Unfinished Business• Your percentage for test 2 should be on the

webCT – not a raw score out of 62 (that is the unadjusted score).

• There are TWO classes next week – – December 2– December 4 (to make up for Remembrance Day)

• Test #3 – webCT exam dates: Dec 8 (10:00) - Dec 13

(5:00)– change in room: E610, E620 and E630

Review Question 1

What did Harlow’s research imply about the veracity of Freudian and behavioural theories of attachment?

A. It supported Freudian theories, but was a challenge to behavioural theories.

B. It supported behavioural theories but was a challenge to Freudian theories.

C. It supported both theories.

D. It was a challenge to both theories.

Answer: D

Review Question 2

Which of the following is not a type of attachment style as named by Ainsworth?

A. RejectingB. Anxious-ambivalentC. SecureD. AvoidantAnswer: A

Review Question 3

What does moral development involve?A. Knowing right from wrongB. Knowing what a culture valuesC. Making a selfish rather than a selfless

decisionD. Deciding between choices with

different social outcomes

Answer: D

Review Question 4

Moral emotions require which of the following?

A. High level cognitive abilitiesB. The ability to see the self as a causal

agentC. The ability to judge others’ abilities as

right or wrongD. Friendships based on mutual sharing

of emotionsAnswer: Moral emotions are guilt, empathy and shame so … B

Review Question 5

My sister strongly hold the conservative beliefs that my father taught when we were growing up. When asked about why she holds these beliefs, she gives unclear and defensive answers. What identity status would Marcia say she is in?

A. Achievement B. ForeclosureC. Moratorium D. DiffusionAnswer: B

W. W. Norton

Expansion of Identity (Stage 5) by Marcia

Personality

Keep in mind:

• Medical Student Syndrome

• Continuum not either/or

• Even excessive goodness is bad.

Freud Neo-Freudians

Psychodynamic

Eysenck' HierarchialModel

Five FactorTheory

Trait Humanistic Cognitive-Social

Personality Theories/Approaches

Personality

“Characteristic pattern of thinking,feeling and acting.”

Four major perspectives on Personality

Psychodynamic - unconscious motivationsTrait - specific dimensions of personalityHumanistic - inner capacity for growthSocial-Cognitive - influence of environment

• “anal-retentive”• “overinflated ego”• “unconscious wishes”

These are all courtesy of Freud.

Psychodynamic Theories

• Day-to-day behaviour is a result of conflict between conscious and unconscious processes

Psychodynamic Perspective“first comprehensive theory of personality”

(1856-1939)

Specialized in NervousDisorders

Some patients’ disordersSome patients’ disordershad no physical cause!had no physical cause!

Psychodynamic Perspective“first comprehensive theory of personality”

Q: What caused neurologicalsymptoms in patients with no

neurological problems?

UnconsciousHypnosis

FreeAssociation

“Psychoanalysis”

The Unconscious“the mind is like an iceburg - mostly hidden”“the mind is like an iceburg - mostly hidden”

Conscious Awarenesssmall part above surface

(Preconscious)

Unconsciousbelow the surface

(thoughts, feelings,wishes, memories)

Repressionbanishing unacceptablethoughts & passions to

unconsciousDreams & Slips

Freud & Personality Structure

“Personality arises from conflict twixt aggressive,pleasure-seeking impulses and social restraints”

Ego SuperEgo

Id

Freud & Personality StructureId - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives

Pleasure Principle

Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic waysReality Principle

Super Ego- voice of consciencethat focuses on howwe ought to behaveMorality Principle

Ego SuperEgo

Id

Freud & Personality Development“personality forms during the first few years of life,rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”

“personality forms during the first few years of life,rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”

Psychosexual StagesOral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouthAnal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex”

(Identification & Gender Identity)Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormantGenital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others

Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3

Psychosexual StagesStage Age Zone Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0 – 18

monthsMouth Weaning

from breastor bottle

Smoking, gumchewing, nail biting,overeating,drinking, sarcasm

Anal 18 mos– 3 yrs

Anus Toilettraining

Perfectionist (analretentive),rebellious ordestructive

Phallic 3 – 6 yrs Genitals OvercomeOedipalcomplex

Castration anxiety,struggle with authority(M), penis envy,flirtiness (F), mateattraction preoccupation(M/F)

Latency 6 yrs –puberty

None Interactingwith samesex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty-adult

Genitals Establishingintimaterelationshipswithopposite sex

Defense MechanismsId

SuperEgo

Ego

When the inner wargets out of hand, theresult is Anxiety

Ego protects itself viaDefense Mechanisms

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms reduce/redirectanxiety by distorting reality

