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Sponge 1
Describe in your own words, what is the study of genetics?
Define the following: DNA, RNA and Protein? How do they work together?
How are chromosomes, genes, and DNA related?
What do you think is the earliest genetic manipulation of living things? Next slide
Prehistory Times and Heredity (8000 B.C.)
Fossils provide evidence of domesticated animals and cultivated plants.Dogs, Camels, Horses, Corn, Wheat, Rice
• Cultivated for optimal cultural needs Provided evidence of artificial selection
The Greek Influence Hipparcus (500 B.C.) - Theory of Preformation - “Sex
cells” contain a complete miniature adult called the homonuculus. Physical Substance of offspring acquired from the body
of father & transported to offspring via semen Generative Forces directs the physical substance as
develops Humors act bear traits of physical substance The Hippocratic Oath - used today by Medical Doctors
as derived from the Hippocratic School of Medicine
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The Greek Influence Aristotle (384 B.C.) - A naturalist interested in Hippocrates
analysis of humans and heredity. Graduate of Hippocratic School of Medicine and leading
philosopher of his time Said male and female contained “vital heat”
• allowed offspring to “cook” in basic structure and capacities Females contributed half of hereditary sources and shaped
offspring combined with male contribution Essential difference between Aristotle and Hippocrates?
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Modern Biology William Harvey (1600 A.D.) - Extensive work on
circulatory system of animals. Trained Medical “Doctor” Theory of Epigenesis - Organism derived from
substances present in the egg• Substance develops into adult structures during
embryonic development• Structures such as organs not present in embryo,
but grow as development takes place Conflicted Theory of Preformation
Modern BiologyOthers and Their Work John Dalton (1808) - Atomic Theory Schleiden and Schwann (1830) - Microscopes and The Cell Theory Lois Pastuer (1850) - Theorem three of the cell theory disproved
the Spontaneous Generation Carlos Linnaeus (1710) - Fixity of Species=Plants and animals
remain unchanged in form from the moment of their appearance on Earth Binomial Nomenclature System of Classification still used today
Joseph Kolreuter (1750) - Work on tobacco and carnation plants. Crossbred two groups and derived a new hybrid form Supported the Law of Segregation, but because of his belief is special
creation never published
Modern Biology
Charles Darwin (1860) - On the Origin of Species - existing species arose by descent, with modification, from ancestral species The foundation to the Theory of Natural Selection
Natural Selection - the environment can support only so many offspring There are more offspring than the environment can support,
competition arises among them because of the numbers Surviving organisms are those with the heritable traits able to survive
and reproduce over those less-adaptive
Over long periods of time populations of organisms will show variation due to the pressure from the environment for organisms to obtain food, not become food and reproduce.
Finding food becomes a driving force for organisms to fit into places in the environment (habitat selection theory)
Modern Biology
Darwin lacked understanding of the genetic basis of variation Inheritance was the primary gap between theory and what is seen in
nature Variations in Animals and Plants under Domestication explained that
heritable variation through pangenesis and inheritance of acquired characteristics
Hypothesis of Pangenesis - Gemmules (humors) were physical traits acquired or lost and become heritable
Who did he reference for this hypothesis? Darwin borrowed hypothesis from Lamarck’s Doctrine of Use and
Disuse - organisms acquire or lose characteristics that then become heritable through population fitness
Modern Biology Gregor Mendel (1866)
Developed Transmission Genetics Postulates
Statistical studies of plant breeding data Factors in germ cells
(sperm and egg) transmit traits from parent to offspring over successive generations in patterns of heritability
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Conceptual Issues and Terminology
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation found in populations of living things.
Chromosomes are cellular structures containing genes. Chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each
body cell, one of each pair from the mother and the other from the father.
DNA is an acronym that stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid and DNA - molecule stores genetic information. DNA - strands of ribose sugars with nucleic acids. DNA - stored in nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Nucleoid region in cells serve as center for
reading genetic code into a physical trait
Conceptual Issues and Terminology Genetic code contains instructions that tell
cells what to do in units called genes The DNA code is written in an alphabet of
four chemical "letters" known as bases Bases are part of larger structures, called
nucleotides, that form the building blocks of DNA.
Four bases—adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, abbreviated A, T, C, and G— can be strung together in billions of ways Billions of coded instructions can be sent to cells
Nucleotides are groups of three bases that “code” for the production of protein
Genes are codes for traits (what we see=phenotype) Made of sequences of nucleic acids that serve as a code = genotype, and
there are several versions (i.e. black, brown, red, etc) of a trait = allele Alleles may be a dominant or recessive version. Dominant alleles
usually express over recessive versions of the same trait
Given the right conditions (radiant energy such as sunlight) genes and whole parts of chromosomes can change their genotype and therefore decode into a different phenotype
A short gene change in genotype is called a gene mutation A whole change in chromosome genotype(s) is called a
chromosomal mutation
Conceptual Issues and Terminology
Conceptual Issues and Terminology Nucleic Acids - bio-chemicals that serve as the genetic code
within a strand of DNA Sequences of nucleic acids that code for a trait = genes Genes on chromosomes code for production of a protein Protein is the chemical substance contained in all living
things that serve as a structural component to cells or an enzyme for chemical reactions to take place
Proteins are made of smaller components called amino acids Enzymes are catalysts and most enzymes are proteins
Catalysts - chemicals made of protein that help chemical reaction in cells happen quickly. Without enzymes, life processes could not happen quickly and multi-cellular life (like humans) would not exist
DNA reproduces into two different types of cells. Somatic cells are cells that contain diploid or 2N sets of chromosomes. Sex cells are haploid that reduce chromosome number to N in ploidy
number. Mitosis - type of cell division by which somatic cells (2N cells) are
produced. Mitosis involves a replication and the production of identical copies of genetic material. One cell makes an identical copy of itself.
Meiosis is the type of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and sperm) are produced. Meiosis involves a reduction in the amount of genetic material. One cell makes four smaller, half chromosome number cells.
Conceptual Issues and Terminology
Investigative Approaches
Transmission Genetics - tracking patterns of inheritance of traits using Mendelian Laws and Principles Pedigree Analysis is a type of transmission genetics used to track traits
in a family of organisms Cytogenetics is the study of the chemical nature of chromosomes, their
reproduction and segregation using Mendelian Genetics Molecular Analysis - use of biotechnology to determine exact sequence of a
genotype Genomics - Uses molecular and cytogenetics to study all DNA related to an
organism and a population, their interactions and how those interactions relate to the phenotypic expression
Population Genetics is the study of gene pool phenotypes and genotypes Population Geneticists study the gain or loss of traits in populations of
organisms over time (Darwinian Principles) Forensics is a mix of all fields that profiles DNA in criminal cases
Types of Cells
Prokaryotes - Eubacteria and Archeabacteria Cells have no internal membranes inside cell
Eukaryotes - Plantae, Animalia, Protista and Fungi Cells have internal membranes that help carry
out specific functions All Cells have Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm,
DNA and RNA
Cell BarriersMembranes and Walls
Bacteria and Plants have cell walls Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan (a complex toxic
sugar substance) Plants cell walls are made of a chemical called cellulose (a complex
sugar substance) All cell types have cell membrane
Bacteria and plants have a cell wall and inside of cell membrane Animals, Fungus, Protists have a cell membrane, but no cell wall
Cell Membranes
All cells have a cell membrane (or plasma membrane) The cell membrane is made of protein and fat
(=phospholipid) Fats are linked together with gaps between them Gaps between proteins and fats in cell
membrane allow some things to move into the cell because of their size
• Property of cell membranes = selective permeability
Cell Membrane
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Purpose of the Cell Membrane
The purpose of the cell membrane is to maintain homeostasis Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a
relatively constant internal environment To do this a cell must get rid of waste and carbon
dioxide built up and allow sugars and oxygen into the cell
• Water is used to carry all objects across the membrane barrier (in and out)
Sponge 2
All living things share certain properties. List and describe the general cell structures
that all living things share. Explain the central dogma utilized by all
living things. Describe why it is important for geneticists
to know and understand cell structures and functions and the central dogma.
Central Dogma
Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids Proteins are made by cells from RNA RNA is made from DNA, so the template for cells (=Central
Dogma) works like this:
DNA -> RNA -> Protein DNA are the instructions, RNA are the copies of DNA the cell
uses to make protein Three types of RNA help this process: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA Protein carries out the functions the cell needs. Here are some
functions:• Transport Carriers, Enzymes (help speed up chemical reactions in
cells), Structure Components, etc
DNA and the Nucleus
Bacteria have DNA, but it is not contained within a membrane Bacteria have a one, double stranded
circular chromosome made of DNA Eukaryotes’ DNA is stored in double strands
of chromatin (=chromosomes) contained within a centralized storage compartment held together by a membrane called the nucleus The nucleolus is another membrane
structure found within the nucleus and helps the nucleus provide a location for the production of RNA, while not getting in the way of DNA not in current use
NucleusER
Assembly and Transport Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes are very efficient at making protein and fat Fat is used for cell membrane structure and protein is used for
just about everything including structure of the cell membrane, transport and chemical reactions within the cell
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is responsible for making and refining protein and Fat
The Golgi Apparatus is responsible for packaging and telling the protein where it is going in the cell.
The Rough ER assembles the protein, the Smooth ER refines then, preparing them for their jobs, and the Golgi Apparatus packages it
• The Smooth ER also makes and refines fats for the cell membrane
Protein Production
1. Nucleus. 2. Nuclear pore. 3. Rough endoplasmic
reticulum 4. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum 5. Ribosome on the rough ER 6. Proteins that are
transported 7. Transport vesicle 8. Golgi apparatus 9. Cis face of the Golgi
apparatus 10. Trans face of the Golgi
apparatus 11. Cisternae of the Golgi
apparatus.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a clear, gelatinous fluid inside all cells
Cytoplasm provides a fluid internal environment that allows for the movement of DNA, RNA and other chemicals needed to carry out cell functions.
Storage
Given the relative quantity of sugar produced they must sore sugars into locations inside cells Vacuoles in plant cells are temporary
storage containers for sugar, enzymes and even waste
Plants sugar through photosynthesis
Policing the cell
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes Removes and “digests” old organelles
Peroxisomes are organelles similar to lysosomes Removes and “digests” complex sugars in
the cell into small sugars that can be used as an energy source
Carbon Metabolism
Chloroplasts - Capture light energy and produce sugar for use in energy production for the cell A Chloroplast is one type of plastid. Plastids are
organelles that either make or store sugars Mitochondria - Use sugar from the Chloroplasts
to produce energy for the cell ATP (adenosine triphosphate) - Energy made by
mitochondria. ATP is Chemical Energy for the cell Chemical that all living things use for energy
Skeleton For Cells
Actin filaments made of protein hold the cell membrane into place Actin filaments link together to form the
cytoskeleton Microtubules and microfilaments are made of
protein and are the skeleton that hold organelles into place and help move organelles when the cell divides into two cells during cellular replication
Cell Motility
Some cells have tails and projections that help them move around in their environment. Our cells obviously do not move around like this, but some bacteria, some fungi, some plants and most protists do move around. A Flagella is made of protein and is a whip like tail used to move
the organism in it’s environment. Cilia are hair like projects that help the organism move.
• Most organisms have only one flagella, but many cilia.
• The flagella is contained on the tail portion of the organism, whereas the cilia can be contained all around an organism.