Unit 1, Lesson 2 Thematic Essays and European Geographyk12.kitaboo.com/k12/ebookpdf/history07/AP_EUR_S1_unit01.pdf · 2 Unit 1, Lesson 2 Review: Writing a ... thematic essays. The

Thematic Essays and European Geography

Unit 1, Lesson 2

Essential Questions• Whatistheprocessforwritingintroductoryandbodyparagraphs

forathematicessay?

• Whatistheprocessforwritingaconclusionforathematicessay?

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2 Unit 1, Lesson 2

Review: Writing a Five-Paragraph EssayOntheCollegeBoardExam(APtest)forEuropeanHistory,you’llhavetowritetwothematicessays.Thethematicessayquestionsaredesignedtoassessyourunder-standingofhistoricalthemesandconceptsalongwithyourabilitytoformulateclearandlogicalresponses.Thethematicessayquestionsaretypicallystraightforwardandaddressvarioushistoricaltopicsfrom1450tothepresent.You’reexpectedtorespondusingfactsandinformationfrommemory.Thequestionswillalsorequireyoutoanalyze,assess,andevaluatecausesandeffectsofparticularhistoricalsub-jects.It’svitalthatyoucompletelyanswerthequestionthatisasked,asfailuretodosowillresultinalowerscore.Tomakesureyouanswerthequestioncompletely,createasimpleoutlinebeforeyoubeginwritingyouressay.Higher-scoringessaystypicallyfollowthestandardfive-paragraphessayformat:

• introductoryparagraph,includingtopicsentence,organizationalstatement,andthesisstatement

• bodyparagraphwithsupportingevidenceandanalysis• bodyparagraphwithsupportingevidenceandanalysis• bodyparagraphwithsupportingevidenceandanalysis• concludingparagraph

Writing an IntroductionBeginyourthematicessaywithastrongintroductoryparagraphthatintroducestheessay’ssubjectandanswersthequestionposedingeneralterms.First,writeatopicsentence.Thetopicsentenceshouldprovideappropriatehistoricalcontextanddemonstratethatyou,thewriter,haveafirmunderstandingoftheessaytopic.Thethetopicsentencemustalsoactasahook,grabbingtheinterestofthereader.Afterthetopicsentence,writeanorganizationalstatement,statingthethreetopicsthatyou’llcoverindetailinthebodyparagraphs.Finishyourintroductionwithathesisstatement.Thethesisstatementshouldaddresstheentireessayquestionandclarifyyourposition.Torecap,agoodintroductionincludesthefollowing:

Set the StageIn order to receive a high score on the AP European History Exam, you must have a broad knowledge of Europe in terms of its geography, political units, and historical themes. While the AP test won’t directly test your geographical knowledge, you’ll still need to understand the physical and political structures of Europe in order to fully grasp historical events.

Some questions on the exam will require simple fact recall; others will require you to synthesize ideas in an essay. On the day of the exam, you’ll encounter two types of essay questions: the document-based essay, and the thematic essays. The thematic essays will test your ability to recall information and understand broad historical topics. Thematic essays are typically written in the five-paragraph essay format.


Unit 1, Lesson 2 3

• topicsentence• organizationalstatement• thesisstatement

Writing a Body ParagraphAftertheintroduction,writethreebodyparagraphs.Collectivelythebodypara-graphsshouldcontainthenecessarydetails,examples,assertions,andevidencetosupportthethesisstatement.Eachparagraphshouldaddressadiscretetopic,asyououtlinedinyourorganizationalstatement.Aneffectivebodyparagraphbeginswithatopicsentencethatprovidesfocusfortherestoftheparagraphandintroducestwoorthreerelatedexamplesthatsupportthethesisstatement.Don’tsimplylistexamples;explainwhyeachexampleisimportant,whatitmeans,andhowitultimatelyrelatestothethesisstatementandthethematicessayquestion.Remember:Inessaywriting,moredoesn’talwaysmeanbetter.Chooseonlyexamplesthatareclearlyconnectedtothetopicsentence;youdon’twanttodrawattentionawayfromthemainpointoftheessay.Thefinalsentenceofabodyparagraphshouldsummarizetheinformationaswellasactastransitiontotheideasdiscussedinthenextparagraph.Hereisthestructureofatypicalbodyparagraph:

• topicsentence• fact/examplerelatedtothetopicsentence• commentaryontheexample• anotherfact/example• commentary• summarizingsentence

Writing a ConclusionIfyou’vewrittenasolidintroductionandbody,astrongconclusioncanaddsig-nificantlytoyourfinalscore.Yourconclusioncontainsyourfinalwords—yourlastchancetopositivelyinfluencetheAPgrader.Theconclusionshouldreviewthebodyofyouressayandrestateyourthesis.Theconclusionisalsoanopportunitytoventureoutsideofthequestionaskedandmakeadditionalanalyticalpoints.Forexample,ifthethematicessayquestionfocusedonsecularhumanism,theconcludingparagraphmightmentionPetrarch,Machiavelli,andBruni,allofwhomwouldhavebeendiscussedpreviouslyinthebodyparagraphs,andthen

1SELF-ChECk

What is the basic

structure of a five-

paragraph essay?

What to do:

• Reviewtheinformationinthebody

of the essay

• Restatethethesisstatement

• Addadditionalanalyticalpoints

What to avoid:

• Addingnewinformation

• Phrasesbeginningwithin conclusion,

in summary, in closing, or

I have proven that . . .

Guidelines for writing a conclusion


4 Unit 1, Lesson 2

statetheinfluenceofthesehumanistsonlaterwriters.Becareful,however,nottoincludenewsupporting evidence(newstatistics,quotations,orotherfacts)inyourconclusion—yourbodyparagraphsaloneshouldsupportyourthesis.Avoidbeginningphraseswithin conclusion, in summary, orin closing.Also,neverassumethereaderagreeswiththeessay,andavoidwritingI have proven that . . . . GuardagainstmakingemotionallychargedstatementsthatmightnegativelyinfluencetheAPgrader.Hereisanexampleofastrongconcludingparagraph:

Throughout this tumultuous time of warfare and clinical upheaval (from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries), many people devoted themselves to science and to the progress of science. Science contended with religion and sparked new philosophical concepts. The Scientific Revolution was a major step in changing not only Europe, but the rest of the world.

Inyourconclusion,considerthatAPEuropeanHistoryExamwriterscraftthematicessayquestionstorepresentsomeofthemostimportantthemesofthecourse.UseyourconclusiontoshowyourgraspofthelargerAPEuropeanHistorycurriculum.Forexample,supposeanessayquestionaskedyoutoevaluatetheeconomicandpoliticalfactorsaccountingforthefailureoftheGermanWeimarRepublic(1918–1933).Inyourconclusion,youmightconsiderwhytheWeimarRepublicdisappearedin1933inthecontextoftheperiodbetweenthetwoworldwars.Hereisanexamplewrittenbyastudentwriter:

The Weimar Republic was almost doomed to fail. This government came into power at the end of a destructive war. This seminal attempt to establish democracy in Germany could not overcome the deleterious effects of the Great Depression, the lack of democratic history in Germany, and the humiliation incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Shortly after the fall of this republic, Hitler came to power with the force of totalitarian rather than democratic rule.

Physical and Political Geographic Locations on the Blank and Current European MapThehistoryofmankindiscloselylinkedwiththeearth’svariedgeographicandclimatezones.Europeisaprimeexampleofthisrelationship,andtheenvironmentalinheritanceoftheEuropeancontinentshouldnotbeignoredwhendiscussingitshistory.Europe’senvironmenthasshapedeconomicactivities,culturalpractice,politicalforms,andevenfashion.Europe’sdiverseclimatehasallowedfarmerstocultivateavarietyofessentialgrains,vegetables,andfruitsandraisenumerousdomesticatedanimals,providingsourcesofwealthandhealthunrivaledbymostoftheworld.Geographically,Europecontainsabundantnaturalresourcesforawiderangeofmanufacturingandindustrialactivities,includingmining,metallurgy,andtextileproduction.ThisrichgeographicinheritancehasgivenEuropeitseconomicvitalityandanabilitytocontrolmarketsandresourcesabroad.ThegeographyofEuropeisthusdirectlylinkedwithhistoricaldevelopments,suchasexplorationandimperialism,aswellastheCommercialandIndustrialRevolutions.Geographic

2SELF-ChECk

What is the purpose

of a concluding

paragraph?


Unit 1, Lesson 2 5

contextactsasamajorthemeinthiscourseandisamplyshowcasedintheongoingtensionbetweentheidentitiesofindividualnationsandthecommonheritageof“Europe.”

In order to understand Euro-peanhistory,knowledgeofEuropeangeographyisessential.Europeisanoddlyshapedpeninsulagougedwithnumerousinlets,seas,bays,andgulfs.Islands,bothsmallandlarge,punc-tuateEurope’swaters.ThecontinentnarrowstowardtheAtlanticinthewest. In the east, itwidens into agreatplainasitjoinsthevastEurasianlandmass.ItsnorthernandsouthernlatitudesplaceEuropeinatemperateclimatezonethatisidealforavari-ety of agricultural products. MostEuropeancountriesexperiencewidevariationsbetweensummerandwin-tertemperatures,althoughthisislesstrueofnationsclosetotheAtlanticOceanandtheMediterraneanSea.AlthoughEuropeisthesecondsmallestofthesevencontinents—onlyAustraliaissmaller—itcontainsnumerousgeographicalzones.Severallargeriversrollthroughtheland,whilehighmountainrangesandrichplateausdotthelandscape.

Becauseofitsdiversity,theEuropeanlandmasshasprovendifficultforonepoliticalentitytocontrol.TheRomanEmpirefailedtoentirelysubjugatethecontinent,andsubsequentnationshaveprovenlikewiseunabletoactasaunify-ingforce.ThecurrentEuropeanUnion(EU),establishedin1993asaneconomicandpoliticalallianceofEuropeancountries,hasperhapscomeclosesttocreatingunityamongEurope’sdiversepopulations.YetdespitetheEU’ssuccesses,Europeancountrieshaveretainedtheirownlanguages,cultures,andpoliticalforms.Eventoday,Europeconsistsofavarietyofnation-states,city-states,republics,monarchies,andempires.Therearenumerouscontestedborderregionsandmultiplecentersofpower.AlthoughmuchcommongroundexistsamongthenationsofEurope,sufficientdiversityhaspreventedastrongandsharedidentityfromemerging.Asaresult,conflictsbetweengroupshavealltoooftenresultedinwarfare.

Extensions• AccessThematicEssayQuestionsfromtheCollegeBoardwebsiteforAP

EuropeanHistory.Practiceunderliningthekeywordsineachquestion.

3SELF-ChECk

Why hasn’t Europe ever

been united under a

single political unit?

Contemporary Map of Europe

Physical and political outline map of Europe


6 Unit 1, Lesson 2

SummaryTheabilitytocraftalogical,wellorganized,andthoroughessayisoneofthemostimportantskillsforanystudenttoacquire.Thebasicfive-paragraphhistori-calessayisaformatthatyouwillfindusefulthroughoutyouracademiccareer.Throughoutthiscourse,youwillbeencouragedtowritefreeresponseorthematicessaysinordertodevelopyourwritingskills.Thematicessayquestionsdiscussbroadhistoricaltopicsthatrelyonhistoricalrecallandtheabilitytodemonstrateabroadunderstandingofhistoricalconceptsandthemes.Oneofthemostimpor-tantaspectsofthefive-paragraphessayisthefinalparagraph,orconclusion.Intheconclusion,youhaveafinalopportunitytoinfluenceAPgradersandtostressyourunderstandingofthetopic.

Inadditiontoimprovingyourwritingskills,youwillalsobeexpectedtogainabroadknowledgeofEuropeangeography.Therelationshipsbetweenneighbor-ingcountriesandbetweenindividualcountriesandtheenvironmenthavehadanextraordinaryimpactonthecontinent’shistory.SogainingabasicunderstandingofEuropeangeographyisessentialtoscoringwellontheAPEuropeanHistoryExam.