• Repression - banishes certain thoughts/feelings from consciousness (underlies all other defense mechanisms)

e.g., forgetting an upsetting childhood event such as a death

• Denial - unacceptable thoughts are ignored– e.g., alcoholics ignore their problems

Defense Mechanisms

• Reaction Formation - ego makes unacceptable impulses appear as their opposites– e.g., pretending you like someone you can’t stand

• Projection - attributes threatening impulses/unacceptable qualities to others– e.g., unemployed father yells at his son for being lazy

Defense Mechanisms

• Rationalization - generate self-justifying explanations to hide the real reasons for our actions/think of an excuse– e.g., gambling to win some money to buy things for my

family– e.g., “everybody cheats on their taxes”

• Displacement - divert impulses toward a moreacceptable “safer” object - e.g., angry at boss so “kick the dog” response

Defense Mechanisms

• Sublimation - transform unacceptable impulse into something socially valued– e.g., sadist becomes dentist or surgeon

• Conversion - manifestation of a psychic conflict as a physical symptom

Defense Mechanisms

Thematic Apperceptions Test (TAT)Rorschach Inkblot Test

The Unconscious & Assessment

How can we assess personality?(i.e., the unconscious)

Objective Tests?No - tap the conscious

Projective Tests?Yes - tap the unconscious

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective

Were Freud’s theoriesthe “best of his time”or were they simply

incorrect?

Current researchcontradicts

many of Freud’sspecific ideas

Development does notstop in childhood

Dreams may not beunconscious

drives and wishes

Slips of the tongue arelikely competing

“nodes” in memory network

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective

Were Freud’s theoriesthe “best of his time”or were they simply

incorrect?

Current researchcontradicts

many of Freud’sspecific ideas

Concept of defense mechanisms have been

supported by research.

Freud’s Ideas as Scientific TheoryTheories must explain observations

and offer testable hypotheses

Few Objective ObservationsFew Objective Observations Few HypothesesFew Hypotheses

(Freud’s theories based on his recollections &(Freud’s theories based on his recollections &interpretations of patients’ free associations,interpretations of patients’ free associations,

dreams & slips o’ the tongue)dreams & slips o’ the tongue)

Does Not Does Not PREDICTPREDICT Behavior or Traits Behavior or Traits

Trait Perspective

No hidden personality dynamics…just basic personality dimensions

Traits - people’s characteristicbehaviors & conscious motives

How do we describe & classify different personalities?(Type A vs Type B or Depressed vs Cheerful?)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - classify peoplebased upon responses to 126 questions

Are There “Basic” Traits?

What trait “dimensions” describe personality?

Eysenck’s Hierarchial Model of Personality

W. W. Norton

Observed behaviours

Eysenck’s Hierarchial Model of Personality

W. W. Norton

Repeated behaviours across situations

Eysenck’s Hierarchial Model of Personality

W. W. Norton

Repeated behaviours on many

occasions = trait

Eysenck’s Hierarchial Model of Personality

W. W. Norton

Three supraordinate traits:introversion-extroversion

emotional stabilitypsychoticism (constraint)

The Big Five Factors

• Openness• Conscientiousness• Extraversion• Agreeableness• Neuroticism

The Big Five Factors

• Openness to experience– down-to-earth - imaginative– uncreative - creative– conventional - unconventional– prefer routine - prefer variety– not curious - curious– conservative - liberal

The Big Five Factors

• Conscientiousness– negligent - conscientious– lazy - hardworking– disorganized - organized– late - punctual– aimless - ambitious– quitting - persevering

The Big Five Factors

• Extraversion– reserved - affectionate– loner - joiner– quiet - talkative– passive - active– sober - fun-loving– unfeeling - passionate

The Big Five Factors

• Agreeableness– ruthless - soft-hearted– suspicious - trusting– stingy - generous– antagonistic - acquiescent– critical - lenient– irritable - good-natured

The Big Five Factors

• Neuroticism – calm - worrying– even-tempered - temperamental– self-satisfied - self-pitying– comfortable - self-conscious– unemotional - emotional– hardy - vulnerable

Trait Theories

• Pros– good at

describing people

– good research support

• Cons– Where do traits

come from?– How do situations

influence traits?

