-;shaped or 4-at

Central pea#s%o!served in omp-e raters+O Pea?s 4ormed in the entra- area o4 the 4-oor o4 a

-arge rater6 @or -arger raters %t,pia--, a 4e7 tens o4 ?i-ometers in diameter+ the eavated

rater !eomes so great that it o--apses on itse-46 Co--apse o4 the materia- !a? into the rater

pushes up the mound that 4orms the entra- pea?6 &t the same time8 the ro? !eneath the

rater re!ounds8 or !ounes !a? up to add to the pea?6

alls The interior sides o4 a rater8 usua--, steep6 The, ma, have giant stair;-i?e terraes that

are reated !, s-umping o4 the 7a--s due to gravit,6

im The edge o4 the rater6 t is e-evated a!ove the surrounding terrain !eause it is

omposed o4 materia- pushed up at the edge during eavation6

(>ecta o? materia- thro7n out o4 the rater area during an impat event6 t is distri!uted

out7ard 4rom the rater>s rim onto the p-anet>s sur4ae as de!ris6


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ays right strea?s etending a7a, 4rom the rater sometimes 4or great distanes8 omposed

o4 e=eta materia-6 Impact Cratering, Lunar and "lanetary Institute%n6d6+

&n additiona- thing to note is the variet, o4 minera-s 4ound in the e=eta !-an?et6 The oon has

minera-s suh as ,ttrium8 -anthanum and samarium8 7hih i4 suess4u--, mined8 an !e used 4or

the ma?ing o4 high;teh produts 4or ivi-ian and mi-itar, use %e6g6 missi-es or 7ind tur!ines+6D20

ridie mith %21 @e!ruar,8 2013+

12. Conclusion

@rom the resu-ts o4 the eperiment onduted8 it an !e on-uded that the -ength o4 ra,s 4rom

raters 4ormed are diret-, proportiona- to the ?ineti energ, o4 the impator8 the 4ore o4

impat and inverse-, proportiona- to the ang-e 4rom the hori


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1". eferences

mpat Crater8 #i?ipedia%n6d6+

http://en67i?ipedia6org/7i?i/mpatrater

ar a--ani--a %15 @e!ruar,8 2013+6 What are an Asteroid, a Meteor and a Meteorite%

http://7776-ivesiene6om/21)3;asteroid;meteorite;meteor;meteoroid6htm-

&steroid8 #i?ipedia %n6d6+ http://en67i?ipedia6org/7i?i/&steroid

mpat Craters on the oon8 Enhanted earning %n6d6+

http://7776enhanted-earning6om/su!=ets/astronom,/moon/Craters6shtm-

Mi44erent T,pes o4 mpat Craters8 Aanus %n6d6+

http&''(anus)astro)umd)edu'astro'impact'cratertypes)html

Chris Dann %15 arh8 2010+

The Mi44erent T,pes o4 mpat Craters and .o7 to pot Them8 Chris Mann %15 arh8 2010+

http&''***)*eird*arp)com'+-'.'the/different/types/of/impact/craters/and/ho*/to/spot/

them'

Geo44ro,non %2 @e!ruar,8 2012+ !chiller Crater

http://!-og6moon


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pae Te-esope iene nstitute O Crater Copernius8 #i?ipedia %n6d6+

http://en67i?ipedia6org/7i?i/@i-e:paeTe-esopeienenstitute;

CraterCopernius%pd+6=pg

mpat Cratering8 unar and P-anetar, nstitute %n6d6+

http://7776-pi6usra6edu/eduation/ep-ore/shapingthep-anets/impatratering6shtm-

Copernius8 unar and P-anetar, nstitute %n6d6+

http://7776-pi6usra6edu/eduation/time-ine/ga--er,/s-ide396htm-

ridie mith8 The ,dne, orning .era-d %21 @e!ruar,8 2013+ Moon mining looks to unco0er

hidden gems

http://7776smh6om6au/tehno-og,/si;teh/moon;mining;-oo?s;to;unover;hidden;gems;

20130220;2eroa6htm-Qi

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Understanding the Universe Term Paper