Looking AheadTheimportanceofgeographyanditsinfluenceonhistorycannotbeignored.Anation’slocation,relativetoothercountriesandtoimportantgeographicalfeatures,canhavepowerfulpositiveornegativeeffects.Ageographicallywell-situatednationoftenhasagreaterpoliticalinfluence.Bycontrast,anationwithfewergeographicadvantagesmayfinditspositionunfortunateintimesofwarorexpansion.Becauseofitsvariedgeography,Europehasneverbeenunitedasasinglepoliticalunit,butinsteadacollectionofpeoplesandnationsjoinedonlybyasharedname.Infact,theEuropeancontinentwasnamedafteraGreeknymphnamedEuropa,amythologicalbeingwhosestoryhighlightstherestlessspiritofinquirythathasdominatedEuropeanhistory.ThismythcanperhapsprovidesomeinsightintotherelationshipbetweenEuropeangeographyandhistory.

1. Introductory paragraph, including thesis statement; body paragraph with supporting evidence; body paragraph with supporting evidence; body paragraph with supporting evidence; concluding/summarizing paragraph

2. The concluding paragraph acts as a summary and demonstrates the larger relevance of the question and the information discussed.

3. While there is no all-encompassing simple answer to this question, one of the most basic reasons for European disunity is related to its varied geography. With so many differences in geographical features and climate, various populations have successfully fostered their own languages, cultures, and political units, which are not easily unified.

SELF-ChECk AnSWERS


AUSTRIA

GERMANY POLAND

BELARUS

UKRAINECZECH

REPUBLICSLOVAKIA

LITHUANIA

RUSSIA

SWEDEN

B a l t i c S e a

Mythical Origins and Historical Realities of European Geography

Unit 1, Lesson 3

Essential Questions• WhataresomeofthecostsandbenefitsofvariousEuropeannations’

geographicallocation?

• WhatisthemythicaloriginandhistoricalreasonforusingthewordEuropetodefinethewesternpartoftheEurasiancontinent?

keywordsfirst partition of

Poland 1772

second partition of Poland 1793

third partition of Poland 1795


8 Unit 1, Lesson 3

Set the StageGeography plays an important role in shaping history. Much of a nation’s potential for greatness or mediocrity lies in its geographic location. Nations with ready access to warm water ports have often enjoyed advantages over landlocked neighbors in terms of trade and military effectiveness. Large mountains, deep rivers, and vast deserts offer some countries natural borders that can be far more effective than any man-made barrier. Fertile soil enables crops to grow to feed a hungry nation, while a more rocky terrain can breed poverty or a martial spirit. European history is filled with examples of times when a nation’s geographic location played a pivotal role in political, cultural, economic, and military developments. Thus, history and geography are intimately entwined, and to study one is to study both.

Costs and Benefits of Various Countries’ LocationEuropecontainsapproximately50distinctcountries,ranginginsizefromthemassiveRussia,whichcovers652,800squaremiles(17,075,400km²),tomicro-statesliketheVaticanCity,whichisenclosedonamere2squaremiles(3km²).Thegeographicallocation,boundaries,andnaturalresourcesofeachEuropeancountrybringwiththemavarietyofcostsandbenefits.SomecountriesborderthevastAtlanticOceanandMediterraneanSeaorareprotectedbynaturalmountainborders.Othernationsarelockedintheinteriororhavenonaturalborders.Thestrengthofanation’sborders,alongwithitsaccesstowarm-waterports,cangoalongwaytowarddeterminingitsmilitary,economic,andpoliticalstatus.Likewise,whilesomecountrieshaveabundantnaturalresourcesorrichfertilesoil,othersmuststruggletosurviveinharshconditions.Peoplelivinginmoregeographicallyblessednationsoftenenjoyahigherstandardoflivingandhealth,whichinturncontributestotheoverallstrengthofthenation.ConsiderforamomentvariousEuropeannationsandthecostsandbenefitsoftheirgeographiclocations.

• WhydoesPoland’sgeographicallocationmakeitripeforannexationbyothercountries?

• HowhasRussia’slimitedaccesstowarm-waterportsinfluenceditsforeignpoliciesandeconomicdevelopment?

• WhatgeographicadvantageshelpedGreatBritainbecomethefirstindustri-alizednation?

• WhataresomeoftherelativecostsandbenefitsofBritain’sgeographiciso-lationfromcontinentalEurope?

• WhatissuesmighthavearisenfromthecloseproximityofIreland,Scotland,Wales,andEngland?

• HowdidItaly’slocationaccountfortheriseoftheRenaissance?• WhydidProtestantismflourishinnorthernEuropewhileCatholicism

remainedfirmlyrootedinsouthernEurope?• WhyaremostEuropeancapitalsarelocatedonmajorrivers?


Unit 1, Lesson 3 9

• HowdidFrance’sgeographiclocationbenefitNapoleoninhisquestforEuropeandomination?

• WhatdisadvantagesmightalandlockedpowerlikeAustriafaceoverthecourseofEuropeanhistory?

• WhatadvantagescouldamountainstrongholdlikeSwitzerlandenjoyoverthecourseofEuropeanhistory?

Poland (A Case Study of the Impact of Geographic Location) Whilethegeographiclocationofeverycountryhasitsrelativecostsandbenefits,itisperhapsusefultofocusonasinglenationasacasestudytomorefullyunder-standtheimpactofgeographyonhistory.Poland’sgeographicallocationhashadatremendousinfluenceonitshistoryanditsrelationshipwithneighboringnations.OneofthelargestcountriesincentralEurope,itcovers120,726squaremiles(312,679km²)andincludesnumerousgeographicregions,includingmountains,forests,deserts,andplains.PolandisborderedbyGermanytothewest;theCzechRepublicandSlovakiatothesouth;Ukraine,Belarus,andLithuaniatotheeast;andtheBalticSeaandaRussianenclavetothenorth.AsyoureadthefollowingbriefhistoryofPoland,considerhowitsgeographiclocationhasinfluencedeventsbothpositivelyandnegatively.

PolandfirstemergedasanationinthetenthcenturyundertheleadershipofthePiastdynasty(966–1385).Polishhistorytraditionallybeginsin966,whenPrinceMieszkoI(c.930–992)convertedtoRomanCatholicismandalignedhisnationwiththecultureofwesternEuroperatherthanwiththeGreekOrthodoxreligionandthecultureofeasternEurope.Formorethanfourcenturies,thePiastdynastyruledPolandsuccessfullyandwithgreattolerance.Thenationsoonboastedalargeminoritypopulation,includingasizableJewishcommunity.Poland,how-ever,remainedvulnerableduetoitslackofnaturalborders.From1240to1241,theMongolsattackedPoland,buttheyweredefeatedbyanalliancebetweenthePolishgovernmentandvariousChristianmilitaryorders.Duringthefirsthalfofthethirteenthcentury,thenationengagedinalongstruggleagainsttheTeutonicKnightsoverterritorialrightsinwesternPoland.

Inordertocombatthemilitantcrusadingorder,anewPolishdynasty,theJagiellon(1385–1569),wasestablished.ThenewdynastyunitedPolandandLithuaniain1385,aftertheGrandDukeJagielloofLithuaniamarriedthePolishQueenJagwiga.ThenewlycreatedPolish-LithuanianuniondefeatedtheTeutonicKnightsin1410atthebattleofGrunwald(alsoknownastheBattleofTannenberg).Yetdespitethismilitaryvictory,thenewnationfailedtocreateastrongcentralizedgovernment.Bytheendofthesixteenthcentury,thePolishmonarchhadbeenreducedtoanelectedpositionthatwasdependentuponthenobility.Thenobles,tolessencentralauthorityevenfurther,increasinglyselectedforeignprincestoserveasthePolishconstitutionalmonarch.

In1569,legislativepowerwastransferredentirelytothenobleclass,whoredesignedthenationasthePolish-LithuanianCommonwealth(1569–1795).Aconstitutionalmonarchyremainedinplace,butthemonarchservedonlyasafigurehead.Duringthesixteenthcentury,Polandexperienceda“goldenage”andexpandeditsborders,brieflybecomingthelargestnationinEurope.Butinvasions


10 Unit 1, Lesson 3

bySwedenandRussiaintheearlyseventeenthcenturysoonravagedthecountryandconsiderablyreduceditsterritory.Still,thePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthremainedasignificantplayerinEuropeanpoliticsuntiltheendofthecentury,helpingtodefeattheOttomanTurksduringtheMusliminvasionofEuropein1683.Overthecourseofthenextcentury,however,Poland’spoliticalandmilitarypowerwaned,asituationexasperatedbyaninflexibleconstitutionthatgrantedtoeverynoblevetopowertostopparliamentarysessions.

WhileotherformerlygreatpowerssuchasSpainandSwedenhadbeenallowedtosettlepeacefullyintosecondarystatusontheperipheriesofEurope,Poland’sterritorywaslocatedatastrategiccrossroadsfornorthernEurope.Lackingastronggovernment,PolandsoonfellpreytorisingEuropeanpowers.Throughoutmuchoftheeighteenthcentury,PolandmaintainedindependenceonlybythegoodgracesofRussia,whichreliedonthenationtoactasabufferstatebetweeneasternandwesternEurope.In1764,theRussianEmpressCatherinetheGreat(r.1762–1795)awardedthePolishthronetoaformerfavoriteandlover,StanislawPoniatoswki(r.1764–1795).ThetsarinaexpectedPoniatoswkitoreignasanobedientservanttotheRussiancrown.Instead,thekingencouragedmod-ernizationandattemptedtostrengthenthePolishmonarchy,decisionswhichweremetwithdispleasurebyallofPoland’sneighbors.BecauseRussiadidnothavetheresourcestocontinuedominatingPoland,CatherinetheGreatsignedatreatywithPrussiaandAustriatodividethePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthonthepretextofrestoringorderintheanarchicnation.

Thefirst partitionofPolandwentintoeffectin1772andcostthecommonwealth30percentofitsterritory.Insomeways,however,thispartitioneffectivelyunitedthePolishpeople,forcingthemtoputtheirpoliticalhouseinordertothrowofftheirdomineeringneighbors.In1791,thePolish-LithuanianParliament,orSejm,producedEurope’sfirstmodernwrittenconstitution,influencedbytheideasoftheEnlightenmentandtheexampleofthenewlycreatedUnitedStatesofAmerica.WhilethePolishconstitutionwasneverfullyimple-mented,itremainedashiningbeaconforlatergenerationsofPolishreformersevenasitangeredmanyPolishnobles,whofearedafurtherlossofpolitical influence. It also threatenedPoland’sneighbors,eachofwhomfearedarevivalofPolishindependence.DiscontentednoblessentanurgentpleatoCatherinetheGreatwho,withtheaidofPrussia,willinglyinterceded.Theconstitutionwasrevoked, and Russia and Prussia carried out asecond partitionin1793.ThesecondpartitionsignificantlyreducedPoland’seasternterritoriesandmadethenationlittlemorethanarumpstate.

1SELF-ChECk

How did Prince Mieszko’s

conversiontoRoman

Catholicism change the

course of Polish history?

first partition of Poland, 1772 Poland dividedbyRussia,Prussia, and Austria; 30% of territory lost

second partition of Poland, 1793 Poland redividedbyRussia,Prussia, and Austria; nation reduced in size and influence

B a l t i c S e a

POLAND

AUSTRIA

R U

SSIA

P R U S S I A

Warsaw

GdańskVilinius

KievKraków

Poznań

LIVONIA

GALACIA

Annexed by RussiaAnnexed by Prussia

Annexed by AustriaBoundary of Poland (prior to partition)

200 mi0 100

1000 200 km

The First Partition of Poland, 1772

PolishterritoryannexedbyRussia,Prussia,andAustriain1772.