Assessing Traits

How can we assess traits?(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)

Personality InventoriesPersonality Inventories

MMPIMMPI• most widely used personality inventory• assess psychological disorders (not normal traits)• empirically derived - test items selected based

upon how well they discriminate amongst groupsof traits

Big Five Personality Test

• <a href="http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/results/?o=90&c=47&e=22&a=44&n=93">I'm a O90-C47-E22-A44-N93 Big Five!!</a>

• http://cac.psu.edu/~j5j/test/ipipneo1.htm

The Humanistic Perspective

Maslow’sMaslow’sSelf-ActualizingSelf-Actualizing

PersonPerson

Roger’sRoger’sPerson-CenteredPerson-Centered

PerspectivePerspective

“Healthy” rather than “Sick”Individual as greater than the sum of test scores

Maslow & Self-Actualization

Physiological

Safety

Love Needs

Esteem

Self-Actualizationthe process of fufilling our potential

• Studied healthy, creative people• Self-Aware & Self-Accepting• Open & Spontaneous• Loving & Caring• Problem-Centered not Self-Centered

Roger’s Person-Centered PerspectivePeople are basically goodwith actualizing tendencies.

Given the right environmentalconditions, we will develop

to our full potentials

Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathy

Self ConceptSelf Concept - central featureof personality (+ or -)

Assessing & Evaluating the Self

?? Primarily through questionnaires in whichpeople report their self-concept.

?? Also by understanding others’ subjectivepersonal experiences during therapy

XX Concepts are vague & subjective.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

Behavior learned throughconditioning & observation

What we think about our situationaffects our behavior

Interaction ofEnvironment & Intellect

Rotter

• Behaviour controlled by:– expectancies for reinforcement– AND value ascribed to reinforcer– people differ in belief that efforts will lead to

positive outcomes• “locus of control”

Personal Control

Internal Locus of ControlInternal Locus of ControlYou pretty much control your own destiny

External Locus of ControlExternal Locus of ControlLuck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny

Methods of StudyMethods of Study• Correlate feelings of control with behaviorCorrelate feelings of control with behavior• Experiment by raising/lowering people’s sense ofExperiment by raising/lowering people’s sense ofcontrol and noting effectscontrol and noting effects

Outcomes of Personal Control

Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness

Uncontrollablebad events

Perceivedlack of control

Generalizedhelpless behavior

Important IssueImportant Issue• Nursing Homes

• Prisons•Colleges

Mischel

• Controversial cognitive-social theory of personality: “situationism”– traits often fail to predict behaviour

across different circumstances - personality is not “stable”

Mischel

• peoples responses in a given situation are influenced by:– how they encode or perceive the situation– affective (emotional) response to

situation– skills and competencies– anticipation of the outcomes their

behaviour will produce– p. 496

Are you a low or a high self-monitor?

Page 508, Baron, Earhard & Ozier, Psychology (3rd ed)

Interactionism Personal/Personal/CognitiveCognitiveFactorsFactors

BehaviorBehaviorEnvironmentEnvironment

FactorsFactors

Internal World + External World = UsInternal World + External World = Us

Biology of Personality

• Twin studies– genetic influence accounts for about

40 to 60 percent of the variance in personality traits

– which means: genetics accounts for tremendous amount of our personality BUT

– a tremendous amount is NOT accounted for by genetics

W. W. Norton

Personality Genes• Genetic components for:

– television viewing– getting divorced– feelings about capital punishment

• This does not mean that DNA determines how many hours of TV you watch!– Genes predispose certain personality

types that are associated with beh tendendies

Neurotransmsitters

• Dopamine levels associated with– novelty seeking

• Serotonin levels associated with – neuroticism– agreeableness– low levels: hostility, aggressiveness,

criminality, impulsivity, sensation-seeking

Temperaments

• If genes influence personality, should have biologically based tendencies to feel or act in a certain way (p. 505)

• Buss & Plomin– three personality traits that can be

considered temperaments• activity level• emotionality• sociability

Buss & Plomin

• three personality traits that can be considered temperaments

•activity level•emotionality•sociability

Personality types based on Temperament

• “easy children”/”well-adjusted”– regular eaters/sleepers– positive approach to novel situations– adapt to change quickly and easily

Personality types based on Temperament

• “difficult children”/”undercontrolled”– irregular eaters/sleepers– negative response to most situations– tendency to withdraw from others

Personality types based on Temperament

• “slow-to-warm-up children”/”inhibited”– initially cautious and anxious in new

situations– adjust well given time– lack overall positive emotionality of

easy children – (p. 505)

