UNEP VMUN 2017 Background Guide 1 · UNEP VMUN 2017 Background Guide 1 Dear Delegates, My name is Colin Blackadar and I am beyond ecstatic to be the director of UNEP at VMUN 2017

UNEP VMUN 2017 Background Guide 1

UNEP VMUN 2017 Background Guide 1

Dear Delegates, My name is Colin Blackadar and I am beyond ecstatic to be the director of UNEP at VMUN 2017. I’m currently a grade 12 student at West Point Grey Academy. My involvement in Model UN began just over two years ago in Grade 10. My friends forced me to go to a conference, and I’ve loved the heated debates, intriguing resolutions, and long lasting friendships that Model UN can offer. As you director, I’m looking forward riveting arguments and monumental compromises that will happen in our committee room this upcoming January. Since the UNEP’s is the leading environmental authority of the UN, there will be a great deal of sub-topics to cover with our two main topics: sustainable infrastructure and land desertification. The UNEP’s scope and mandate will aid us in delving deeply into the topics to find captivating, comprehensive resolutions to some of the biggest issues that our world faces. Our first topic, sustainable infrastructure in developing nations, will provide delegates with an experience in almost all realms of international environmental affairs. Instead of simply focusing on one aspect of the environment, we will be focusing on every part of it and implementing sound strategies to deal with the issues that developing nations face. This should definitely be an enthralling and contentious topic considering the widely differing views on the environment around the world. The next topic, land desertification, is one that has not been discussed very often. When discussing this issue, delegates will learn and understand the dangerous impact of land degradation. It is up to delegates to figure out if we should simply build “great green walls” around the world or if another solution should be executed. All around, these topics fascinate me, and I hope they do the same for the delegates. It should be an exciting three days this January, and I cannot wait to see you all there. Most sincerely, Colin Blackadar Director of UNEP – VMUN 2017

Alvin Tsuei Secretary-General

Chris Pang

Chief of Staff

Eva Zhang Director-General

Arjun Mehta

Director of Logistics

Graeme Brawn USG General Assemblies

Ryan Karimi

USG Specialized Agencies

Mary Dong USG Conference

Ken Hong

USG Delegate Affairs

Isabelle Cheng USG Delegate Affairs

Jason Qu

USG Finance

Jan Lim USG Marketing

VANCOUVER MODEL UNITED NATIONS the sixteenth annual conference | January 20-22, 2017

UNEP VMUN 2017 Background Guide

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United Nations Environment Programme

Position Paper Policy What is a Position Paper? A position paper is a brief overview of a country’s stance on the topics being discussed by a particular committee. Though there is no specific format the position paper must follow, it should include a description of your positions your country holds on the issues on the agenda, relevant actions that your country has taken, and potential solutions that your country would support. At Vancouver Model United Nations, delegates should write a position paper for each of the committee’s topics. Each position paper should not exceed one page, and should all be combined into a single document per delegate. Formatting Position papers should: — Include the name of the delegate, his/her country, and the committee — Be in a standard font (e.g. Times New Roman) with a 12-point font size and 1-inch document margins — Not include illustrations, diagrams, decorations, national symbols, watermarks, or page borders — Include citations and a bibliography, in any format, giving due credit to the sources used in research (not included in the 1-page limit) Due Dates and Submission Procedure Position papers for this committee must be submitted by midnight on January 8th, 2017. Once your position paper is complete, please save the file as your last name, your first name and send it as an attachment in an email, to your committee’s email address, with the subject heading as your last name, your first name — Position Paper. Please do not add any other attachments to the email or write anything else in the body. Both your position papers should be combined into a single PDF or Word document file; position papers submitted in another format will not be accepted. Each position paper will be manually reviewed and considered for the Best Position Paper award. The email address for this committee is [email protected].


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Table of Contents

Providing Environmentally Sustainable Infrastructure in the Developing World ........ 4 Overview .................................................................................................................................... 4 Timeline ..................................................................................................................................... 5 Historical Analysis .................................................................................................................... 6 Current Situation ...................................................................................................................... 7 Past UN/International Involvement ......................................................................................... 9 Possible Solutions and Controversies ..................................................................................... 10 Bloc Positions .......................................................................................................................... 11

Developed Nations With Poor Environmental Records .............................................................. 11 Developing Nations With Poor Environmental Records (China, India, etc.) ........................... 11 Global Environmental Leaders (Canada, Norway, Sweden, Japan) ............................................ 11 Oil Exporting Nations (Russia, Canada, USA, OPEC) ................................................................. 11

Discussion Questions .............................................................................................................. 11 Additional Resources .............................................................................................................. 12 References ................................................................................................................................ 12

Addressing the Causes and Consequences of Land Desertification ............................. 15 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 15 Timeline ................................................................................................................................... 16 Historical Analysis .................................................................................................................. 17 Current Situation .................................................................................................................... 18 Past UN/International Involvement ....................................................................................... 20 Possible Solutions and Controversies ..................................................................................... 21 Bloc Positions .......................................................................................................................... 22

Canada ................................................................................................................................................. 22 China ................................................................................................................................................... 22 Russia ................................................................................................................................................... 22 South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East ........................................................... 22 USA and Australia ............................................................................................................................. 22 Northern Europe and Other Countries Not Experiencing Significant Desertification ........... 22

Discussion Questions .............................................................................................................. 23 Additional Resources .............................................................................................................. 23 References ................................................................................................................................ 23


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United Nations Environment Programme Topic A

Providing Environmentally Sustainable Infrastructure in the Developing World Overview

A comparison of foreign aid donations by amount and percentage of GNI.1, 2

We often associate thoughts of poor environmental stewardship with countries like the United States and China -- countries that have consistently had a poor environmental reputation. What many fail to realize, however, is the harmful impact that smaller, poorer, and less developed countries have on the environment. These nations often lack proper infrastructure to deal with environmental issues and have economies based around the use of fossil fuels, so turning to green alternatives would be very costly and would mean halting economic growth. These developing nations struggle environmentally in a number of different areas. Primarily, these nations lack access to proper waste management and sanitation services, alternatives to excessive fossil 1"A Summary of Rich Country Foreign Aid in 2007." Ipezone. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

2Dean, Kevin. "Foreign Aid Summary." Foreign Policy Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. y/


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fuel use, sustainable agricultural methods, and sustainable urban planning. To put this issue into perspective, poor sanitation and water quality leads to the death of almost two million people annually, and urban air pollution contributes to just under one million.3 Today, people are beginning to recognize these issues and are taking serious steps to curb them before it’s too late. UNEP, for example, has financed numerous projects to provide clean energy to countries such as India, Tunisia, and Morocco. The most notable project provided 100,000 Indian people with clean energy from solar panels.4 This project was very successful; however, to adequately address the aforementioned issues, the world must taken action on a much larger scale. To take that action, it is imperative that wealthy, developed nations cooperate and help fund future programs. Many of these countries, though, fail to provide enough financing for these causes. For example, the United States, with a GNI (Gross National Income) of $16.99 trillion, provides only 0.18% of this number to developmental assistance.5 On the other hand, Sweden provides 1.40% of its $447.8 billion GNI on this aid. 6 If the world waits too long, the effects of this issue will become even more detrimental than they already are. It’s time that people around the world realize that any nation -- no matter how rich or poor, developed or undeveloped they are -- can choose to harm the environment, or help it. Timeline 1929 - Britain puts the “Colonial Development Act.” Essentially, Britain recognized that it had a duty to deal with underdevelopment in its colonies. Before this, most countries thought that poor nations and colonies should be left alone to deal with their own problems.7 1972 - The first UN environment conference happens. The UNEP is established.8 1972 - The Stockholm conference determines that environmental problems in developing countries are caused by underdevelopment and poverty. The conference decides that developing countries should direct their efforts to development.9 1987 - The UN published the Brundtland Report, and the idea of sustainable development become a common goal.10 1991 - The Global Environmental Facility is established to give more decision-making power over aid dollars to work on biodiversity, climate change, water, etc.11 2005 - The UNEP and the UNDP launch the Poverty-Environment Initiative (PEI). This program,

3 "WHO | Environment and Health in Developing Countries." WHO | Environment and Health in Developing Countries. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

4Finance, Climate Change. "United Nations Environment Programme."UNEP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

5 Larsson, Naomi. "Foreign Aid: Which Countries Are the Most Generous?" The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 09 Sept. 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

6 Ibid

7"Colonial Development Act." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

8 Unep. "United Nations Environment Programme." Stockholm 1972. UNEP, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

9 Ibid

10 Cassen, R. H. "Review: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development." International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 64.1

(1987): 126. UN. Web. 22 Oct. 2016.

11 "Sustainable Development Timeline." IISD, n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2016.


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taking place in 25 countries, mainstreams environmental objectives in government policies in an effort to reduce poverty.12 2007 - The UNEP helps provide more than 100,000 people in India with electricity from solar panels.13 2008 - With an understanding that climate change can “exacerbate the economic, political and humanitarian stresses”14 on developing nations, the UNEP and other organizations launch the African Adaptation program. Primarily supported by a Japanese donation of US$92.1, the program aided in long-term planning, financing, and environmental education over the following three years. 2010 - Su Wei, the chief negotiator of China for climate change talks at the 2009 conference in Copenhagen, says that China, a developing country taking full advantage of the economic benefit of using greenhouse gasses, “could not and should not” cap emissions.15 2012 - The Global Alliance on Health and Pollution finds that exposure to polluted soil, water, and air in developing countries resulted in the death of 8.4 million people that year.16 2014 - During september, OPEC increases output of oil by 402,000 barrels each day. OPEC countries continue to show a reluctance to reduce oil output.17 2015 - UNDP formally recognizes the need for access to clean energy sources in all developing countries and says that they can “encourage growth and help the environment.”18 2016 - Ocean Conservancy, a US environmental non-profit, claims that 60% of ocean garbage comes from just five developing countries: China, Vietnam, Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand.19 Historical Analysis The increasing prevalence of fossil fuel usage in the late nineteenth century radically altered the planet. It allowed countries like the United States and Britain to become industrialized and even more economically powerful. As a result, the world quickly became divided; industrialized nations became rich and powerful, while developing nations remained agriculture-based impoverished. The world remained this way for decades. Richer nations became richer, while developing nations were left to deal with their own problems. This changed in 1929 as a shift in moral purpose coupled with the Great Depression led Britain to create the Colonial Development Act. This act promised British aid to colonies with poor infrastructure. Although Britain’s actions were meager, they acted as a catalyst to a rapid increase in global aid from other colonial powers. Later, in 1972, the UN held their first major environmental conference. With regards to developing nations, the UN Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment stated that “developing countries must direct their efforts to development…[because]...most of the environmental

12 "Select a Page." UNPEI. UNPEI, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

13 "Press Releases April 2007 - UNEPs India Solar Loan Programme Wins Prestigious Energy Globe - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)." United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP). N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

14 "Africa Adaptation Programme." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

15 "China Has "No Intention" of Capping Emissions." China Has "No Intention" of Capping Emissions. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

16 "Pollution: The Silent Killer of Millions in Poor Countries - Global Alliance on Health and PollutionGlobal Alliance on Health and Pollution." Global Alliance on Health and Pollution. N.p., n.d.

Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

17 "OPEC's Biggest Supply Boost Since '11 Spurs Bear Market."Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

18 "Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

19 "Half of Plastic Ocean Trash Comes from 5 Countries." CNBC. CNBC, 14 Jan. 2016. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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problems [of developing countries] are caused by underdevelopment.”20 With this declaration, the world began its task of developing the developing world. The issue that comes with developing an economy, however, is the ease of compromising nature. When resources are scarce and money is not easy to come by, using petroleum and ignoring environmental issues is an easy way to quickly become industrialized. After all, that’s what the United States, Britain, and other developed countries did. By the late 1970s, many developing nations were undergoing the same process that wealthier countries experienced 100 years ago. Finally, in 1987, the term “sustainable development” was coined in the UN Brundtland report.21 Sustainable development “calls for the convergence between the three pillars of economic development, social equity, and environmental protection.”22 Following this report, the goal was no longer to eradicate all environmental damage but instead to find a balance between economic gains and preserving the planet. To this day, this is widely accepted to be the primary goal around the world. Current Situation The increasing impact of environmental damage on the daily lives of people around the world has undoubtedly stimulated a recent increase in action. Nowadays, people have begun to recognize the issues that the world faces both in the developed and developing nations. In fact, after the United States-China Joint Announcement on Climate Change, an agreement that limits greenhouse gas emissions, President Obama mentioned that it’s now very “possible to bridge the old divide between developed and developing nations that had stymied global progress for so long” (Obama).23 With that said, the issues are far from being resolved. Developing nations are still faced with numerous environmental problems and are struggling to deal with them. Primarily, developing countries abuse fossil fuels for their economic potential. A perfect example of this is China. Emerging from the poor economic policies of the “Mao-era,” China’s industries boomed due to their abundance of coal. Now, after decades of environmental harm, China emits the most carbon dioxide out of all nations: 7.7 billion tonnes annually.24 That’s more than Canada and the United States combined.25 The consequences of all of these emissions are serious. For example, according to the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), “conditions caused by air pollution killed 1.6 million people in China… in 2013.”26 And moral purpose is not enough to stop a country like China from harming the environment. Without help, it is impossible for developing countries to institute policies that aid the environment because if they do that, their economies will suffer immensely. Governments have a right to protect their people, and by subjecting them to poverty and poor economic times, they won’t be doing their job. Thus, it isn’t a question of if these nations should reduce their environmental impact; it’s instead a question of if they should force their people to die of starvation and poverty. Furthermore, many developing nations struggle with urbanization. In countries like the United States and Canada, urbanization is seen as a flood of people to a centralised area with skyscrapers and job opportunities. In developing nations, though, the positive parts of urbanization are few and far 20 Unep. "United Nations Environment Programme." Stockholm 1972. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

21 Cassen, R. H. "Review: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development." International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 64.1

(1987): 126. UN. Web. 22 Oct. 2016.