Unit 1, Lesson 3 11

Inanefforttoretainstatehood,aPolishrevoltbrokeoutin1794.LedbyTadeuszKosciuszko(1746–1817),amilitaryofficerandnationalherowhohadfoughtwithdistinctionintheAmericanRevolution,therevoltwasoverwhelmedbymorepowerfulenemiesandtheceremonialPolishkingwasforcedtoabdicate.Athird partitionwasenactedin1795.ThisfinalpartitioneffectivelywipedPolandoffthemap.OvertheoutcryofotherEuropeannations,thedestructionofthePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthwascarriedoutswiftlyandinawaythatprofoundlyupsetthebalanceofpowerinEurope.BothRussiaandthenewlyformedGermanConfederationemergedaspowerfulnationswhoseinfluencethreatenedFrance,GreatBritain,andotherEuropeannations.Polishpatriotswouldattempttorevivetheirnationthroughoutthenineteenthcentury,butitwasonlyintheaftermathofWorldWarIthatanindependentPolandwasresurrected.

DuringWorldWarII,PolandwasinvadedbybothSovietRussiaandNaziGermanywithdevastatingresults.OfalltheEuropeancountriesinvolvedinthewar,Polandlostthesecond-highestnumberofcivilians;nearly6millionpeople,halfofthemPolishJews,perished.Followingthewar,theSovietUnioninstitutedacommunistgovernmentinPolandthatremainedinpoweruntil1990.Sincethen,Poland’seconomyandpoliticalclouthasreboundedasthenationonceagainaligneditselfwiththecultureofwesternEurope.PolandjoinedtheEuropeanUnionin2004andfornowremainsatpeacewithitsneighbors.YetPoland’sgeographiclocationatthecrossroadsofEuropeanditslackofnaturalborderskeepthenationvulnerableandwillcontinuetoaffectitsfuture.

third partition of Poland, 1795 total dismantlement of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by Russia,Prussia,andAustria

2SELF-ChECk

Why wasn’t Poland

allowed to fade into a

comfortable secondary

status after its “golden

age” in the sixteenth

century?

B a l t i c S e a

POLAND

AUSTRIA

R U

SSIA

P R U S S I A

Warsaw

Minsk

Vilinius

BELORUSSIA

SOUTHPRUSSIA RUTHENIA

Gdańsk

Poznań

KrakówKiev


200 mi0 100

1000 200 km

Boundary of Poland(prior to partition)

The Second Partition of Poland, 1793

B a l t i c S e a

POLAND

AUSTRIA

RUS

SIA

P R U S S I A

Warsaw

Lublin

COURLAND

Kraków

Vilinius

200 mi0 100

1000 200 km


Annexed by AustriaBoundary of Poland(prior to partition)

The Third Partition of Poland, 1795

PolishterritoryannexedbyRussiaandPrussiain1793. PolishterritoryannexedbyRussia,Prussia,andAustriain1795.


12 Unit 1, Lesson 3

The Myth of EuropaTheoriginsofthewordEurope,forwhichboththecontinentanditspeoplewerenamed,comesfromanancientGreekmythaboutamaidennamedEuropawhoisseducedbytheGreekgodZeus.ThemythisbelievedtohaveoriginatedsometimeinthesecondmillenniumB.C.TheearliestreferencetoitcanbefoundinHomer’sninth-centuryB.C.epicpoem,theIlliad.ThemostcompletesurvivingversionwaswrittenbytheRomanpoetOvid(43B.C.–A.D.18)intheMetamorphoses.Numerousancientandclassicalauthorsreferencedthemyth,anditwascommemoratedinvirtuallyeveryartisticmediumoftheancientworld.MorerecentartistsincludingTitian,Rembrandt,andRubenswereequallyfascinatedbythemythandpaintedlargeworksdepictingtheseductionofEuropa.

AccordingtoOvid,EuropawasahighbornPhoenicianwomanwhocaughttheamorousattentionofZeus,kingofthegodsandLordofThunder.Hetransformedhimselfintoasnow-whitebullandapproachedthebeautifulmaidenwhileshepickedflowerswithherfemaleattendants.Europa,remarkingonthebeautyofthebull,soonclamberedontoitsbackandwasimmediatelycarriedofftothesea.ThebullswamtotheislandofCreteandtransformedbackintoZeus’shumanlikeform.HerevealedhistrueidentitytothemaidenanddeclaredherthefirstqueenofCrete.FollowingZeus’sabductionofEuropa—conventionallyrepresentedinthevisualartsasthe“rapeofEuropa”—hegaveherseveralpresents,includingajavelinthatnevermisseditsmark.Zeusthenrearrangedtheheavenstoforeverdepicthiminhisimageasawhitebull.ThisconstellationtodayiseasilyidentifiableasTaurus.Forcenturiesafterward,theconnectionbetweenCreteandbullsremainedstrong.Mostfamously,theMinoandynastyofCreteactedasthecaretakerforthelegendarybull-likeMinotauranditslabyrinthlair.

ButwhywasthelandinthewestofthehugeEurasiancontinentnamedafterthiswoman?Whywasthisstoryelevatedsohighly,whenitappearstobelittlemorethanashortepisodeamongthousandsofGreekmyths?Herodotus,consideredthefatherofhistory,firstaskedthesequestionsattheendofthefifthcenturyB.C.E.

AccordingtoHerodotus,theearthwasdividedintothreecontinents,allnamedafterwomen,andnooneknewwhythiswasso.EspeciallycurioustotheancienthistorianwasthefactthatEuropawasofAsianbirth,andyethernamewasusedfortheEuropeancontinent.Hecouldprovidenoclearanswerforthismysteryandeventuallyconcludedthatthenameswereestablishedbycustom.ModernhistoriansgenerallyagreedwithHerodotus’sassessmentthatcustomandtraditionlinkedthemythandthecontinent.GreeksandRomansusedthenameEuropetodistinguishthemselvesfromAsiancivilizations.ThenamewasfurthercementedbyCharlemagneandotherearlymedievalrulers,whousedthewordEuropeanstodescribetheirownChristianpopulations.

Extensions• ReadOvid’sMetamorphosesfortheoriginalmythofEuropa.

• DoanInternetsearchforThe Rape of EuropapaintingsbyTitian,Rembrandt,andRubens.Whataresomeofthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthesepaintings?

3SELF-ChECk

What is the mythical

origin of the word

Europe?


Unit 1, Lesson 3 13

SummaryGeographyhasalwaysplayedanimportantroleinEuropeanhistory.Fromtheearliestofmankind’smythstothemodernwirelessworld,geographyhashelpedshapethedestinyofthecontinent,itsnations,anditsethnicgroups.Focusingonasinglenation,suchasPoland,allowstheentwinedrelationshipbetweengeog-raphyandhistorytocomeintoclearfocus.AlthoughPolandisarelativelylargenationwithasizablepopulation,itslackofnaturalbordershasproventobeaseriousvulnerability.LocatedatacrossroadsoftheEuropeancontinent,itspositionbetweenRussiaandGermanyproveddisastrousthroughoutthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.HadPolandbeensituatedinamoreeasilydefendedormoreeasilyignoredlocation,itshistorywouldhaveundoubtedlybeenverydifferent.Finally,whiletherelationshipbetweenPoland’sgeographyandPolishhistoryisclear,lessobviousistheoriginofthewordEurope.TheGreekmythoftheseductionofEuropaactsastheetymologicalrootandsignifiesadistinctionbetweenAsianorMiddleEasterncivilizationsandthoseofwesternmostEurasia.

Looking AheadModernEuropeanhistorytraditionallybeginswiththeItalianRenaissance.AftercenturiesofconquestandinnovationbytheancientGreeksandclassicalRomans,Europedescendedintoa“DarkAge”foralmostamillennium.Duringthisperiod,Europeanslostmuchoftheirartistic,scientific,andtechnologicalskillsastheregionwasreducedtoapatchworkofkingdomsconstantlyatwar.However,inthefourteenthcentury,Europebeganaremarkabletransformation.Italiancity-statesgrewenormouslywealthyasmerchantandbankingfamiliestookadvantageoftheCrusadesandtherisinginternationaltrade.Withthiswealth,theleadersofthecity-statesbegantopatronizeemergingartists,whorediscoveredandinventedanastonishingnumberofartistictechniques.TheidealsoftheItalianRenaissancesoonspreadacrossEuropelikewildfire,sparkinganewerathattransformedEuropeansociety.

1. This event marks the traditional beginning of Polish history and aligned Poland with the culture of Catholic western Europe rather than with that of Greek Orthodox eastern Europe.

2. It was located at a convenient crossroads of Europe,andtherisingpoliticalpowersofRussia,Prussia, and Austria were eager to use Polish territory

as a “buffer state” to protect them against rival nations. These nations eventually annexed Polish territory into their own states to increase their own size and resource availability.

3. The word Europe is taken from a Greek myth about the god Zeus’s abduction of a maiden named Europa.

SELF-ChECk AnSWERS


The Catholic Church in the Late Middle Ages

Unit 1, Lesson 4

Essential Questions• WhathappenedtosocietyinwesternEuropeafterthefallofthe

RomanEmpire?

• WhydidpeoplefeelsuchaconnectiontotheCatholicChurch?

• SummarizewhatmenlikeHusandWycliffebelieved.

• WhatwastheBabylonianCaptivity?

keywordsabsenteeism

autonomy

conciliarism

indulgences

lay piety

medieval

monasticism

nepotism

papacy

pluralism

simony


Unit 1, Lesson 4 15

Set the StageWhenRomefellinthe400s,westernEuropewasleftinchaos.Itspoliticalinstitutionswere shattered, and people were unsure where to turn in search of leadership. Into this vacuumwouldsteptheonlyinstitutionthatsurvivedthefalloftheRomanEmpiremostlyintact:theRomanCatholicChurch.HowwouldthechurchadapttofillthevoidleftbyRome?Itwouldneedtobecomenotonlyareligiousstructure,butasocialandpoliticalforce as well.

TheMiddleAges(or“medieval”inFrench)isahistoricalperiodthatcomesaftertheclassicalperiodofancientGreeceandRomeandbeforetheRenaissance.TheMiddleAgesspanmorethanathousandyearsandaredividedintothreeperiods:theearlyMiddleAges(c.400to900),theHighMiddleAges(c.1000to1300),andthelateMiddleAges(c.1300to1500).

The Rise of the Roman Catholic Church in the Early Middle AgesAfterRomefellinthe400s,Europeanlifeplungedintoaperiodofuncertaintyascitizensgrappledwithpolitical,social,andeconomicupheaval.OneoftheonlyinstitutionsthatprovidedEuropeanswithsomesenseofstabilitywastheRomanCatholicChurch.ThechurchhadanenormousimpactondailylifeforEuropeansintheearlyMiddleAgesandstartedtogainauthorityandinfluenceasitfilledthepowervacuumthatexistedafterthefallofRome.

Churchdoctrinebecameincreasinglyfocusedonmonasticism—anemphasisonlivingasmonksdobyembracingpoverty,chastity,charity,andthesimplelife.MonasticismbecameassociatedwiththeidealChristianlifeanditstrengthenedthefollowingandprestigeoftheRomanCatholicChurch.MonasteriesandconventsspreadacrossEurope,carryingwiththemChristianideals.SpreadingtheChristiandoctrineandconvertingtheEnglishandGermanicpeoplestotheCatholicfaithbecameapri-maryactivityofthechurch.ThechurchhadtheBibletranslatedintotheGothiclanguagetohelpconverttheeasternGermanicGoths.ThewesternGermanicFranksalsoadoptedChristianityandbecamestrongcooperatorswithanddefendersofthepapacy.Withinacentury,manyAnglo-SaxonsidentifiedthemselvesasChristians,aswell.