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

Arousal and Personality• Optimal levels of arousal

– Eysenk – extraverts seeking out additional arousal

• resting levels of arousal chronically under optimal level

– introverts avoiding arousal • resting levels of arousal already at or above

optimal level

– difference between groups may be “arousability” or reactivity to stimuli

Zuckerman’s Sensation-Seeking Scale• http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/licensing/tests/

driverqualificationtest/sensationseekingscale/

• http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/sensation/index.shtml

• http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/index.shtml?personality

Personality Over Time

• Traits remain stable over time

• expression of traits change

• with aging– less neurotic– less extraverted– less open to new experiences– more agreeable– more conscientious

Personality Over Time

• Traits remain stable over time– genetic makeup does not change– situations remain relatively stable

• environments tend to be relatively stable (especially after early adulthood)

• tend to marry individuals with similar attitudes and personalities

• tend to have jobs with similar levels of status

Chapter 13: Social Psychology• Social psychology

– how others influence how we think, feel and act

• Social cognition– mental processes by which we make

sense of ourselves, other people and our social situations (p. 417)

self-awareness self-concept

Symbolic Self Self-Esteem Attitudes

Self

Symbolic self (p. 418)

• Minimal self– conscious experience of self in the here and

now, separate from immediate environment

• Objectified self– cognitive capacity to serve as object of one’s

own attention – e.g., being aware of one’s own state of mind

Symbolic self (p. 418)

• Symbolic self– abstract mental representation of oneself

through language – includes:

• sense of identity

• autobiographical memories

• expectations and beliefs about the future

Self-Awareness

• Symbolic self - sense of self is the object of attention

• contribution to self-awareness by “reflected appraisals” - how we thing others view us

Self-Awareness

• development – 18 - 24 months: initial sense of self develops

around (“rouge spot”)– 2 yrs.: understanding of self as existing across time– 3 yrs.: self-conscious emotions of embarassment,

shame and guilt• recognize that others are evaluating them

– 4 yrs.: episodic memory for personal experiences

Self-Awareness

• Duval & Wicklund– “self-awareness produces a comparison

of self against relevant standards, which inevitably leads to emotional motivation to act in accordance with personal values, attitudes, and beliefs.” (p. 421)

Frontal Lobes - Self-Awareness• Symbolic self

– absent in nonhuman animals and young infants (without developed frontal lobes)

– individuals with lesions to frontal lobes show impairments involving self-awareness• can often pick up the exact same deficits in

another person but not recognize them in themselves

Self-Concept

• Cognitive aspect – Self schema

• Evaluative/emotional aspect – Self-esteem

Self-Concept

• Is a cognitive knowledge structure– schema (self-schema)

• network of interconnected knowledge about oneself

– cognitive aspect of self-concept– integrated set of memories, beliefs

and generalizations about oneself

Self-Schema

W. W. Norton

Self-Concept

• working self-concept– varies as function of:

• which memories you retrieve, •which situation you are in, •your role in that situation, •people you are with etc.

Inter/Independent Self-Concepts

• some cultures place greater emphasis on the collective self than on the personal self

• interdependent– view self inherently connected to

other people– self-concept defined more by social

roles and personal relationships

W. W. Norton

Inter/Independent Self-Concepts

• some cultures place greater emphasis on the personal self

• Independent– view self fundamentally separate

from others– sense of self based on feelings of

being distinct from others

W. W. Norton

Interdependent/Collective Self • Advantages • Disadvantages

Independent/Personal Self

• Advantages • Disadvantages

Self-Esteem

• Evaluative aspect of self-concept• emotional response as evaluate

different characteristics about themselves

• internalize values and beliefs expressed by important people in their lives (“reflected appraisals”)

Self-Esteem• Sociometer theory (Leary et al)

– humans have need to belong– self-esteem monitors the likelihood of

social exclusion•acts as internal monitor of social

acceptance/rejection

– is research support •low self-esteem highly correlated with

social anxiety

Sociometer Theory

W. W. Norton

Biological Basis of Self-Esteem• Twin studies - self-esteem

moderately inheritable– traits associated with self-esteem

such as extraversion and neuroticism have genetic components

• serotonin levels affect self-esteem– increased activity leads to increased

self-esteem/confidence

Maintaining Self-Esteem

• Strategies– self-evaluative maintenance

• exaggerate or publicize connections to winners• minimize or hide relations to losers• distance self from someone who outperforms

them on task that is personally relevant

– biased comparisons• evaluate self by contrasting actions, abilities

and beliefs with others to see where they stand

Maintaining Self-Esteem

• Strategies– self-serving biases– high achievers

• take credit for success• blame failure on outside factors

– low achievers• attribute success on outside factors• blame failure on personal factors

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton