Unit 1: Psychological Skills Training

I. IntroductionII. MythsIII. Sport Psychology ResearchIV. Terry Orlick’s Wheel of ExcellenceV. The Peak Performance ExperienceVI. Assumptions about Psychological Skills

TrainingVII. Reciprocal DeterminismVIII. Useful Metaphors IX. Mental Training as Life Skills

I. Introduction

A. Big Themes– Awareness– Choice– Self-control– Plans & routines– Something to turn to– Mental skills can be learned with practice

II. Myths

• Mental training is the same as psychotherapy• Mental training is only for elite performers

III. Sport Psychology Research

A. Basic versus Applied ResearchB. Astros StudyC. Pac-10 Golf Study

ACSI-28 Subscales

• Confidence & Achievement Motivation• Freedom from Worry• Concentration• Coachability• Goal-Setting & Mental Preparation• Coping with Adversity• Peaking under Pressure

IV. Terry Orlick’s Wheel of Excellence

A. FocusB. CommitmentC. Confidence & BeliefD. Positive ImagesE. Ongoing LearningF. Distraction ControlG. Mental Readiness

John Wooden on Success

• Success is peace of mind, which is the direct result of self-satisfaction in knowing you did your best to become the best that you are capable of becoming

Self-Efficacy

• An expectancy concerning one’s ability to successfully engage in the behaviors that are required for goal attainment in a given situation or performance domain

• In other words…– Belief in your capacity to do what is necessary to

reach your goal.– Belief that you have the ability to achieve your

goal.

Two Ways of Viewing Intelligence

• Intelligence is static – Fixed mindset or entity theory – Whatever you have is what you have

• Intelligence is acquired – Growth mindset or incremental theory– What you have is a product of what you have

developed along the way

Examples of the Fixed Mindset

• "Imagination, creativity, and belief. You either have them or you don't."– Royal Bank of Scotland

• "Challenge doesn't create character, it reveals it."– Oppenheimer Funds

Blackwell, Tresniewski, & Dweck (2007)

• Participants: Students entering Jr. High• Variables measured

– Mindset (fixed versus growth)– Motivational variables: learning (versus outcome

goals), beliefs about effort, helpless attitudes– Math grades

Study 1 Results

• Mindset was significantly correlated with 7th & 8th grade math grades

• Students who endorsed the growth mindset were more likely to:– Pay more attention to learning as a goal– Believe that effort is necessary and effective in

achievement

Study 1 Results (Continued)

• Students with learning goals and positive attitudes about effort:– Made fewer ability based attributions for setbacks

(e.g., “I failed because I’m stupid”)

• These motivational differences appeared to contribute to better performance in math

Study 2 Results

• Manipulate mindset• Intervention: Eight 25-minute sessions with

the kids (experimental and control groups)• Both groups: sessions on brain basics and

study skills• Experimental group: sessions on how learning

changes the brain (control group sessions on memory and academics)

Study 2 Results (Continued)

• Same correlations between mindset and motivational factors were found

• Those in the growth mindset group showed a change in math grades

Dweck Study with 5th Graders

• Had students solve relatively straight-forward puzzles from an IQ test

• After successful completion, students received one of two types of praise:– Intelligence group: “You must be smart at this.”– Effort group: “You must have worked very hard.”

Dweck Study with 5th Graders (Continued)

• When given the choice to try a harder puzzle that they would “learn a lot from attempting”– Majority of intelligence group didn’t attempt– Most of effort group (90%) tried it

• Next, everyone failed on a hard puzzle• Showed different explanations for failure:

– Intelligence group: “I guess I’m not smart at this”– Effort group: “I guess I haven’t tried hard enough yet”

many were still enthusiastic about these puzzles

Dweck Study with 5th Graders (Continued)

• All students again given opportunity to do puzzles as easy as the very first puzzles– Intelligence group: did about 20% worse– Effort group: did about 30% better

Fixed Mindset: Intelligence is Static and Unchangeable

• Leads to a desire to look smart and a therefore a tendency to:– Avoid challenges– Give up easily– See effort as fruitless or worse– Ignore useful negative feedback– Feel threatened by the success of others– Peak early and not achieve full potential

Growth Mindset: Intelligence is Developed

• Leads to a desire to learn and therefore a tendency to:– Embrace challenges– Persist in the face of setbacks– See effort as a path to mastery– Learn from criticism– Find lessons and inspiration in the success of others– Reach higher levels of achievement

A Success Formula

• Self-Discipline +• Self-Control +• Self-Confidence =• Self-Realization (accomplishing goals that

have personal meaning for you)

Vince Lombardi on Success

• The dictionary is the only place where success comes before work. Hard work is the price we must all pay for success.

The Peak Performance State• Physically Relaxed• Mentally Calm• Energized• Focused• Automatic• Effortless

• Enjoyment• Positive• Self-confident• In control• Alert

Assumptions About Psychological Skills Training

A. People do things the best way they know how.B. Most people never reach their full potential.C. Most people don’t know how to release their full

potential, but they can learn.D. Becoming fully yourself requires getting out of your

own wayE. Much of life is a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Assumptions about Psychological Skills Training (Continued)

F. The mind and body interact in both positive and negative ways.

G. It is crucial to take responsibility for yourself and your own personal development.

H. The ultimate goals is self-realization.

EnvironmentStimuli from social or physical environment

Reinforcement contingencies

BehaviorNature

FrequencyIntensity

PersonPersonality characteristics

Cognitive processesSelf-regulation skills

Unit 2: Goal Setting

I. What is a Goal?II. What is Goal Setting?III. Does Goal Setting Work?IV. The Theory Behind Goal SettingV. Goal-Setting GuidelinesVI. Case ExamplesVII. Common Problems in Goal Setting

Goals Defined

• Goal (or specific objective goal): attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified time limit

• Examples: – Reduce my best marathon time by 5 minutes by

January of 2008.– Increase my typing speed by 10 words per minute

by the end of the quarter

General Objective Goals

• Defined: goals that relate to outcomes or results

• Examples: – Be promoted to district manager– Get an A in my chemistry class– Win the state championship

Subjective Goals

• Subjective goals: general statements of intent• Examples:

– I want to have fun– I want to perform well

Outcome Goals

• Outcome goals: goals that have to do with performance results (~ general objective goals)

Performance & Process Goals (a.k.a. Target Behaviors)

• Performance goals: goals that focus on improvement relative to prior performances (~ specific objective goals)

• Process goals: procedures the person will focus on during performances (often involve mental and/or physical skills)

• Examples:

Goal Setting Defined

• Goal setting is a systematic, scientifically validated approach to…

1. selecting goals2. developing specific action plans for moving

towards these goals, and 3. monitoring performance feedback

Some Effects of Goal Setting

• Increased performance and productivity• Increased motivation• Increased confidence and pride• Increased self-sufficiency/resourcefulness• Increased liking for activity• More directed & efficient preparation• Clarified expectations (in group settings)

How Does Goal Setting Work?

• Directs attention and effort• Mobilizes effort• Increases persistence & prolongs effort• Aids in the development of new strategies• Increases self-assessment• Enhances confidence and personal control

Goal-Setting Guidelines

• Set specific, behavioral, and measurable goals• Set difficult but realistic goals• Set short-term as well as long-term goals• Set performance and process goals (target

behaviors) as well as outcome goals• Set goals for practice as well as competition

Goal-Setting Guidelines (Continued)

• Set positive as opposed to negative goals• Set target dates• Record goals once they have been identified• Identify goal achievement strategies• Get feedback on your progress• Be flexible

Additional Goal-Setting Recommendations (Not in Text)

• Focus on the process• Reward your striving• Expect individual differences

Common Problems in Goal Setting

• Convincing people to start• Failure to set performance and process goals• Setting too many goals• Setting goals that are too general• Failing to modify excessively difficult or

unrealistic goals• Failing to appreciate time commitment

involved

Common Problems in Goal Setting (Continued)

• Setting only technique-related goals (ignoring psychological factors)

• Failing to follow-up and track progress• Failing to appreciate individual differences

Unit 3: Behavioral Self-Regulation

I. Models of Behavior ChangeII. Self-Regulation in Human BehaviorIII. Behavioral Self-ControlIV. The ABCs of Behavior ControlV. Designing a Self-Control ProgramVI. Identifying and Controlling AntecedentsVII. Identifying and Controlling ConsequencesVIII. Relapse Prevention

Factors Influencing Behavior

• Biological System• Learned Behavior Repertoire• Cues from Cognitive and Self-Directive

Responses• Immediate Environment

Kurt Lewin’s Formula (1935)

B = f(P, E)

In Lewin’s words…

“Behavior is a function of interacting personal and environmental factors.”

Cybernetic Regulatory Systems

• Standard: The target that is set (~goal)• Sensor: Monitors a variable (~awareness &

self-monitoring)• Comparator: Compares variable to standard

(~feedback)• Activator: Causes change to happen (~action

plan)

The Nature of Mental Toughness

• Emotional control in the face of adversity• Able to concentrate under pressure and

distraction• Peaks under pressure• Views pressure situations as challenges rather

than threats• Self-motivated and directed

The Nature of Mental Toughness (Continued)

• Consistency• Optimistic and self-confident• Fully responsible• Great determination

Mental Toughness as Psychological Skills

• Goal Setting• Imagery/Mental Rehearsal• Stress Management Training• Attention Control• Pain Control Procedures• Social Skills/Communication Training

Stages of Skillful Behavior Development

• Control by Others• Control by Self• Automatization (Control by Environmental

Cues)– Paralysis through analysis

Identifying Antecedents

• When did it happen?• Where were you?• Whom were you with?• What were you doing?• What were you thinking?• What were you feeling?

Principles of Self-Regulation1. From early life to adulthood, regulation by others

and the self (particularly through verbal instructions) act as powerful guides to behavior.

2. Operant behavior is a function of its consequences3. A positive reinforcer is a consequence that

maintains and strengthens behavior by its added presence.

4. A negative reinforcer is a consequence that strengthens behavior by being subtracted from the situation.

Principles of Self-Regulation(Continued)

5. Behavior that is punished will occur less often.6. An act that was reinforced but no longer is will

begin to weaken.7. Intermittent reinforcement increases resistance to

extinction.8. Most operant behavior is eventually guided by

antecedent stimuli, or cues, the most important of which are often self-directed statements.

Principles of Self-Regulation(Still Continued)

9. An antecedent can be a cue or a signal that an unpleasant event may be imminent. This is likely to produce avoidance behavior.

10. Through conditioning, antecedents come to elicit automatic reactions that are often emotional.

11. Many behaviors are learned by observing someone else (a model) perform the actions, which are then imitated.

Modifying Existing Antecedents

• Avoiding Antecedents• Narrowing Stimulus Control• Reconstruing Antecedents• Building in Pauses

Creating New Antecedents

• Thought Substitution• Establishing Environmental Stimulus Control

(similar to Narrowing Stimulus Control)• Precommitment and Programming

Sources of Positive Reinforcement

• From Things• From People• From Activities

Selecting Positive Reinforcers

• What kinds of things do you like having?• What would be a nice present to get?• What activities do you enjoy most?• What are your hobbies?• What would you hate to give up?• What people do you like to be with?• What do you do to relax?

Selecting Positive Reinforcers (Continued)

• What behaviors do you do everyday (Premack Principle)

• What behaviors do you do instead of target behaviors?

• What would you buy with an extra $20, $50, or $100?

• What are your favorite fantasies or daydreams?

Effective Reinforcers

• Potent (strong enough)• Contingent

– Controllable

Using Reinforcers Effectively

• Contingencies and Contracts• Delayed versus Immediate Reinforcement• Verbal Self-Reinforcement• Token Economies• Using Others to Dispense Reinforcers• Imagined/Covert Reinforcement

Using Reinforcers Effectively(Continued)

• Reinforce Antecedent Controlling Behaviors• Shaping• Punishment

Minimizing Relapses

• Recognize that lapses happen• Recognize that lapses are different from

relapses• Recognize the antecedents of high-risk

situations• Cope with high-risk situations• Counter the abstinence violation effect• Use the lapse as a learning experience

Abstinence Violation Effect

• People engaging in this process…– feel guilty about a lapse.– excessively blame themselves for a lapse.– believe that the lapse indicates they don’t have

the necessary “willpower” to change.– give up trying to change.

Behavior Change in 5 Chapters• Chapter 1: You walk down a street with a hole in it. You fall

in. It takes a long time to get out.• Chapter 2: You walk down a street with a hole in it. You see

the hole but fall in anyway. It takes a long time to get out.• Chapter 3: You walk down a street with a hole in it. You see

the hole but fall in anyway. You don’t fall in as far and it doesn’t take as long to get out.

• Chapter 4: You walk down a street with a hole in it. You walk around the hole.

• Chapter 5: You walk down a different street.

Unit 4: Time Management

I. The Problem of Limited TimeII. Time Management Steps

Unit 5: Imagery

I. IntroductionII. What Is Imagery?III. Why Does it Work?IV. Imagery ExerciseV. Different Uses of ImageryVI. Tips for Effective Imagery

Imagery Defined

• Imagery is using all of the senses to create or recreate an experience in the mind.

Imagery Theories

• Bioinformational Explanation (response sets)• Functional Equivalence Explanation

– Psychoneuromuscular (muscle memory)

• Mental Readiness Explanation (proper state)• Extra: Symbolic Learning Explanation (mental

blue print)

Different Uses for Imagery

• To learn new skills or refine well-learned skills.• To train more effectively (handle difficulties in

conditioning, increase interest)• To practice when you are unable to physically

practice (i.e., injury)• To simulate competitive situations

Different Uses for Imagery (Continued)

• To etch good performances into memory• To imagine successes (high-light tape) • To prepare for performing• To regulate your emotions or state• To review and evaluate prior performances • To practice psychological skills• To complement goal setting

Tips for Effective Imagery

• Relax before doing your imagery• Start simple and work your way up (the ability

to imagine is like a muscle: it gets stronger with practice)

• Focus on creating images that are vivid and controllable (Basic Training)

• Practice your imagery systematically (be consistent and persistent)