Duetoitsexpandingnumberofadherents,itsgrowingpower,anditshierarchicaladministration,theRomanCatholicChurchincreasinglyemployedEurope’sbestandbrightestminds.LifeintheMiddleAgesrevolvedaroundsmallvillages,andthelocalclergyandchurchsoonsteppedintowhateverleadershiproleswereavailable.Abbots,monks,andbishopsenjoyedconsiderablepower.Inatimewhenformalpoliticaldivisionswereweak,peopleoftenidentifiedthemselvesas“Christians,”ratherthanascitizensofaparticularnation.Thegoalsandambitionsofthechurchtookprecedenceoverthoseofsecularinstitutions,andthechurchdevelopedpoliticalandeconomicclout.Further,CatholicssawRomeasaholycitysinceSt.Peter,one

medieval French term meaning “middle ages”

monasticism embracing chastity, poverty, and obedience as the ideal way of life


16 Unit 1, Lesson 4

ofJesus’apostles,wasmartyredthere.AsRomebecameanimportantreligiouscenterledbythebishopofRome—thepope—italsowieldedconsiderablepoliticalpower.Romedidnotfallundertheauthorityofanyemperor,sothepapacyassumedasecularleadershiproleandthepopeenjoyedpoliticalandreligiousautonomy.

Criticism of the Roman Catholic Church in the high Middle AgesPapalpowerclimaxedwiththereignofPopeInnocentIII(r.1198–1216),whoestab-lishedacentralizedpapalmonarchyandexpandedthepowerofthechurch.Hisreignsolidifiedthepoliticalpowerofthechurchwhileweakeningitsspiritualandmoralauthority.Laterpopesextendedthissecularizationandpoliticizationevenfurtherbyestablishingapapalcourtandmakingtaxationofparishionersapermanentstrategyforraisingfunds.Theincreaseinpapalauthorityextendedtointernalpower,aswell.Popesbeganmakingclericalappointmentsatalllevelsofthechurchhierarchy,whichdiminishedthepowerofthediocesesandledtocriticismofthepope.

Churchcriticismwasn’tlimitedtotheincreasingpowerofthepope.Asthepowerandinfluenceofthechurchgrew,sotoodidthechargesofcorruptionandhypocrisy.Churchappointmentswereoftenguidedbynepotism—thefavoringoffamilymembers—andmoney.Simony,orthebuyingandsellingofchurchappointments,becamewidespread.Somechurchofficialswerecriticizedforabsenteeism,orfailingtobepresentintheofficestheyserved.Otherchurchofficialsheldandearnedmoneyfrommultipleclericalappointments,anabusecalledpluralism.Thesellingofindulgences—havingparishionerspayfortheforgivenessofsins—sulliedthemoralandspiritualcloutofthechurchandoutragedmanyChristians.Somechurchofficialsfacedcriticismforlivingopulentlifestylesorengaginginunscrupuloussexualormoralbehavior,allwhilepreachingthemonasticvaluesofpovertyandchastity.

InEnglandandBohemia(nowpartofthemodernCzechRepublic),criticsofthechurchfoundleadersinJohnWycliffe(c.1330–1384)andJohnHus(c.1369–1415).WycliffetaughtatOxfordUniversityinEnglandandwantedtoreformtheCatholicChurch.Hewascriticalofthecorruptionwithinthechurchanddisapprovedofthepoliticalpowerexertedbythepapacyandthechurchhierarchy.Hedidnotthinkthechurchshouldbeinvolvedinlandholding,butshouldbepoliticallysubservi-enttothemonarchies.ForWycliffe,theBiblewasthewordofGodandthekeytounderstandingtheproperwaytolive.HebelievedthatpersonalBiblestudywascriti-callyimportantforeveryChristian,buttheBiblewasinaccessibletomostbecauseitwaswritteninLatin.BecausethemassesofEnglishpeoplelackedtheabilitytoreadtheBible,theironlyknowledgeofthebookcamefromspokenreadingsmadebyclergy.WycliffewasdeterminedtobringtheBibledirectlytothepeople,intheirownvernacular.WithoutfirstreceivingapprovalfromCatholicauthorities,butwithhelpfromsomefellowreform-mindedEnglishscholars,WycliffecreatedanEnglishtranslationoftheBible.ThenewBibleangeredchurchauthorities,whocondemnedhisunsanctionedBible.ButruralclericsandordinaryEnglishpeopleembracedtheWycliffeBible.Soon,agroupoffollowersbegandisseminatingtheBibleacrossEngland,andtothecontinent.Radicalideasbegantospreadthatchallengedthetraditionalauthorityofthemedievalchurch.

papacy anything to do with the Catholic pope

autonomy to act alone

1SELF-ChECk

What institution

provided stability after

the economic, social,

and political upheaval

caused by the fall of the

RomanEmpireinthe

fifth century B.C.E.?

nepotism the practice of appointing family members or relatives to positions under one’s own supervision

simony the practice of paying money in exchange for a position of religious influence

absenteeism the situ-ation of holding primary spiritual responsibility for a congregation but not personally fulfilling it

pluralism the situa-tion of holding primary spiritual responsibility for more than one congre-gation within a church

indulgence in Catholic doctrine, a written docu-ment from a spiritual authority that forgives one’s sins without the need for penance


Unit 1, Lesson 4 17

Husandhisfollowers,calledHussites,sharedmanyofthesameideas.Huswasalsoateacher,butattheUniversityofPragueinBohemia.LikeWycliffe,Huscondemnedthecorruptionofthechurch,especiallythesaleofindulgences.InOn the Church,healsotookissuewiththepowerofthepapacy,notingthatreligiousauthorityrestsinscripture,traditions,andmorality.Huscriti-cizedthechurchforowningvasttractsoflandandoperatingasaharshlandlord.Hus’sideasalsodrewtheireofthechurch,whichcalledthereformerbeforetheCouncilofConstanceonthechargesofheresy.Churchleaderspromisedhimfairtreatmentforhiscooperation,butoncebeforethecouncil,Huswasfoundguiltyofthechargesandburnedatthestakein1415.Hus’sexecutioncreatedoutrageandignitedtheHussiteWars,whichlastedforseveralyears.

AdditionalcriticismofthechurchcamefrommysticssuchasMeisterEckhart(1260–1327) and Thomas à Kempis (1379–1471).KempisputforthhisideasinImitation of Christ,whichbecamethemostpopularreligiousbookofitstime.NeitherEckhartnorKempisopenlybrokewiththechurch.Rather,theypromotedlay piety.TheybelievedthatconnectingwithGoddidnotrequirechurchsacramentsorwor-shipservices.AccordingtoEckhartandKempis,thefaithfulcouldfindGodthroughspirituality,actions,andfeelingsintheirdailylives.MartinLutherlatersharedsomeofthesesameideas.

MembersofthelaitywhosupportedchurchreformalsofoundanoutletinGerardGroote(1340–1384)andhisBrethrenandSistersoftheCommonLife.AlsoknownasModernDevotion,thismovementstartedintheNetherlandsandgainedalargefollowing,especiallyinnorthernEurope.Themovementoperatedasacommunitywherelaypeoplecoulddeveloptheirfaithbasedonsimpleliving,tolerance,andservice.Membersdidnottakevowslikemembersofamonasteryorconvent,butinsteadfocusedoneducation,charity,andlivingalifemodeledafterthelifeofChrist.

Challenges for the Roman Catholic Church in the Late Middle AgesVariousinternalcrisescoincidedwiththerisingcriticismoftheRomanCatholicChurchandcontributedtoadeclineintheauthorityandprestigeofthechurchinthelateMiddleAges.

lay piety people who were not priests, nuns, or monks but behaved as such

2SELF-ChECk

Identify church practices

that generated public

criticism.

The execution of John Hus


18 Unit 1, Lesson 4

The Avignon PapacyWhenPopeBenedictXIdiedin1304,aFrenchbishopbecamePopeClementV(r.1305–1314).HopingtoincreaseFrenchinflu-enceoverthechurch,KingPhilipIVofFrance,oftenknownasPhiliptheFair(r.1285–1314),convincedClementtomovethepapalheadquartersfromRome,whichhadbeenthecenterofchurchpowerforcenturies,toAvignon,acityinsouthernFrance.Forthenextsevendecades,Avignonbecametheseatofthepapacy,whichwasstronglyinfluencedbytheFrenchmonarchy,justasPhiliphadplanned.TheperiodisoftencalledtheBabylonianCaptivityofthepapacy,areferencetotheOldTestamentstoryinwhichtheJewsoftheancientKingdomofJudahwereheldcaptiveinBabylonduringthesixthcenturyB.C.E.

AlthoughtheAvignonpapacyincreaseditsadministrativeeffi-ciencyduringitsyearsinFrance,theperioddamagedthechurch’spowerandabilitytoraisemoney.RomehadalwaysbeentheseatofpowerfortheCatholicChurch,buttheleadership’smovetoFrancerobbedthecityofitshistoricalandtraditionalpower.Additionally,theFrenchgovernmentenjoyedsignificantinfluenceoverthechurch,whichfurtherdiminishedthepowerofthechurchanditsprestigeintheeyesofthepeople.Duringtheseyears,thechurchgranted113of134newcardinalshipstoFrenchmen.ThechurchalsostruggledtoraisemoneyduringtheBabylonianCaptivitysinceitstraditionalfundingcamefromtheestatesofRome.ThecitysufferedadeclineinvisitationwiththepoperesidinginFrance.Tocompensateforthelostrevenue,Clementincreasedpapaltaxes,especiallyannates,whichwerethefirst-yearincomesofchurchbenefices.

JohnXXII(r.1316–1334)wasthemostpowerfulofthesevenAvignonpopesandwasresponsibleformanyoftheimprovementsintheadministrativeefficiencyofthechurch.HemodeledpapalauthorityonthesuccessfulEuropeanmonarchiesandmadereformstobringthechurchmoreinlinewiththegrowingmoney-based,ratherthanland-based,economy.PopeJohnXXIIattemptedtoreturnthepapacytoRome,buthefacedoppositionfromEmperorLouisIV(r.1314–1347),whoseascendencytotheGermanthroneheopposedin1314.Inresponse,LouisIVdeclaredanantipope.ThefeudendedwhenJohnabandonedhisassertionthatLouisIVwassubordinatetohim.JohnwasnotabletoreturntoItaly,andhissuccessorBenedictXII(r.1334–1342)hadnointentionoftryingtodoso.

Thechurch’sfinancialwoescontinued.TheHundredYears’Warbrokeoutin1337,pittingFranceagainstEngland.BecausetheEnglishconsideredtheRomanCatholicChurchtobeonthesideoftheFrench,theypassedlawsthathinderedthechurch’sabilitytoraisemoneyormakeclericalappointmentsinEngland.Francealsohaditsownlawsthatmadeitdifficultforthechurchtoraisemoney.PopeClementVI(r.1342to1352)increasedthesaleofindulgencesandexpandedthepracticetoincludesellingindulgencestosurvivingfamilymembersforthesinsofthealreadydeceased.Thesepractices—alongwiththelavishlifestylestheAvignonpopesenjoyed—fueledthechurch’sreputationforcorruption.Tomany,thechurchwasmoreconcernedwithpowerandbureaucracythanwithsalvationandspirituality.

3SELF-ChECk

What approach did

Thomas à Kempis

advocate for lay followers

who wanted to access

God?

The Palace of the Popes Avignon, France


Unit 1, Lesson 4 19

TheBabylonianCaptivityfinallyendedwithPopeGregoryXI(r.1370–1378),whomovedthepapacybacktoRomein1377,thanksinparttoavisitbyaDominicanmystic,CatherineofSiena.AlthoughthepapacyhadbeenrestoredtoRome,thechallengesanddisagreementswithintheRomanCatholicChurchwerefarfromover.

The Western SchismWiththepapacybackinRomeafteraperiodof70years,theItaliansdemandedanItalianpopewhenGregorydiedtheyearafterthemove.ThepredominantlyFrenchcardinalsknewthatfailingtoelectanItalianpopecouldcostthemtheirlives,sotheyobliged,electingUrbanVI(r.1378–1389).Urbanwantedtoreformandcleanupthechurch,andhecalledforanendtochurchpracticesthatrewardedcorrup-tionanddeceit,atthesametimethathedenouncedopulenceandoverindulgenceamongthechurch’selites.WhenUrbanwentsofarastoproposeeliminatingthecardinalships,theoutragedcardinalscalledforthereturnofthepapacytoAvignon.ThirteencardinalsbrokeawayfromthepopeandelectedaFrenchpope,ClementVII(r.1378–1398),whoresidedinAvignonandwastheFrenchking’scousin.Thisperiod,inwhichtwodifferentpopesclaimedlegitimacy,createdasplitinthechurchthatisoftencalledtheWesternSchism,ortheGreatSchism.

Theschismcontinuedasthechurchtriedtofigureouthowtoreconcilethestalemate.Bothpopesmaintainedtheirlegitimacyandrefusedtoconcedetotheotherorcallacouncilthatwouldlikelydeposeoneofthem.CountriesacrossEuropedividedtheirsupportforthepapaciesbasedonpoliticalallegiances.FrenchalliessupportedtheAvignonpope,whileEnglandanditsalliessupportedUrbanVIinRome.Whilenationalallianceswereclear,individualEuropeansdidnotknowwhichpopetofollowandtheschismdamagedtheprestigeofthechurch.

Becauseonlythepopecouldconveneachurchcouncil,andbecauseneitherpopewasgoingtomakesuchapersonallyriskymove,thechurchneededanewbureaucraticmechanism.Conciliartheorydevelopedtofillthisneed.Conciliaristsmaintainedthatarepresentativecouncilwasneededtoprovideoversightofthepope,whodidnotrepresentthewholechurchbutsimplyactedasitselectedleader.ProponentsoftheConciliarMovementbelievedthatthepope’sprimaryresponsi-bilitywastomaintaintheunityofthechurch.Theydidnotbelievethepopetobeinfallible,andtheyurgedthepopetoshareleadershipresponsibilities.Representativecouncils,conciliaristsargued,wouldbebetterequippedtohandlereformswithinthechurchthanapopeactingalone.

MarsiglioofPaduawasoneofthemostwell-knownadvocatesofconciliartheory,andhepresentedhisviewsinDefender of the Peace.Marsiglioarguedthatthechurchshouldbelessinvolvedinsecularmattersandmoreconcernedwithspirituality.Hebelieveditwasthepeoplewhogavethechurchandclergyitsauthority,notGod.TheseideasfoundawideaudienceduringtheGreatSchism.

TheconciliarargumentprevailedandcardinalsfrombothpapaciesattendedtheCouncilofPisain1409and1410.TheyelectedAlexanderVanddeposedthedualpopesinRomeandAvignon.However,neitheroftheexistingpopescom-plied,whichleftthechurchwiththreepopesandnosolutioninsight.Alexanderdiedshortlyafterhiselection,andJohnXXIII(r.1410–1415)succeededhim.Johncalledanothercouncil,theCouncilofConstance,from1414to1417.Thecouncil

4SELF-ChECk

What idea did the

Conciliar theory

promote?


20 Unit 1, Lesson 4

electedyetanotherpope,MartinV(r.1417–1431)aftereachofthethreeexistingpopeseithersteppeddownorwassuccessfullydeposed.

ThecouncilandtheendoftheGreatSchismwerevictoriesforconciliarism,butthechurchhadsufferedamajorsetback.Together,theBabylonianCaptivityandtheWesternSchismweakenedthechurchandshookthefaithofmanybeliev-ers.Europeanswholookedtothechurchforstabilityandleadershipfoundonlyuncertaintyanddoubtduringthisturbulentperiod.TheConciliarMovementendedwithPopeMartinV,whodisbandedtheCouncilofConstanceandwasnotinterestedinfurtherreforms.However,themovement’slegacylastedmuchlongerasittestedthefaithofmanyChristiansandcalledintoquestionthedivineauthor-ityofthepope.

Extension• ReadPopeBonifaceVIII’sDefense of Papal Supremacy.Uponwhatpremises

doesBonifaceresthisargumentforastrongpapacy?

SummaryTheRomanCatholicChurchwasoneofthefewremainingpowerfulinstitutionsaftertheancientRomanEmpirefailedinthe400s.Assuch,peopleclungtothechurch.Thepapacy’spowergrewaspeoplelookedtothepopetobealeaderinaworldwhererealpoliticalauthoritywaslargelyabsent.Aseriesofpopesexpandedthechurch’sauthorityandinfluencebycentralizingpowerinRomeandinvolvingthemselvesinsecularaffairsliketheHundredYears’War.ManypeoplecriticizedRome’sincreasingnonreligiousactions.MenlikeJohnHusandJohnWycliffegainedlargegroupsoffollowers,asdidmysticslikeMeisterEckhartandThomasàKempis.TowardtheendoftheMiddleAges,severaleventsoccurredthatweak-enedtheCatholicChurch.TheBabylonianCaptivity,duringwhichthepapalcourtleftItalyforFrance,damagedpapalprestige.TheGreatSchism—theeraoftwopopes—confusedcommonpeoplesincetheydidn’tknowwhichpopetofol-low.ThisconfusionledtotheConciliarMovement,whichsoughttocontrolthebehaviorofthepopesthroughrepresentativecouncils.TheConciliarMovementultimatelyfailed,butmanyofthecomplaintsagainstthechurchwouldeventuallybeadoptedbytheReformation.

Looking Ahead• FeudalismservedasaunifyingandorganizingforceforEuropeansafterthe

falloftheRomanEmpire.TheBlackDeathkilledathirdoftheEuropeanpopulationandalteredtheeconomic,psychological,andsocialspheresofEuropeanlife.

• UniversitiesdevelopedandflourishedinthelateMiddleAges.

conciliarism a belief that a representative council could control the behavior of popes


Unit 1, Lesson 4 21

1. TheRomanCatholicChurchprovidedstabilityafter the economic, social, and political upheaval causedbythefalloftheRomanEmpireinthefifthcentury C.E.

2. Nepotism, simony, absenteeism, indulgences, and pluralism were all church practices that generated public criticism.

3. Thomas à Kempis advocated spiritual actions, feelings, and personal connections to God rather than ritual.

4. The Conciliar theory promoted the idea that a representative council should oversee the papacy because a single leader could not fully represent church membership and because the Western Schism had diminished the pope’s authority.

SELF-ChECk AnSWERS


Feudalism and the Black Death

Unit 1, Lesson 5

Essential Questions• Whatwerethefundamentalfeaturesofthefeudalsystem?

• WhatwerethecausesandconsequencesoftheBlackDeathinEurope?

• WhydiduniversitiesandscholasticismriseduringtheHighMiddleAges?

keywordsanti-Semitism

asceticism

feudalism

fief

manor

primogeniture

taille

vassal

vassalage


Unit 1, Lesson 5 23

The Rise of Feudalism in Western EuropeFeudalismdevelopedintheaftermathofthefallofRomeinthe400s.Peoplefledthecities—wherethegovernment,themilitary,thepolice,andtheeconomicsystemhadcollapsed—andsettledinsmallcountrysidevillages.TheCatholicChurchwasoneoftheonlyinstitutionsstillintactafterthefallofRome,andpeoplelookedfornewwaystofindstability,protection,andstructure.Thesystemthatdevel-opedtofillthisneedwaslatercalledfeudalism.Feudalism,likemosthistoricaldevelopments,wasnotamonolithicsystem—itvariedwithtimeandplaceafteritsemergenceinthelateninthcenturyuntilitsdeclineinthefourteenthcentury.However,thebasisforallfeudalsystemswasthesame:powerfullordsprovidedprotectiontosubjectsinreturnforserviceandloyalty.

ThefeudalsystemthatdevelopedinGermanicstatesintheearlyMiddleAgeswascalledvassalage.Inthisarrangement,alordgrantedland,calledafief,toavassal,orknight.Inreturn,thatvassalpledgedhisloyaltyandmilitaryservicetothelord.Thesimpleceremonyandoathisdescribedbythefollowingpassagefrommedievallaw:

The man should put his hands together as a sign of humility, and place them between the two hands of his lord as a token that he vows everything to him and promises faith to him; and the lord should receive him and promise to keep faith with him. Then the man should say, ‘Sir, I enter your homage and faith and become your man by mouth and hands, and I swear and promise to keep faith and loyalty to you against all others, and to guard your rights with all my strength.’

Ifavassalgrantedsomeofhislandtoanotherman,hetoobecamealord,butheremainedavassaltohisbenefactor.Inthissystem,everymanwasbeholdentoanotherman,except,ofcourse,fortheking.Landholdingwasthe

Set the StageAfterthefalloftheRomanEmpireinthe400s,Europestruggledtorecoversomesemblanceofasocialstructure.ThesocietalframeworkofancientRomedisappeared,andinitsplaceanewtypeofsocietydeveloped.DuringRome’scollapse,peoplefledthe cities and regrouped in small villages. Feudalism and manorialism developed in this new social structure and helped western Europeans reorder their disrupted lives. These new systems provided protection and a sense of safety in an unsettled time. As society rebuilt itself, some scholars and theologians started looking into the past for knowledge and inspiration. Ancient works were rediscovered and scholasticism developed alongside Europe’sfirstuniversities,whichfilledthevoidleftbythecollapseofRome’seducationalsystem.EuropehadrebuiltitselfafterthecollapseofRome,butEuropeansocietyingeneral faced a catastrophic setback when the Black Death descended on it in the fourteenth century.

feudalism a political, societal, military, and economic system that prevailed in the Middle Ages in Europe

vassalage a system whereby men (vas-sals) swore their loyalty to a lord or prince in exchange for land

fief the land granted in exchange for service to a lord, usually military

vassals a person granted an estate in return for accepting the obligation to render services to a lord


24 Unit 1, Lesson 5

measureofwealthinthissocietybecausetheuseofcoinshaddiminishedwiththefallofRome.Lordsdidgenerateadditionalincomebycollectingfeesfromthevassalsforknightingtheireldestsonsorfromdowriesformarriageoftheirdaughters.Thefeudalagreementwasbasedonmutualloyaltyandtrust.Ifalorddidnotlookafterhisvassals—byfail-ing to provide land or protection in court, forinstance—thecontractbrokedown.Ifthevassalfailedtofulfillhisobligations,thelordcouldretracthisfief.Althoughfiefswereessentiallyloanedtothevassal,itbecamecommonforavassal’seldestsontoinheritthefiefbytheendofthetenthcentury.Thispracticeofinheritancebythefamily’seldestsoniscalledprimogeniture.

Noteverymaninmedievalsocietycouldbealordoravassal.Therestofsocietywasincorporatedbythesystemcalledmanorialism,whichprovidedtheeconomicstructureoffeudalsociety.Lordsbuiltlargemanorsasthecenteroftheiragriculturaloperations,andserfsworkedtheland.Theseserfscamefromthepeasantclass,whichaccountedforthemajorityofsociety.Manyserfsgaveupsomeofthefreedomstheyhadasfreepeasantsinexchangefortheprotectionofferedbyalord.Serfswereaffiliatedwiththelanditselfandnotnecessarilywiththelord.Ifthelandwassold,theserfsremainedwiththefiefandbecamethesubjectsofthenewowner.Serfswerenotslaves—theycouldnotbeboughtorsoldthemselves—buttheyremaineddependantontheirlordsandhadtoaskpermis-siontoleavethefief.Inexchangeforthelord’sprotection,serfsnotonlyworkedthelandbutalsopaidrentsforaccesstocommonland,suchaspastureland,withtheunderstandingthataportionoftheirproductionwouldgotothelord.Serfsalsohadtopaytithestothelocalchurch.Somefreepeasantsdidexist,buttheywerenotinthemajority.

Scholasticism and Europe’s First UniversitiesDuringtheHighMiddleAges,scholasticismanduniversitiesdevelopedasteachersandstudentsorganizedthemselvesinformalinstitutionsoflearning.MuchofthisnewintellectualvitalityfoundrootsinthediscoveryoftheknowledgeofancientGreekphilosophers,suchasPlato,Euclid,andAristotle.YetEurope’sscholarswouldhaveneverhadaccesstothesewritingshadArabthinkersandphilosophersnotpreservedtheancientmanuscriptsand,insomecases,extendedtheworkwiththeirownstudiesandcommentaryafterthefallofRome.TheArabshadtranslatedtheworksintoArabic,andwhenthemanuscriptsarrivedinEurope,monksandscholarstranslatedandpreservedtheworksintoLatin.Europeanintellectualismandlearningflourishedwiththisinfluxofknowledge,andthefirstuniversitiessoonformed,firstinBolognain1158,theninParis,Oxford,andCambridge.These

primogeniture when a fief is inherited by the eldest son of a lord

manor village farm owned by a lord

Peasants working in the fields


Unit 1, Lesson 5 25

universitiesfocusedonstudiesinlaw,medicine,andtheology.AllintellectualactivitywasconductedinLatin.TheworksofAristotlehadaprofoundinfluenceonboththesubjectmatterandthemethodoflearninginthesenewuniversities.Studentsanalyzedandcommentedonprimarysourcematerialandstudiedlogicandreasoning.

WhilethisrediscoveryofancientknowledgeinspiredintellectualgrowththroughoutEurope,italsoraisedanunsettlingquestion.HowcouldthisancientGreekandArabknowledgebereconciledwithChristiantheology?SomethinkersviewedthenewknowledgeasathreattoChristianity,butscholasticphilosopherThomasAquinas(1225–1274)setouttodispelthesefears.InhisfamousworkSumma Theologica,AquinasnotonlyattemptedtooutlinethesumtotalofChristiantheology,butalsotoassurepeoplethatfaithandreasoncouldcoexistbecausetheybothoriginatedwithGod.Aquinas’sworkprovidedtheintellectualfreedomforthinkerstopursuequestionsoflogicandreason.HisworkalsoprovedtobeextremelyinfluentialtotheCatholicChurch.

The Black Death Descends on EuropeBy1300,EuropeanshadaccomplishedagreatdealsincethefalloftheRomanEmpire.Universitiesprovidedcentersofeducation,whilegovernment,economic,andreligiousinstitutionscreatedstability,order,andmeaningforagrowingpopu-lace.However,Europefacedatragicsetbackwhenthebubonicplaguearrivedinthemid-fourteenthcentury.Theplague,knownastheBlackDeath,descendeduponEuropeatatimewhenthepopulationwasalreadyweakenedbyextremefaminethatbeganaround1300.ThatwaswhentheEuropeanpopulation,whichhadgrownsignificantlybetween1000and1300thankstoanabundantfoodsupply,startedtoout-paceagriculturalproduction.Peoplefacedjobandfoodshortages.Oncetheplaguesetin,diseaseandfamineeachexacerbatedtheeffectsoftheotherand,together,causedthedeathofuptohalfofallEuropeansinthefourteenthcentury.

ThebubonicplaguefirstenteredEuropethroughItalianseaportsandprobablycamefromcentralAsia.Itspreadalongtraderoutes.TheplaguereachedSicilyin1347andmovednorth,makingittoFranceandthenEnglandin1348.By1349,theplaguehadreachedNorway,fromwhichitthenspreadintoeasternEuropeandRussia.AtthetimetheplaguehitEurope,doctorshadlittleideawhattodowiththeirpatientsorwhatwasgoingoninsidetheirbodies.Today,weknowthatthediseasewascarriedbyfleasandcausedbythePasteurella pestisbacteria.Thousandsofflea-infestedratstraveledaroundEuropewithtradecaravansandinthecargoholdsofships,andanypersonwhocameincontactwiththeseratsorthefleastheycarriedwasindangerofbeinginfected.Onceinfected,peopleexperiencedahighfever,pain,andvomiting.Victimsalsodevelopedswollenlymphnodes(or“buboes”),whichfilledwithfluidandturnedblack.Thesebuboeseventuallyburst,anddeathfollowedshortlythereafter.Thegrimandhorrificdiseaseprogressedrapidly—thevictimusuallydiedwithinthreeorfourdaysofinfection.

Thedeathtollattributedtotheplaguewasimmense:anywherefrom25to50percentofEurope’spopulationperishedbetween1347and1351.Italy,wherethediseaseenteredEurope,washardesthitandmayhavelostupto60percent

1SELF-ChECk

Explain both feudalism

and manorialism.


26 Unit 1, Lesson 5

ofitspopulation.Theplaguekilledentiretownsthroughoutthecontinent.Theextraordinarydeathtolllikelyresultedfromthepresenceofapneumonicplagueatthesametimeasthebubonicplague.Thepneumonicplaguewastransmittedviatheairthroughcoughingorsneezingandwaseasilyspreadfrompersontoperson.Livingconditionsinfourteenth-centuryEuropefosteredthespreadofbothtypesofplague.Manypeoplelivedincloseproximitytoothersandincrowded,filthyconditions.Personalhygienepracticessuchasbathingwereverylimited,makingiteasyfordiseasetospread.

TheBlackDeathhadprofoundeffectsonEuropeanphilosophy,religion,andeconomics.Manypeoplecametoviewtheirworlddifferentlyafterfacingthepossibilityofsuchaquickandhorrendousdeath.Somebecamefascinatedwithdeath,andartandculturereflectedthismorbidfascinationinthedanse macabrestyle.Literallythe“danceofdeath,”thismorbidstyleinartfoundwideuseinthepaintingsoftheday.Thepaintingsdepictedeverydaysceneswherepeopleinter-mingledwithskeletons,remindersthatdeathwasneverfaraway.Somepeoplerespondedbytryingtoliveforthemoment,knowingitcouldallbegoneinaninstant.Theytookpartintabooactivitiesandrenouncedreligiouspietyinfavorofindulgenceandimmediatesatisfaction:“Eat,drink,andbemerry”servedastheirmotto.GiovanniBoccacciosummarizedtheoutlookofthesepeopleintheprefacetohisDecameron:“...attheleastinklingofsomethingthatsuitedthem,theyranwildinotherpeople’shouses,andtherewasnoonetopreventthem,foreveryonehadabandonedallresponsibilityforhisbelongingsaswellasforhimself,consideringhisdaysarenumbered.”

OtherEuropeansrespondedtothegrimrealitiesoftheplaguebystrength-eningtheirreligiousfaithratherthanrenouncingit.Somepeoplebelievedthe

2SELF-ChECk

Describe the origins of

the Black Death

in Europe.

The burial of plague victims


Unit 1, Lesson 5 27

plaguemustbeapunishmentfromGodforman’ssins,andtheyturnedtoalifeofpietyandrestraintor,insomecases,extremeasceticism.Oneparticularlyzealousgroupwastheflagellants,whotravelledfromtowntotownwhippingthemselvesinpenanceandofferingthemselvesasmartyrsforthesinsoftheworld.PopeClementVIcondemnedthepracticeby1349andorderedthesup-pressionofthemovement.However,flagellantscontinuedtoappearwithplagueoutbreaksintothefifteenthcentury.

Manyoftheflagellantswereanti-SemiticandactivelypersecutedEuropeanJews.Anti-SemitismemergedinresponsetotheBlackDeathbecausesomepeoplewronglybelievedthediseasewascausedbyJewspoisoningthedrinkingwells.ManyJewswerekilled,especiallythoseintheareaalongtheRhineRiver,andotherswereexiled.InGermany,morethan60Jewishcommunitieswerecompletelydestroyedwhenalltheirinhabitantsweremurdered.SomeJewsfledtoeasternEuropeandneverreturned.Anti-Semitismarosefrompeople’sfearsandwasnotofficiallycondonedbygovernmentsorreligiousinstitutions.Thepopeissuedtwopapalbullsin1348condemningthemurderandpersecutionoftheJews.

TheCatholicChurch,whosepriestsministeredtomanyofthesickandpre-sidedovertheburialsofmanyofthedead,lostalargenumberofclergytotheBlackDeath,whichdiminishedthechurch’sinfluenceandoutreachcapabilities.Peoplealsobegantodoubtthechurchwhenitbecameclearitcoulddonothingtohaltthedestructivespreadoftheplague.ThefactthattheplaguehitEuropeduringtheBabylonianCaptivityservedtoweakenthepowerandprestigeofthechurchevenfurther.

TheplagueproducedvaryingeffectsonEuropeaneconomies.Ononehand,theseverelaborshortageshurteveryonebyfurtherreducingthealreadymeageragriculturalproduction.Ontheotherhand,fewerworkersmeanthigherwagesforthosewhowereabletowork—bothasfarmersandskilledartisans.Thecostofmostgoodsandservicesdecreasedbecausetheextremelyhighmortalityratesledtoasurplusofmanyeverydaygoods,butluxuryandmanufacturedgoodsbecamemoreexpensive.Thestandardoflivingactuallyroseforthosewhoescapedtheplague.Theplaguealsosparkedsomeeconomicandtechnologicaladvances,includingimprovednavigationtechniquesthatallowedtraderstoreachmoredistantlandsthatmightbeleftunscathedbytheBlackDeath.Medicaladvances—suchaseffec-tivequarantinemeasures—alsodevelopedbecauseoftheplague.

Whileworkersgenerallysawincomeriseduringthisperiod,incomeforlordsdecreasedbecausetheywerenotabletochargehighrentstotheirvassalsandhadtopayhigherwagestoworkers.Thearistocracyrespondedintwoways.First,theyturnedfromlabor-intensiveagriculture,suchasgrainfarming,toactivitieslikesheepherding,whichrequiredfewworkers.Theyalsodevelopedlegislationtostemtheincreasingwages.InEngland,ParliamentpassedtheStatuteofLaborers,whichresetwagesattheirpreplaguelevels.Withthepowerofthelordsdimin-ished,Europeanmonarchsweregenerallyabletofurtherconsolidateandsecuretheirpower,especiallyastheyfoundedprofessionalarmiestoreplacethelords’armiesofknights.

asceticism the doctrine that a person can attain a high spiritual and moral state by practicing self-denial, self-mortifica-tion, and the like

anti-Semitism hostility toward Jews for religious, racial, or ethnic reasons

3SELF-ChECk

Where was the first

important university?


28 Unit 1, Lesson 5

Peasantsfacedtheirownhardshipsinresponsetotheplague,especiallyinthefollowingcentury.Sincelordshadfewerworkersavailabletothem,theyfreedfewerserfsanddemandedmoreforcedlaboroutoftheserfstheyhad.Aswagerestric-tionscameintoeffectandnewtaxeswereleviedonthepeasantsintheyearsaftertheplague,theireconomicconditionsdeclined.InFrance,the taillewasadirecttaxonthepeasantsthatpresentedaseverehardship.Inresponsetosuchcondi-tions,manypeasantsrevolted,includingthoseinFranceandEnglandin1358and1381,respectively.

Doctorshadnocurefortheplagueinthefourteenthcenturyandsimplyhadtoletthediseaserunitscourse.Isolationandquarantineweretheonlyeffectivewaystoavoidtheplagueandstopitsspread.Althoughthediseasehadlargelydisappearedby1351,itcontinuedtoreappeareverygenerationfortherestofthefourteenthcenturyandthenthroughoutthefifteenthcentury,althoughlessoften.Theserecurrencesmadeitdifficultformanyareastoregainthepopulationlevelsthattheyhadbeforetheplague;mostonlystartedtodosoby1500.

Extension• ReadGiovanniBoccaccio’sDecameronandcomparethecharacters’

experienceoftheBlackDeathwithcalamitiestodayintermsofapproach,treatment,andcircumstances.

SummaryAfterRomefellinthe400s,Europewasindesperateneedofanewwaytoorganizesociety.Feudalismprovidedthisorganizationandstructure.Feudalismwasacom-plexarrayofobligations.Aland-owninglordgaveafieftoavassal,whowasthenabletoworkthelandandprovidehelptothelordwhenneeded.Ifhewaslucky,thevassalbecamepowerfulenoughtobecomealordhimselfandhavehisownvassals.Manorialismwastheeconomicfoundationforthefeudalsystem.DuringtheHighMiddleAges,universitiesdevelopedasEuropeansrediscoveredtheworksofancientscholars.Theseworks,savedbyArabscholarsandsubsequentlytranslatedintoLatinbyEuropeanmonksandscholars,helpedEuropeanstudentslearnhowtoreason.ThomasAquinasledthescholasticphilosophersandworkedtoshowthatfaithandreasonwerenotantagonistic.TheBlackDeath,whichmadeitswaytoEuropein1347,deliveredEuropeansocietyaseveresetback.Thepopulation,alreadyweakenedbyoverpopulationandfamine,wasespeciallysusceptibletothebubonicplague.One-quartertoone-halfofEurope’spopulationwaskilled,andthesocietythatemergedwasverydifferentfromthepreplagueworldofwesternEurope.MostEuropeanshadoneoftworesponsestotheBlackDeath:theyturnedtoreligionandfaithtoguidetheiractionsortheyindulgedinthepleasuresoftheworldsincethenextdaymightbetheirlast.