22 Ibid

23 "President Obama's Statement on Climate Change". White House Briefing Room. 22 Oct. 2016.

24 Rogers, Simon, and Lisa Evans. "World Carbon Dioxide Emissions Data by Country: China Speeds Ahead of the Rest." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 31 Jan. 2011. Web. 23 Oct.

2016.

25 Ibid

26 Yuhas, Alan. "Scientists: Air Pollution Led to More than 5.5 Million Premature Deaths in 2013." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 12 Feb. 2016. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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between. Generally, what people find when they migrate to an urban area in a developing nation is poverty, disease, pollution, and poor food and water quality, all examples of unsustainable urban development. According to the UN, sustainable urban development requires things like “investment to tackle land-use issues...transportation infrastructure development, biodiversity conservation, water conservation, renewable energy sourcing, [and] waste and recycling management.”27 All of the aforementioned requirements are vital to combating environmental issues. For example, land-use is generally not a top priority for developing nations, so parks and other animal habitats are not conserved resulting in a loss of biodiversity. Also, proper transportation infrastructure like trains can significantly reduce the amount of vehicle emissions. Furthermore, waste management can aid in reducing the amount of garbage in nature that poses serious issues for wildlife. To allow urban areas in poorer countries to grow sustainably, they will need help when it comes to urban planning and funds for sustainable infrastructure. The next environmental problem, sanitation, waste, and water management, is proving to be a massive environmental concern. This is because water pollution threatens biodiversity in marine ecosystems and, more importantly, threatens the lives of millions of humans. In fact, according to UN Water, “Approximately 3.5 million deaths related to inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene occur each year, predominantly in developing countries.”28 Poor water quality is primarily the result of a lack of basic water treatment facilities and waste management. Recent scientific advancements like AQUAtap and HydroPack can aid tremendously in impoverished nations when it comes to water access because of their effectiveness and small pricetag. The only problem is getting it to people, but these advancements show that research can significantly impact international aid. Lastly, we need to look at agriculture as both a perpetrator and victim of climate change.Many crops release large quantities of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane into the air, all of which are harmful greenhouse gasses. Also, the extensive amounts of land required for agriculture causes further problems for developing nations. Since trees help convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen, deforestation exacerbates the issue of climate change. Moreover, chemicals, pollutants, and irrigation have detrimental effects on nearby water sources. Nevertheless, this industry is also paying the price for its environmental harm. Warmer and harsher weather has led to soil degradation and land desertification making it difficult to maintain crop yields. In the near future, the impact of this is likely food shortage and economic troubles for many underdeveloped nations since many are reliant on agriculture. Recently, though, research into genetically modified organisms has proven to increase crop yield and calorie content of this food. Although this research is only new, it could be lifesaving in the future when agriculture faces near extinction due to climate change. Lastly, the overarching issue when it comes to international environmental affairs is the fact the all international affairs take place in anarchy. Though the UN is the leading international governing body, it does not have any reliable means to get countries to keep up with their promises. Thus, this creates what is known as a collective action problem or commitment issue. Essentially, there is no incentive for one country alone to take action unless every other country does it as well because a single country will not be able to make a large enough impact. And of course, there’s always the possibility that another nation could back out of its promise, which makes it difficult for countries to trust one another. Many nations and organizations have attempted to deal with this through sanctions; however, collective action problems continue to be the main barrier in getting nations to actively pursue their commitments. Evidently, the world still faces many environmental issues in developing nations. These issues prove

27"Rapid Urbanization Threatens Sustainable Development | UN DESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

28"Water Quality." UN-Water:. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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much more threatening than in developed nations because of the lack of healthcare, proper infrastructure, and environmental guidelines. Solutions to these issues are complex and costly, and in some cases certain nations simply do not want to help others. For example, the world’s largest exporter of oil, Saudi Arabia, is not going to help another country transition to renewable energy. There are many problems in developing nations that are not impossible to solve, but differing foreign policies and commitment issues make it difficult for changes to be made. Past UN/International Involvement The first UN environmental conference, the Stockholm Conference, happened in 1972. This important conference outlined a framework for environmental action that had to be taken in the upcoming decades. Its importance lies primarily in the fact that it made hundreds of politicians aware of their impact on nature, and many agree that this conference has given a foundation to modern environmentalism. The increased environmental awareness caused by the Stockholm conference led to a number of international conferences and treaties. The Kyoto Protocol, for example, created binding targets for many developed nations to reduce their emissions. However, it failed to do so for developing nations since it recognized that richer countries have historically been responsible for emissions. So that meant that India and China were free to emit as many greenhouses gasses as they pleased. On top of this, the United States did not even ratify the treaty, so it was not legally bound to a reduction either. As the first commitment period (2008 - 2012) for the Kyoto Protocol began, some countries like the European union were on track to meeting their goals, but other like Canada failed to meet their targets and ended up pulling out of the treaty altogether.29 Furthermore, the United States and China had emitted more than enough greenhouse gasses to make it so any progress made by other nations would have no impact on global emissions.30 Recently, in 2012, a new commitment period where 37 nations, including the entire European Union, was decided upon; however, Russia, China, Canada, India, and the United States are not a part of it. Another notable conference is the Millennium Summit, held in 2000. The result of this was the Millennium Development Goals, a list of eight international development goals for the year 2015. There was an entire goal about environmental sustainability, and it had sub-sections regarding issues such as biodiversity loss, clean water and sanitation, and integrating sustainability into countries’ policies and programs. The goals were very successful in some areas -- poverty alleviation, child mortality, and empowerment of women -- but it is difficult to call them successful when it comes to sustainability.31 They definitely were successful when it comes to clean water since they nearly doubled the amount of access to piped drinking water since 1990.32 Furthermore, marine protected areas in Latin America and the Caribbean went from 8.8% in 1990 to 23.4% in 2015.33 Other areas were not so successful, though. For example, global carbon emissions have increased by 40% from 1990 to 2009, and the goals did not even mention the agriculture industry. Lastly, numerous Non-Governmental Organizations have proven to be able to make a big impact on developing nations. In fact, there’s even a name for these organizations: ENGOs (Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations). These associations offer training and assistance to agriculture workers

29 "What Is the Kyoto Protocol and Has It Made Any Difference?" The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 11 Mar. 2011. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

30 Ibid

31 Galatsidas, Achilleas, and Finbarr Sheehy. "What Have the Millennium Development Goals Achieved?" The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 06 July 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

32 Ibid

33@mdgmonitor. "MDG 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability." Millennium Development Goals. N.p., 15 Sept. 2016. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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on how to maximize resource efficiency, help provide sustainable equipment, establish relationships with government to aid them in implementing environmentally sound policies, etc. Aquatap, for example, is a company that created a simple system that uses solar power to purify drinking water. A recent project in Bom Jesus, Angola provided clean water to villagers at no cost. Companies and organizations like this can truly make a difference in developing countries. Thus, recent decades have been filled with ambitious goals that have unfortunately not been met for the most part. The Kyoto Protocol primarily failed because developing nations were allowed to abuse fossil fuels as much as they wanted. The Millennium Development Goals failed to address key issues like agriculture; though, they saw some success in other areas. All in all, many treaties are far too optimistic because of the difficulty of implementing environmentally sound policies in developing nations. These are some of the main issues that the UNEP needs to address. Possible Solutions and Controversies Scientific advancement has proven to be vital to combating environmental issues. Research results in finding more efficient ways to perform tasks at less expensive costs, so funding research to find less expensive renewable energy, water purification methods, sustainable production methods, etc. could be very beneficial. After all, this is a pricey problem that is getting more and more expensive with every day of inaction, so there needs to be more ways to be sustainable. There are two issues with this solution, however. First of all, most developing nations don’t have the means to invest millions of dollars into scientific research. They’re more focused on dealing with poverty and lack of development. Second of all, many nations simply don’t want to invest money into sustainability because they believe it will do more harm than good. It’s easy for an economy to thrive if they export one of the biggest raw materials: oil. It’s difficult to thrive, though, if the crucial export that has kept your economy going will become obsolete. Obviously, the issue of economies based entirely around fossil fuels will need to be addressed. With China reliant on coal as both an export and production ingredient and Saudi Arabia, other OPEC nations, and many other developing countries relying on oil as their main export, a way to not impede their economic growth while switching to sustainable energy is key. Obviously these nations will need some sort of financial incentive to change their ways and will need help implementing programs. The India solar loan program by the UNEP is a perfect example of how incentives like this can work. Should an initiative like that be taken on a larger scale, other nations could benefit as much as India. Extreme apprehension from the previously mentioned fossil fuel should be expected, however. Many developing nations also struggle with urbanization since they do not have environmentally sound policies and laws. Therefore, they will need help from other nations and NGOs in implementing such policies. This is already happening in some countries, so it’s definitely possible to do it on a larger scale. Although going into other nations to aid in urbanization is slightly out of the scope of UNEP, it’s very possible to call on other organization and UN bodies to aid in this effort. After all, “strengthening [governmental] laws and institutions” is one of UNEP’s goals.34 Lastly, to deal with the issue of commitment problems, sanction tend to be the go-to solution. They have historically been somewhat effective; however, sanction create their own commitment problems. If one trading partner decides to forgo the sanction, it is rendered practically useless. Therefore, another way to deal with commitment problems is to harm the international reputation of a country. Placing a nation under international scrutiny can also catalyze a change in its ways. No matter the solution, though, collective actions issues prove to be the biggest barrier that UNEP must take down to 34“Environmental Governance - UNEP” N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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see some tangible change. These are an important obstacle that need to be discussed further. As many would expect, a combination of all of these solutions is ideal. Furthermore a combination of even more solutions would further enhance the strength of a resolution. It’s important to realize, however, that not every nations will be happy with every solution. That’s why it’s important to compromise and try to appease as many people as possible. The more comprehensive and detailed a resolution can be, the better. Bloc Positions Developed Nations With Poor Environmental Records These nations are guilty for causing a large amount of the environmental harm that people see today. During their industrial revolution, they emitted large amounts of greenhouse gasses, and now most people are paying the price for that. Unfortunately, these countries still rely heavily on fossil fuels, but they are looking towards greener options. Even after years of action, their emissions still increase on a daily basis. These are, however, also nations that contribute the most to developmental aid. Developing Nations With Poor Environmental Records (China, India, etc.) These nations abused the environment for economic potential and have used the fact that they are still developing as an excuse. The amount of damage caused has had some good effects, however. For example, poverty is become less and less widespread in China, and the same thing is beginning to happen in India. These countries will unfortunately be quite reluctant when lessening their environmental damage; however, they may be slightly lenient when offered some sort of incentive. Now as these nations are becoming richer, they are even turning to developmental aid, but instead of being on the receiving end, they are on the supporting end. This is primarily happening in China; China is providing millions of dollars towards aid to African nations in an effort create stronger diplomatic ties, among other things. China will be more lenient than expected when it comes to providing aid to this cause. Global Environmental Leaders (Canada, Norway, Sweden, Japan) These nations are renewable energy leaders. From hydroelectric to solar to nuclear, these nations know how to be good to the environment. Furthermore, these nations provide some of the highest percentage of their GNI to development aid. These countries are expected to be pushing for reform in developing nations by providing them with any aid that is needed. Of course, their money can only so far, but people can assume that these nations will be looking at preserving the future of the environment. Oil Exporting Nations (Russia, Canada, USA, OPEC) These nations rely heavily on fossil fuels as an export, so turning to renewable energy would have detrimental effects. This effect would be most felt by OPEC nations in the middle east since they do not have very many other resources to export. Russia and the United States would not be hurt as badly, but they would still feel the effects. These nations would likely be against any extreme implementation of renewable energy and will need a way to not have their economies destroyed by environmental action.


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Discussion Questions

1. Should countries with a higher GNI have to provide a smaller percentage of their income to international aid?

2. What manners are effective in dealing with commitment problems?

3. What are the easiest environmental issues to tackle in developing nations? Which ones, if

resolved, with create the most effective, positive changes?

4. How helpful are NGOs to aiding in environmental efforts? Should UNEP look to collaborate more with these organizations?