Looking AheadAsconditionsworsenedforthepeasants,especiallywiththeincreasedburdenofdirecttaxation,revoltsoccurredacrossEurope.ConflictandpowerstrugglesplaguedEuropeanstatesatatimewheninstabilityandhardshipalreadyranrampantbecause

taille French term for a direct tax on the peasantry


Unit 1, Lesson 5 29

1. Feudalism was a political system in which nobles are granted the use of their land (land that belongs to the king) in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on their land. Manorialism was a system of rural economics during the Middle Ages in which lords held legal and economic power and received obligatory contributions from the peasants under

their jurisdiction. The manor house was the main dwelling on the lord of the manor’s fief.

2. Most scholars believe the Black Death originated in Asia. It traveled along trade routes, entering Italy through port cities and spreading to the rest of Europe.

3. Bologna

SELF-ChECk AnSWERS

oftroubleswithintheRomanCatholicChurchandthedevastatingBlackDeath.EnglandandFrancedescendedintowarin1337.Althoughthisconflict,foughtentirelyonFrenchsoil,wascalledtheHundredYears’War,itlastedoveracentury.EnglanddominatedtheconflictuntilayounggirlnamedJoanofArchelpedturnthetideinfavoroftheFrench.WhileEnglandandFrancewereembroiledinwar,theHolyRomanEmpiretotheeastfaceditsownproblems,bothwithitsmemberstatesandtheRomanCatholicChurch.


Unit 1, Lesson 6

Peasant Revolts, the Hundred Years’ War, and the Holy Roman Empire

Essential Questions• WhatadvantagesdidFrancehaveoverEnglandatthestartofthewar?In

spiteoftheseadvantages,whathappened?

• DescribethereasonsforthepeasantrevoltsinbothFranceandEngland.

• WhowereCharlesVIIandJoanofArc?Howaretheylinkedtooneanotherhistorically?

• DescribeatleastthreeresultsoftheHundredYears’War.

• HowdidHolyRomanEmperorsacquiretheirposition?

keywordsdauphin

ecclesiastical


Unit 1, Lesson 6 31

The hundred Years’ War and Peasant RevoltsTheHundredYears’Warofficiallybeganin1337overadisputefortheFrenchthroneandacontestedpieceoflandinthesouthwestofFrancecalledtheDuchyofAquitaine.Thelong-lastingconflictpittedtheFrenchagainsttheEnglishandhaditsrootsinthepreviouscentury,whentheEnglishoccupiedtheDuchyofAquitaine.In1259,theFrenchandEnglishsignedtheTreatyofParis,whichfor-malizedthisuniquerelationship.ThekingofEngland,byholdingtheFrenchland,officiallybecameavassaltothekingofFrance.ThistenuousrelationshipmoreorlessworkeduntilFrenchandEnglishtensionsmountedoverthecontestedFrenchthroneinthe1320sand1330s.

In1328,KingCharlesIV,PhiliptheFair’sson,diedwithoutanheir,thusend-ingtheCapetiandynastyinFrance.PhilipVI,whowasPhiliptheFair’snephewandthefirstoftheValoisdynasty,gainedtheFrenchthrone,butEngland’sKingEdwardIIIclaimedthathewasthelegitimateheirtothethrone.EdwardwastheclosestlivingmaleheirtothethronesincehismotherwasQueenIsabella,thesisterofFrance’sKingCharlesIV.TheFrenchbaronsrebukedEdward’sclaimbyarguingthatthethronecouldnotbepasseddownthroughafemaleheir.EdwardIII’sclaimtothethroneremainedidleuntilFrenchkingPhilipVIattemptedtogaintheDuchyofAquitainefromtheEnglishin1337.EdwardIIIconsideredthisactionaviolationofthe1259TreatyofParisanddeclaredwarontheFrenchin1337.EdwardIIIalsomaintainedthathemusttaketheFrenchthroneinordertoprotecthisrightfulterritory.Theseevents,alongwithtensionssurroundingtheEnglishdominationofFrenchFlandersthroughthewooltradeandFrance’ssup-portforScottishindependence,sparkedtheHundredYears’War,aconflictthatwouldrageformorethanacenturybeforefinallyendingin1453.

TheHundredYears’WarwasfoughtinFranceand,toalimitedextent,bythetwonaviesintheEnglishChannel.Thewarlastedsolong,inpart,because

Set the StageIn1337,longstandingtensionsbetweenFranceandEnglandcametoahead,andtheHundred Years’ War began over who had the right to sit on the French throne. Both sides introduced many new weapons and tactics that undermined feudal warfare and the premier status of the medieval knight. In addition, strong nationalist sentiments grew in both France and England. The war precluded trade, and governments had to impose heavy taxes on peasants to pay for the war. Those taxes led to peasant uprisings. England lost most of its continental holdings in the conflict with France and subsequently turned its focus to maritime supremacy. English nobles soon fought a civil war that ushered in the Tudor dynasty. The French lost a significant percentage of its population to the war. Meanwhile,theHolyRomanEmpirestruggledtokeepitsterritoriesundercontrolasitfoughtnotonlywithitssubjectedstates,butalsowiththeRomanCatholicChurch.


32 Unit 1, Lesson 6

itturnedintoaFrenchcivilwar,aswellasawarbetweenthetworivalwesternEuropeanpowers.TheEnglishdominatedmostofthewar—theywonkeybattlesatCrecy,Poitiers,andAgincourt—despiteFrance’sapparentadvantages.AmongtheadvantagesthatFranceenjoyedwerealargerpopulationandmorewealththanitsneighboracrosstheEnglishChannel.Moreover,sincethebattleswerefoughtonFrenchsoil,theFrenchdidn’thavetoworryaboutsupplylinesortransportationlogistics.However,theFrenchmonarchsmadepoordecisions,bothstrategicallyandeconomically,thatresultedinmilitaryandpoliticaldefeats.Also,liketheirEnglishcounterparts,Frenchnobleswereanxioustoreapthespoilsofbattletoincreasetheirownpower.UnliketheEnglishnobles,theFrenchwerewillingtodosoevenattheexpenseofthemonarch,andtheirbehaviorcontributedtotheinternalstrugglesFrancefacedduringthecentury-longconflict.

Truceandstalematemarkedthefirstdecadeofthewar,butthefirstmajorbattletookplacein1346atCrecyintheareaofnorthernFranceknownasNormandy.Englishtroops,ledbyEdwardIII,invadedNormandyandweremetbyPhilipVI’sforces.ItwasadecisivevictoryfortheEnglish,whousedtheirlongbowmentodefeattheFrenchcavalry.Althoughthelongbowdidn’thavethesameaccuracyastheFrenchcrossbow,soldierscouldreloaditmuchmorequickly.ForeveryarrowlaunchedbytheFrench,theEnglishcouldfireoffthree.TheEnglishtooktheportcityofCalais,whichtheyheldforthenext200years.Fourteenth-centuryFrenchhistorianJeanFroissartdescribedthebattleinhisChronicles:“TheEnglishcontinuedtoshootintothethickestpartofthecrowd,wastingnoneoftheirarrows.Theyimpaledorwoundedhorsesandriders,whofelltothegroundingreatdistress,unabletogetupagain(becauseoftheweightoftheirarmor)withoutthehelpofseveralmen.”

1SELF-ChECk

Over what issues

did the Hundred Years’

War start?

Philipe VI pays homage to Edward III.


Unit 1, Lesson 6 33

Aftersixyearsofrelativepeace—atruceforcedlargelybytheBlackDeath—theEnglishdealtanotherseriousblowtotheFrenchattheBattleofPoitiersin1356inwest-centralFrance.ThedefeatwasaparticularlycatastrophiconefortheFrenchsincetheEnglishcapturedFrance’sKingJohnII,alongwithapproximately2,000soldiers.ThedefeatandcaptureoftheFrenchkingplungedFrenchsocietyintodisarrayandsparkedpeasantrevoltsafterFrancehadtopayaheftyransomforthereturnofitsmonarch.TheEstatesGeneraltriedtoenactgovernmentreformssimilartothosesetforthbytheMagnaCartainEnglandin1215,butinfightingamongtheestateshaltedanyattemptatestablishingarepresentativemonarchy.

TheEnglish-dominatedPeaceofBretignyin1360resolvedoneoftheinitialcausesofthewar,butitdidnotendthefighting.Withtheupperhandinthewar,theEnglishmadetheFrenchagreetotherenunciationofEdwardIII’svassalsta-tus,eventhoughhewouldkeepthelandholdingsinFrance.TheagreementalsoresolvedthedisputeovertheFrenchthronebecauseEdwardIIIwithdrewhisclaim.TherestofthewarfocusedontheEnglishlandholdingswithinFrance’sborders.

Afterbattlesinthe1360sand1370scameaperiodofrelativepeace,partlyduetothepeasantrevoltsandinternalproblemswithineachcountry;thenextmajorengagementtookplacein1415attheBattleofAgincourtinFlandersinnorthernFrance.HenryV(r.1413–1422)ledthegreatlyoutnumberedEnglishtroops,whileCharlesd’AlbertledtheFrench.Despitetheirnumericaldisadvantage,theEnglishtroopsoflongbowmendefeatedtheFrenchonceagain.ThedefeatpromptedtheBurgundianstojointhefightonthesideoftheFrench,althoughthisalliancelastedonlyashorttime.WhentheDukeofBurgundywasassassinated,hissonbecameconvinceditwasatthehandsoftheFrench,andtheBurgundiansrejoinedthewareffortonthesideoftheEnglish.

Withthemomentumstillontheirside,theEnglishforcedanotherpeaceontheFrench.The1420TreatyofTroyesdeclaredtheEnglishkingastherightfulheirtotheFrenchthroneuponthedeathofCharlesVI.TheagreementmeantallofFranceandEnglandwouldcomeunderthepoweroftheEnglishmonarchy.However,CharlesVI’ssoncameforwardastheFrenchdauphin(theheirtotheFrenchthrone)withthebackingofmanyoftheFrenchpeopleandayoungFrenchpeasantgirlnamedJoanofArc.

AlthoughtheEnglishdominatedalmosttheentirefirstcenturyofthewar,themomentumshiftedtowardtheFrenchin1429,thanksinlargeparttoJoanofArc(1412–1431).Fromayoungage,Joanheardvoicestalkingtoher.Shebelievedtheywerethevoicesofthesaints.SheknewthatFranceneededhelptogettheEnglishoffofFrenchsoilandoutofFrenchaffairs.JoanapproachedtheuncrownedCharlesVIIin1428andconvincedhimtoletheraccompanytheFrenchtroopswhowouldsoontrytoendtheEnglishsiegeofOrleans.SheandthetroopsarrivedatOrleansinApril1429,andtheEnglishsurrenderedwithintwoweeks.CharlesVIIwascrownedkinginJuly1429.TheEnglishwereweakenedbydiseaseandstarvation,buttheirsurrenderatOrleansmarkedtheturningpointinthewar.ItalsomadeJoanaherototheFrenchandatargetfortheEnglish.TroopsfromBurgundy,thenalliedwiththeEnglish,capturedJoanofArcin1430andsoldher

2SELF-ChECk

What advantage did

the English longbow

have over the

French crossbow?

dauphin the eldest son of the king of France


34 Unit 1, Lesson 6

totheEnglish.TheEnglishcourtsputherontrialforwitchcraft,condemnedherasaher-etic,andburnedheratthestakein1431.Shewas19yearsold.However,anewtrialin1456clearedhername,andtheCatholicChurchcanonizedherin1920.

AfterthesiegeofOrleans,theFrenchstartedgainingbacklandoccupiedbytheEnglish.FightinginthenorthofFranceendedin1450withthedecisiveFrenchvictoryattheBattleofFormigny.ThelastbattleoftheHundredYears’WartookplaceatCastilloninBordeauxin1453.ThebattlewasafinalattemptbytheEnglishtoretainsometerritoryinFrance,buttheFrenchusedthecannontoholdofftheEnglishtroopsandemergedvic-torious.Thewarwasover.EnglandlostallofitsholdingsinFranceexceptforthetownofCalaisinFlandersalongtheEnglishChannel.

Bothcountriesfacedsignificantconse-quencesfromthewar.Francehadbeendevas-tated,especiallyitsfarmlandandwooltrade.Thearistocracycontinuedtotaxthepeas-antryinordertorecoverwartimeexpenses.However,manymembersoftheFrencharis-tocracyjockeyedforpowerinthechaosafterthewar,sotheFrenchkingexemptednoblesandclergyfromtaxationinanefforttokeepthemcontentandoutofpolitics.TheFrenchkingalsomaintainedastandingprofessionalarmy.Englandalsohadtotaxitspeasantry.Inbothcountries,theneedtorebuildtheeconomyputmoreandmoreresponsibilityontheparliaments,andrepresentativegovernmentstrengthenedintheyearsafterthewar.Bothcountriesalsoexperiencedawaveofnationalism.Propagandaandpopularliteraturefueledthesesentiments.Authorswroteinthevernacular,ratherthanLatin,andreachedawideraudience.Chaucer’sCanterbury TalesinEnglandandFrancoisVillon’sGrand TestamentinFranceweretwoofthesenationalisticworks.

Peasant UnrestGeneraldiscontentamongthepeasantseruptedintopeasantrevoltsinthefour-teenthandfifteenthcenturies.OneofthelongestlastingrevoltsoccurredinFlandersonthenortherncoastofFrance.Flanderswasamajortextilemanufacturingarea,andrevoltsintheregionlastedformorethanfiveyears.Theystartedin1323andwerearesponsetotheincreasingmonetaryburdens,throughbothtaxingandtithing,placedonthepeasantry.EdwardIIIalsothreatenedtocutofftheEnglishwoolsupplytoFlanders,whichpromptedmanyFrenchmeninFlanderstoopenlysupportEdwardIII’sclaimtotheFrenchthrone.PeasantsburnedandpillagedthecastlesofthearistocracybutwereeventuallycrushedbyFrenchforcesin1328.

3SELF-ChECk

Why did the war have

intermittent periods of

peace?

Joan of Arc


Unit 1, Lesson 6 35

AnotherFrenchuprisingoccurredin1358nearParis.ThisrevoltwascalledtheJacquerieuprisingafterafictionalpeasantheronamedJacquesBonhomme,andithadmanycauses.Likeotherrevolts,itwasaresponsetotheheavytaxa-tionofthepeasantryastheEstatesGeneraltriedtorecoupthemountingcostsoftheHundredYears’War.Theuprisingwasalsopartlyduetothe1356captureofFrance’sKingJohnII,whotheEnglishreturnedtoFranceonlyafterreceivingasignificantransom.Thepeasantsresentedhavingtopayforhisrelease.Peasantswerealsoupsetbecausemuchoftheirlandhadbeendestroyedbythewar,andtheyreceivedlittleornocompensationforthelossoftheirlivelihood.Lastly,thepeasantsfeltasifthearistocracydeliberatelykepttheirwageslow.ThefollowingpassagefromataletoldtotheFrencharistocracyseemstoconfirmthosesuspicions:

“Tell me, Lord, if you please, by what right or title does a villein [peasant] eat beef? Should they eat fish? Rather let them eat thistles and briars, thorns and straw and hay on Sunday and peapods on weekdays. They should keep watch without sleep and have trouble always; that is how villeins should live. Yet each day they are full and drunk on the best wines, and in fine clothes. The great expenditures of villeins come as a high cost, for it is this that destroys and ruins the world. It is they who spoil the common welfare. From the villeins comes all unhappiness. Should they eat meat? Rather they chew grass on the heath with the horned cattle and go naked on all fours.”

ThearistocracyrepressedtheJacquerierevoltweekslater,butmoreuprisingsoccurredthroughoutFranceduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.

TheFrenchpeasantrywasnotaloneinitsdiscontent.PeasantuprisingsalsosprangupthroughoutEngland,particularlyduringthePeasants’Revoltof1381.Therevoltwasaprotestagainsttherepressivefeudalsystem,whichwasparticularlystronginEngland,andanewtaxonalladultmales.PriestJohnBallledtherevoltalongwithWatTyler.JohnBallinspiredthepeasants:“Goodpeople,thingscannotgorightinEnglandandneverwill,untilgoodsareheldincommonandtherearenomorevilleinsandgentlefolk,butwearealloneandthesame.Inwhatwayarethosewhomwecalllordsgreatermastersthanourselves?”BallandTylerrallied30,000mentocallonKingRichardIIanddemandchanges.Thekinginitiallydecidedtomeetwiththegroup,butwhenhechangedhismind,thepeasantsunleashedtheirdestructionuponLondon.Manymembersofthearistocracyandclergyweremurdered,includingtheArchbishopofCanterbury,whohadleviedthetaxes.Richardfinallycrushedthelarge-scalerevolt.OtheruprisingsoccurredthroughoutEurope,includinginItaly,Spain,andtheHolyRomanEmpire.

Power Struggles in the holy Roman EmpireWhileFranceandEnglandwereimmersedintheon-again,off-againfightingoftheHundredYears’War,theHolyRomanEmpirewasinvolvedinitsownstruggletoretainpowerandcontrolitsdomains.TheHolyRomanEmpireconsistedoflargelyindependentstatesandcitiesthatretainedahighdegreeofpoliticalandeconomicautonomy.Theywerealsofrequentlyatwarwitheachother.Theempireincludedpresent-daySwitzerland,easternFrance,Germany,Austria,partsofwesternPoland,Luxembourg,northernItaly,theCzechRepublic,Slovenia,andtheNetherlands.

4SELF-ChECk

What role did Joan of

Arc play in the Hundred

Years’ War?


36 Unit 1, Lesson 6

UnlikeothermonarchiesinEurope,theHolyRomanEmperorwasanelectedleaderratherthanonewhoinheritedthethrone.

TheHolyRomanEmpirehadbeenruledbytheHohenstaufendynastysincethereignofFrederickIBarbarossa(r.1152–1190).FrederickwantedtoreassertthepoweroftheHolyRomanEmpire,whichhadbeeninvolvedinastrugglewiththeRomanCatholicChurchthroughouttheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.However,conflictbetweenthechurchandtheemperoronlyintensifiedandGermanpoli-ticsdisintegratedintoaperiodofdeadlyfeudsduringthethirteenthcentury.Thepapacysucceededinweakeningthepoweroftheemperorandworkedtomaintainthatweaknessbysupportingthepracticeofelectingtheemperor.Thestatesandcitiesoftheempirealsoworkedtokeepthispracticetoensuretheweakauthorityoftheemperor.Asaresult,theGermanicstatesfailedtodevelopastrong,centralmonarchyliketheothernationsofwesternEuropeduringthistime.

Initially,theelectorsoftheHolyRomanEmperoractuallyelectedthekingofGermany.ThiskingonlybecametheHolyRomanEmperorifapprovedbythepope.EmperorLouisIV(r.1314–1347)andsomeoftheGermanprincessetouttoremovethepapacy’sinfluenceonimperialmatters.LouisIVissuedtheDeclarationofRensein1338,whichproclaimedthatpapalapprovalwasnolongernecessaryfortheimperialposition.ThedeclarationangeredPopeClementVI(r.1342–1352),whodeposedLouisin1346andappointedCharlesIV(r.1346–1378)asemperor.Theappointmentwasn’taccepteduntilLouisIVdiedin1347.CharlesIVworkedtoprovideaframeworkfortheemperor’selectionanddidsobyissuingtheGoldenBullin1356.TheproclamationofficiallylaidoutthesevenelectorsoftheHolyRomanEmperor:threeecclesiastical princesandfourlayprinces.Thepopelostallsayintheelectionoftheemperor.

Evenwithoutpapaloversight,however,theemperorremainedinaweakpositionwithlittlecontroloverhisdomains.AnarchyenvelopedtheHolyRomanEmpireasprincesandothernobilitylookedtostrengthentheirpower.Italiancity-statesenjoyedrelativeautonomy.Someofthesestateswouldlatersuccessfullyasserttheirindependence.Amidstthispoliticalinstability,theempirealsofacedtheconstantthreatofattackfromtheOttomanEmpiretotheeast.

Extension• Read“TheHundredYears’War”chapterofThe ChroniclesbyJeanFroissart.

WhatcanonelearnfromFroissart’saccountthatmaynotappearintextbooks?

SummaryTheHundredYears’WarrippedEnglandandFranceapartfrom1337to1454.ItbeganwithaspatovertheFrenchthroneandacontestedpieceoflandinsouthwestFrance.EdwardIIIofEnglandclaimedthethroneashisownwhenCharlesIVofFrancediedwithoutanheir.FrenchnobleshadanotherideaandinstalledCharlesIV’scousin,PhilipofValois,onthethrone.EnglanddeclaredwaronFrance.WhatshouldhavebeenaneasyvictoryforFranceinsteadturnedintoover100yearsofbloodshed,stalemates,andtruces.Englanddominatedmostofthewar,forcing

5SELF-ChECk

Identify one reason for

the Jacquerie revolts

in France.

ecclesiastical of or related to a church, especially as an estab-lished institution

6SELF-ChECk

List two areas that

were part of the Holy

RomanEmpire.


Unit 1, Lesson 6 37

FranceintothePeaceofBretignyin1360andtheTreatyofTroyesin1420.However,thetidesturnedinthelate1420sdue,inpart,totheeffortsofJoanofArc.TheFrenchprovedvictoriousanddrovetheEnglishoutofalltheirFrenchholdingsexceptCalaisinnorthernFrance.Thewarhadseveralresults,fromtheunrestofthepeasantry—whichhadrevoltednumeroustimesoverexcessivetaxationduringthecourseofthewar—totheriseofparliamentarypower.TheHolyRomanEmpirealsostruggledduringthistime,mostlyowingtotheelectionprocessthatensuredaweakemperor,muchtothelikingofthepopeandGermanprinces.

Looking AheadTheRenaissancesawunprecedentedbrillianceinintellectualandartisticpursuits.Theeducatedelitelivingduringthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesdistinguishedthemselvesfromthe“darkages”thatprecededthem.TherebirthofclassicalGreekandRomanthoughtbeganinFlorence,Italy,andrapidlyspreadtotheotherItaliancity-statesandnorthernEurope.WhilesomeoftheaccomplishmentsandideasoftheRenaissancecanbetracedtomedievaltimes,thereisasharpdistinctionbetweenpopularideologiesandpracticesbetweenthetwoeras.

1. Disputes between England and France over control of the French throne and the Acquitaine.

2. The English could reload the longbow more quickly than the French could reload the crossbow. The English could fire three arrows to one arrow launched by the French.

3. The Black Death slowed war efforts as did peasant revolts in both England and France.

4. Joan of Arc boosted the morale of French troops, helped troops turn the tide of the war in France’s

favor, and helped secure Charles VII’s place on the French throne.

5. The peasant-led Jacquerie revolt happened because of high taxes, resentment for bailing out the French King when the English held him captive, and the lack of compensation for the land destroyed during the Hundred Years’ War.

6. Answers will vary but may include: Switzerland, eastern France, Germany, and Austria, part of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands, and northern Italy.

SELF-ChECk AnSWERS



Documents

Unit 1, Lesson 2 Thematic Essays and European Geographyk12.kitaboo.com/k12/ebookpdf/history07/AP_EUR_S1_unit01.pdf · 2 Unit 1, Lesson 2 Review: Writing a ... thematic essays. The