5. How is it possible to wean a fossil fuel based economy off of fossil fuels?

Additional Resources UNEP Webpage: http://www.unep.org/ List and explanation of 2015 sustainable development goals: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs Examines countries that provide the most aid and where it goes: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/sep/09/foreign-aid-which-countries-are-the-most-generous Provides an overview of the crucial environmental and health concerns in developing nations: http://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en/ Interesting analysis of the link between poverty and the environment: http://www.globalissues.org/article/425/poverty-and-the-environment References "A Summary of Rich Country Foreign Aid in 2007." Ipezone. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved

from http://ipezone.blogspot.ca/2008/04/summary-of-oecd-foreign-aid-in-2007.htm Dean, Kevin. "Foreign Aid Summary." Foreign Policy Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

Retrieved from http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2008/04/06/foreign-aid-summaryl "WHO | Environment and Health in Developing Countries." WHO | Environment and Health in

Developing Countries. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en/

Finance, Climate Change. "United Nations Environment Programme."UNEP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct.

2016. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/climatechange/finance/LoanProgrammes/IndianSolarLoanProgramme/tabid/29561/Default.aspx

Larsson, Naomi. "Foreign Aid: Which Countries Are the Most Generous?" The Guardian. Guardian

News and Media, 09 Sept. 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from


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https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/sep/09/foreign-aid-which-countries-are-the-most-generous

"Colonial Development Act." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 23

Oct. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Colonial-Development-Act Unep. "United Nations Environment Programme." Stockholm 1972. UNEP, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp?documentid=97&articleid=1503

Cassen, R. H. "Review: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and

Development." International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 64.1 (1987): 126. UN. Web. 22 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf

"Sustainable Development Timeline." IISD, n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2012/sd_timeline_2012.pdf "Select a Page." UNPEI. UNPEI, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.unpei.org/ "Press Releases April 2007 - UNEPs India Solar Loan Programme Wins Prestigious Energy Globe -

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)." United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=504&ArticleID=5562&l=en

"Africa Adaptation Programme." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/projects_and_initiatives/aap/

"China Has "No Intention" of Capping Emissions." China Has "No Intention" of Capping Emissions.

N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-02/25/c_13187687.htm

"Pollution: The Silent Killer of Millions in Poor Countries - Global Alliance on Health and

PollutionGlobal Alliance on Health and Pollution." Global Alliance on Health and Pollution. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.gahp.net/new/pollution-the-silent-killer-of-millions-in-poor-countries/

"OPEC's Biggest Supply Boost Since '11 Spurs Bear Market."Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, n.d. Web. 23

Oct. 2016.Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-10/opec-boosts-oil-supply-by-most-since-11-amid-bear-market

"Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda/goal-7.html

"Half of Plastic Ocean Trash Comes from 5 Countries." CNBC. CNBC, 14 Jan. 2016. Web. 23 Oct.

2016. Retrieved from http://www.cnbc.com/2016/01/13/half-of-plastic-trash-in-oceans-comes-from-5-countries.html


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"President Obama's Statement on Climate Change". White House Briefing Room. 22 Oct. 2016. Rogers, Simon, and Lisa Evans. "World Carbon Dioxide Emissions Data by Country: China Speeds

Ahead of the Rest." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 31 Jan. 2011. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/jan/31/world-carbon-dioxide-emissions-country-data-co2

Yuhas, Alan. "Scientists: Air Pollution Led to More than 5.5 Million Premature Deaths in 2013." The

Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 12 Feb. 2016. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/feb/12/air-pollution-deaths-india-china

"Rapid Urbanization Threatens Sustainable Development | UN DESA | United Nations Department of

Economic and Social Affairs." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/policy/wess.html

"Water Quality." UN-Water:. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.unwater.org/topics/water-quality/en/ "What Is the Kyoto Protocol and Has It Made Any Difference?" The Guardian. Guardian News and

Media, 11 Mar. 2011. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/mar/11/kyoto-protocol

Galatsidas, Achilleas, and Finbarr Sheehy. "What Have the Millennium Development Goals Achieved?"

The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 06 July 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/datablog/2015/jul/06/what-millennium-development-goals-achieved-mdgs

“Environmental Governance - UNEP” N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/


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United Nations Environment Programme Topic B

Addressing the Causes and Consequences of Land Desertification Overview

Causes of desertification around the world.35

Land desertification is defined as “persistent degradation of dryland and fragile ecosystems due to man-made activities and variations in climate.”36 Essentially, it’s when land becomes so arid and dry that it becomes barren, unusable, and often deserted. At first glance, land desertification may appear as simply another form of habitat loss caused by humans; however, the issue is far more complex than that. In fact, desertification is proving to be a global issue as threatening as climate change. And of course, like climate change, it threatens the existence of humanity itself. With 168 countries around the world experiencing severe land degradation, another term for desertification, it’s plain to see just how harmful it can be.37 Desertification primarily affects agriculture since it strips the soil of vital nutrients responsible for growing food, and since 2.6 billion people rely directly on agriculture, it severely threatens almost 40% of the global population.38 On top of this, 74% of impoverished people are directly affected by land desertification and the rate of loss of arable land is at an all time historical high.39 This issue cannot be overlooked. As for the its cause, desertification is created by a number of different factors. One of the main factors is agriculture since farming can deplete the soil of vital nutrients. Without these nutrients, soil can no

35 Mindfully.org. "Desertification Is Both a Cause and a Consequence of Poverty” N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

36 "Causes, Effects and Solutions of Desertification - Conserve Energy Future."Conserve Energy Future. N.p., 23 Aug. 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016

37"Desertification Crisis Affecting 168 Countries Worldwide, Study Shows." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 17 Apr. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

38"Desertification, Desert, Drought, Arid, Climate Change, Drylands, Poverty, Ecosystem, Biodiversity, UNCCD." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.l

39 Ibid


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longer retain moisture or sustain living things, so it becomes a victim of desertification. One must take note of how agriculture is both the origin and victim of this issue. Furthermore, global warming has a big impact on soil because warmer weather causes the moisture in soil to evaporate leaving it very dry. With droughts becoming more common all around the world, especially in California, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa, desertification is thriving. On top of this, deforestation is yet another key contributor. Trees protect the ground from wind and erosion, so if they are cut down, the land becomes desert-like. This is observed across South America where deforestation runs rampant. Many causes also stem from indirect sources like economic policies that use resources unsustainably. No matter the cause, though, all causes of desertification generally are a result of unsustainable practices. And since these practices lead to some threatening outcomes, this is a key issue that must be addressed. Timeline Pre-Modern Era - Desertification plays a significant role in the collapse of many empires like Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire.40 1700s - The complete deforestation of Easter Island coupled with agricultural failures leads to a large scale decline of its population.41 Easter Island is a perfect example of unsustainable resource use leading to detrimental population effects. 1990 - An analysis of the Heihe River in China finds that the amount of desertified land is 29.1% greater than in the mid 1980s, demonstrating just how quickly this issue can spread.42 1992 - Along with climate change and biodiversity loss, desertification is named as one of the greatest challenges to sustainable development at the Rio Earth Summit.43 1994 - The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is established. It is a legally binding international agreement where parties pledge efforts to restore land to a better-functioning state and mitigate the effects of desertification.44 2005 - The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) begins discussions regarding the “Reducing Emissions from deforestation and Forest Degradation” mechanism.45 2007 - California experiences a devastating drought that peaks in 2007 but lasts until 2011. This drought had detrimental effects on agriculture and led land to become dryer and dryer. This forced farmers to either drill for groundwater to sustain their crops or face bankruptcy. 2012 - The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) begin the FAO drylands restoration initiative to consolidate knowledge on dryland restoration techniques. 2013 - After just 2 years, California experiences another intense drought that continues to this day.

40 "Deforestation Effects, Causes, And Examples: Top 10 List." Science Heathen. N.p., 13 Mar. 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

41 Ibid

42Wei, Liu. "Land Use History and Status of Land Desertification in the Heihe River Basin." SpringerLink, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

43"Desertification, Desert, Drought, Arid, Climate Change, Drylands, Poverty, Ecosystem, Biodiversity, UNCCD." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

44 Ibid

45"UN-REDD Programme." UN-REDD Programme. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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2015 - 54% of the global population now lives in urban areas, an increase from 47% in 2000. This is the biggest increase in this number that has ever happened in 15 years.46 The influx of people to urban areas is largely attributed to the lack of opportunity in rural areas due to poor land quality. 2015 - Although not specifically mentioned in the Millennium Development Goals in 2000, desertification and land degradation are listed as key issues in the Sustainable Development goals for 2030.47 Historical Analysis Although most people may not be familiar with it, land desertification is by no means a new issue. For centuries, humans have engaged in activities that have catalyzed desertification. They have cut down trees for their wood to build fires and shelter; deforested large areas for agricultural purposes; overgrazed land to keep our supply of meat alive; and much more. Essentially, desertification has existed as long as humans have, and as a growing population with growing needs became bigger and bigger, the effects of desertification have become undeniably apparent. Interestingly enough, the fall of many empires can be attributed largely to desertification. Notable examples include Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, and the Harappan Civilization.48 These civilizations all shared similar characteristics: biologically-rich land, agriculturally-productive soil, and well forested areas. Once large-scale human settlement began, however, deforestation, agricultural failures due to poor soil, and food shortages became widespread. These civilizations did not have the resources or technology to sustain their large populations, so all it took was a few small conflicts and diseases to reduce them to the stories of history books. Even though desertification was detrimental to these societies, activities propagating the issue continued for centuries. According to the World resources institute, more than 80% of the world’s natural forests have been destroyed, and this number is only increasing.49 On top of this, agricultural practices increased steadily through the 1900s as developing nations saw huge increases in their population. Since many developing nations can be found in Africa, the Middle-East, and dry parts of Asia, these agricultural practices led to a large expansion of desertified land. In fact, an analysis of the Heihe River in China found the amount of degraded land rose by almost 30% in just five years.50 The UN took a very significant step in 1994 when it established the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). This convention, along with similar ones regarding biodiversity and climate change came as a direct result of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. It was the first and is the only legally binding framework created to address desertification. The convention meets on a biennial basis and discusses scientific causes of desertification and also looks at how we can work to reverse the issue. The UNCCD is almost universal with 195 parties; however, Canada withdrew in 2013 bringing it down to 194.51 This withdrawal may give one the impression that the UNCCD was an unsuccessful convention; its actions soon proved this assertion wrong, though. Passed soon after large crop failures and famine in the horn of Africa, it was entered into force during a time when desertification seemed like an

46 Statistics', By Kenya Bureau of. "Urban Development." Data. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

47 "Goal 15: Life on Land." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

48"Deforestation Effects, Causes, And Examples: Top 10 List." Science Heathen. N.p., 13 Mar. 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

49 "National Geographic: Eye in the Sky--Deforestation." National Geographic: Eye in the Sky--Deforestation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

50 "Land Use History and Status of Land Desertification in the Heihe River Basin." SpringerLink. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

51 "About the Convention." UNCCD -. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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immense global threat. Over the years it has proven to be “a rare example of people from around the world coming together to address the root causes of environmental and social crises.”52 The David Suzuki Foundation perfectly summarizes the UNCCD as “close to 195 countries ... working to improve living conditions for some of the world's most vulnerable people, to maintain and restore land and soil productivity and to reduce the effects of drought, including food and water shortages, malnutrition, mass migrations, increased political instability and war.”53 Thus, something that is considered to be a big enough issue to be heavily discussed at a UN Earth Summit has not received as much action as other environmental problems. The creation of the UNCCD was a monumental step in combatting desertification, though, and it has proven to have just as much success as numerous climate change conventions. Despite UNCCD’s success, the issue still continues to be persistent in many nations around the world, and they are only getting worse with every second of inaction. Current Situation Today, severe land desertification affects 168 countries around the world.54 That is roughly 86% of countries. On top of this, desertification is costing $490 billion USD and is destroying land three times the size of Switzerland every single year.55 When the loss of arable land is 30 to 35 times the historical rate, it is undeniable that this is a serious issue that acts as a barrier between the global community and its goal of sustainable development.56 Recently, conferences and resolutions have made desertification a top priority. Notably, land degradation has been recognized as an individual goal in the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals. These ambitious goals set out to not only halt desertification but reverse it as well. Not being included in the 2000 Millennium Development Goals and now being included in its successor will hopefully catalyze some action towards the goal. Furthermore, the UNCCD still continues their biennial conferences. They continue to promote and fund research into preventative measures and ways to restore degraded land at universities and other research institutions. Moreover, a handful of initiatives are being taken around the world to combat desertification like the Changwon Initiative and joint China-UNCCD Silk Road initiative. One notable initiative is taking place in Africa, the continent suffering the most from desertification with nearly 75% of agricultural land estimated to be degraded to a varying degree.57 The initiative is called the Great Green Wall. Initially proposed in the 1980s and approved in 2011, the project sets out to build a 15km wide, 8000km long “wall” of forest and vegetation from Djibouti to Senegal.58 The “wall” is supposed to provide fruits and vegetables, support economic development, reduce the impact of desertification, and even reverse the effects of land degradations by replenishing the ground with nutrients. On top of this, the “wall” provides energy sources, employment, and even fosters political cooperation and stability between the 11 nations who will build it. This multifaceted project achieves far more than just combatting desertification and will ideally serve as an example for future initiatives.

52 "Desertification Is Too Important for Canada to Ignore." David Suzuki Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

53 Ibid

54 "Desertification Crisis Affecting 168 Countries Worldwide, Study Shows." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 17 Apr. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

55 Ibid

56 Goal 15: Life on Land." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

57"Addressing Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought in Africa."UNCCD. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

58 "Great Green Wall to Stop Sahel Desertification | Julio Godoy." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 25 Feb. 2011. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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Desertification vulnerability in Africa and the Middle East.59

It’s important now to take note of the many indirect effects of desertification. One main effect is its connection to poverty. Following the desertification process, land lacks any economic potential, so understandably, developers and policy makers are averse to investing in these areas. These regions quickly become marginalized and lack access to infrastructure, markets, and vital resources like food and water. Thus, poverty becomes widespread. In fact, most of the population of drylands, the biome most susceptible to desertification, live in poverty. On top of this, desertification causes rural areas to be able to sustain a smaller and smaller population. The residents of these areas then have to make a decision -- continue to live in an area with no resources that’s filled with poverty or move to the city? Many choose the latter. In fact, according to the UN, over 50 million people are expected to be displaced from sub-Saharan Africa to North Africa and Europe due to agricultural conditions by 2020.60 So now, large populations of rural communities all head to urban centres, which in developing nations are filled with crime, diseases, and homelessness. These big cities often have trouble sustaining the growing population and have difficulty providing employment to everyone, so the cycle of poverty for these people will continue. If desertification is not solved soon, the previously mentioned indirect effects will undeniably worsen. The FAO predicts that the demand for food will increase by 60% by 2050, and to be able to supply this, the world will need a farm the size of South Africa.61 Obviously this will not be possible if the world are sustaining an annual net loss of arable land. So what the world can plan to see is a substantial increase in both food prices and as a result, malnutrition and poverty -- key issues that the UN and other international organizations have been trying to solve for decades. Thus, one can expect nothing less than a planet in chaos and turmoil if action is not taken soon. Desertification poses just as big of a threat as climate change, so perhaps it is time it is treated as such.

59 Audience, By. "Natural Resources Conservation Service." Land Resource Stresses and Desertification in Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

60 News, BBC. "Desertification: The People Whose Land Is Turning to Dust." BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

61 "Desertification Crisis Affecting 168 Countries Worldwide, Study Shows." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 17 Apr. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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Past UN/International Involvement Today, the UNCCD remains the only convention that has a primary purpose of addressing desertification; however, desertification and its ramifications have been addressed in other ways. For example, its causes, like deforestation and agriculture, have been addressed in numerous treaties. There have also been a number of projects set out by organizations to aid areas that have been ravaged by land degradation by providing them with food and other short term humanitarian aid. One main subcommittee that the UNCCD created is the Committee on Science and Technology (CST). The CST collects and analyzes data, and it uses its findings to look for ways to combat desertification and mitigate its harmful effects. The Committee represents primarily the scientific side of desertification and looks at the quickest and most efficient ways to take action. The committee attends biennial UNCCD conferences and provides members with “information and advice on scientific and technological matters relating to combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought.”62 Being able to support claims with scientific evidence is of utmost importance, and the CST does just that. It has played an important role in the fight against desertification, and its advice has made an impact in policy action over the years. Deforestation, being a major contributor to desertification, has seen quite a bit of international action in recent years. Notably, the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN-REDD) was established in 2008 to combat deforestation. Created in conjunction with the FAO, UNDP, and UNEP, it was mainly created to address the link between climate change and deforestation; nevertheless, unsustainable forest use is still a leading to contributor to desertification, so desertification fighters can still benefit. The program aims to “enhance carbon stocks”63 (plant more trees) in forests and maintain a sustainable level of logging and forest use. It helps and supports the implementation of national policies to address the issue and works collaboratively with countries from around the world. Unfortunately, the program has only 64 partner countries and the nations with the highest amount of deforestation -- Russia, Brazil, and the United States -- are not members.64, 65 As previously mentioned, desertification has a direct link with agricultural failures and therefore, malnutrition. In an attempt to address this, organizations like the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Programme (WFP) have sent humanitarian aid to the regions suffering the most from drought and land degradation. Recently, in May 2016, a project was initiated by the two aforementioned organizations to send aid to Somalia, one of the nations suffering the most. According to the UN, approximately 385,000 people are in need of immediate assistance there, and that number could quickly grow to 1.3 million.66 So far, the project has delivered food and water to 150,000 people and as each day goes by, that number only increases.67 Other than UN organizations, NGOs play a significant role in delivering aid to drought-stricken regions. The Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) in Colombia recently delivered 52 tonnes of aid to Guajira, an area struggling with drought.68 This organization has been working on this project throughout 2016 and continues to do so. It is a perfect example of how developing countries do not always need aid from wealthy countries and UN organizations. NGOs can be just as powerful and 62 "Table of Contents." Part IV. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

63"UN-REDD Programme." UN-REDD Programme. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

64"Top Ten Countries with Highest Deforestation." Countries with Highest Deforestation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

65 "Regions and Countries Overview." UN-REDD Programme. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

66"UNICEF & The World Food Programme Deliver Aid to Somalia." Borgen Magazine. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

67 Ibid

68"Adventist Humanitrians Deliver 52 Tons of Aid to Drought Stricken Region of Colombia." :: Adventist Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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helpful as any UN body or government. Thus, desertification has seen some helpful action whether it was intended to address land degradation or not. The UNCCD continues to be the main global resources for addressing desertification. It is important to recognize, however, that the world cannot just plant trees and build transcontinental walls of greenery to tackle this issue. Substantial projects can take years -- some even decades -- to take effect and be beneficial, so immediate action is of utmost importance. Luckily, there are many NGOs and UN bodies that are providing this short term aid, but they are only looking at the worst cases of drought and desertification in the world. If people truly want to ensure that sustainability of these affected regions, both short term and long term aid must be implemented. Possible Solutions and Controversies When looking at issues and how to solve them, it is imperative to look at their causes. With desertification, the main cause is undeniably agriculture. As previously mentioned, agriculture strips the soil of vital nutrients and moisture leading to a quick degradation of the land. This leads to agricultural failures, which leads to an increase in poverty in the region, which leads to a decrease in economic potential, which leads to malnutrition, and the list goes on. When addressing desertification, looking at the root of the issue -- agriculture -- is a very good beginning. The ideal solution will look at what initiatives can be taken to increase soil productivity and how the UNEP can implement them around the world. Another critical cause of desertification is deforestation. Interestingly enough, deforestation generally happens because more land is needed for agriculture. Therefore, this solution and the previous solution go hand-in-hand. Ideally, this solution would look at implementing programs like UN-REDD in a greater amount of countries -- preferably those that are most affected by this. The “green wall” is also a perfect example of how reforestation and the addition of greenery can seek to improve desertification conditions. Reforestation programs are a great start, but since logging is such an important industry, one must determine a way to continue doing it in a sustainable manner. The connection between agriculture and deforestation should definitely be addressed as well. Droughts caused by climate change are another key cause of desertification. When the earth warms, it’s easier for moisture to escape into the atmosphere leaving soil dry and unusable. Climate change and desertification have a strong relationship, so looking at ways the UNEP can combat emissions and drought can be very effective in fighting land degradation. The UN-REDD was created to address climate change, but it also helps tackle desertification; treaties like this address multiple issues at once prove to be the most effective. As previously mentioned, much of the action that needs to be taken to combat desertification will take many years to have an impact. In this timeframe, the drought-stricken regions that struggle with desertification need as much aid as they can get. Crop failures have led to large famines; lack of infrastructure has made it difficult to reach proper medical supplies and other necessities; these are all key things that can be provided to these nations. Scientific research is important for a number of reasons. When it comes to desertification, it means finding ways to more efficiently combat the issue. Furthermore the use of genetically modified organisms can increase crop yield and cause less strain to the soil. It is research like this that can make a significant difference when tackling environmental issues.


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Bloc Positions Canada Being the only nation to withdraw from the UNCCD, it may seem like Canada does not support ending desertification, however this is not entirely the case. The conservative government that withdrew from the convention is no longer in power, and the country is now headed by a large majority liberal government. In fact, Prime Minister Trudeau recently stated in June that Canada is considering reversing the previous decision to separate from the convention.69 China China is an interesting case when it comes to desertification because at the same time that it funds massive counter-desertification projects, it also funds projects that exacerbate the issue. To expand on this, while China was experiencing an economic boom in the late 1900s, deforestation was widespread. As a result of this, much of northern and western China is experiencing dangerous levels of desertification. To combat this, China is working on a project similar to the African “great green wall,” but in the north of China. At the same time, however, China economy continues to fuel climate change leading to droughts and therefore, desertification. China is thus looking to balance its economic growth while also taking into account its environmental damage and the future economic implications if land is degraded. Russia Russia experiences the highest rate of deforestation on earth. Luckily enough, though, Russia has the greatest amount of forests in the world. Unfortunately, because of this, desertification has not been a top priority. It also has not been a top priority because Russia does not have a climate where desertification is very prevalent. Sure desertification has happened in the eastern part, but it has been nowhere near significant. Therefore, Russia may look to protect its allies and trade partners from suffering from desertification, but for now, it will look mostly at abusing its plethora of trees for their economic benefit. South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East These nations suffer the most from desertification. In South America, it generally stems from deforestation and in the other regions from agriculture. In Africa and the Middle East, widespread malnutrition and poverty can be linked directly to land degradation. The issue is not as worse in South America, but it nonetheless still exists. In these countries, desertification should be considered a national emergency. Therefore, these nations are looking to receive any aid that is possible to help their populations. On top of this, they are also looking at any preventative measures that can be taken and ways to reverse desertification. USA and Australia These nations struggle almost as much as those in Africa; however, they are developed and do not experience the effects like malnutrition and poverty. These countries should definitely be looking at ways to prevent desertification from worsening. Also, since they are experiencing the issue first hand, they should look at providing some of their billions of dollars in aid to countries suffering the most. Northern Europe and Other Countries Not Experiencing Significant Desertification Much of northern Europe has a climate that does not promote desertification. These countries rank the lowest on countries suffering from desertification. Therefore, their interest in the issue may be very little. However, the countries in northern Europe provide some of the largest percentage of their GNI 69 "The Council of Canadians." Canada May Re-join United Nations Desertification Convention. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.


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to aid, so they should not be too reluctant to help if help is needed. Discussion Questions

1. Can there be a solution that both appeases every nation and helps the most people?

2. How can we make desertification an issue that everybody recognizes like climate change?

3. At the current moment, should we be prioritizing humanitarian aid, development aid, or a combination of both?

4. How can we fund the billion dollar projects that are needed to mitigate the effects of

desertification?

5. What is easier: reducing desertification in regions where it is happening or reversing desertification in areas that have already experienced it?

6. Should countries that are not experiencing desertification have to provide assistance to

nations that are experiencing it? Additional Resources UNCCD: http://www.unccd.int/en/Pages/default.aspx Thoroughly explains the desertification crisis in a global context: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/apr/17/desertification Solid analysis of the causes of desertification and ways in which it can be reversed: http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/ UN Sustainable Development Goal about Desertification: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg15 References Mindfully.org. "Desertification Is Both a Cause and a Consequence of Poverty” N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct.

2016. Retrieved from http://www.mindfully.org/Heritage/2003/Desertification-Poverty-Annan12jun03.htm

"Causes, Effects and Solutions of Desertification - Conserve Energy Future."Conserve Energy Future.

N.p., 23 Aug. 2015. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-of-desertification.php

"Desertification Crisis Affecting 168 Countries Worldwide, Study Shows." The Guardian. Guardian

News and Media, 17 Apr. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/apr/17/desertification

"Desertification, Desert, Drought, Arid, Climate Change, Drylands, Poverty, Ecosystem, Biodiversity,


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UNCCD." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/events/desertificationday/background.shtml

"Deforestation Effects, Causes, And Examples: Top 10 List." Science Heathen. N.p., 13 Mar. 2015. Web.

23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://scienceheathen.com/2012/12/13/deforestation-effects-causes-and-examples-top-10-list/

Wei, Liu. "Land Use History and Status of Land Desertification in the Heihe River Basin."

SpringerLink, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11069-009-9429-5#/page-1

"UN-REDD Programme." UN-REDD Programme. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.un-redd.org/ Statistics', By Kenya Bureau of. "Urban Development." Data. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved

from http://data.worldbank.org/topic/urban-development?end=2015&start=1960 "Goal 15: Life on Land." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda/goal-15.html

"National Geographic: Eye in the Sky--Deforestation." National Geographic: Eye in the Sky--

Deforestation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/deforestation/effect.html

"About the Convention." UNCCD -. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.unccd.int/en/about-the-convention/Pages/About-the-Convention.aspx "Desertification Is Too Important for Canada to Ignore." David Suzuki Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23

Oct. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.davidsuzuki.org/blogs/science-matters/2013/04/desertification-is-too-important-for-

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