Unit 2 Test Gov Ch. 6-8 Study Guide

7/21/2019 Unit 2 Test Gov Ch. 6-8 Study Guide

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Saturday, February 28, 2015

A.P. Government Unit 2 Test Guide Chapters 6-8

Eddie Cheng

Chapter 6: Public Opinion

Objectives

A. Define public opinion and explain why it matters in American politics

Public Opinion-describes what the population thinks about politics and govt. actions.

It matters for three reasons:(1) citizens political actions are driven by their opinions,

(2) public opinion helps explain the behavior of candidates, political parties, and other

political actors; politicians look to public opinion to determine what citizens want them to

do, (3) public opinion can also shed light on the reasons for specific policy outcomes.

B. Explain how people form political attitudes and opinions

Theories of political socializationshow that many peoples political opinions and

partisanship start with what they learned from their parents and surrounding

environment.

People can revise their opinions in response to what happens to them and in the world

around them. Some eventshave a greater impact than others, and some people aremore likely to change their opinion in response to an event than others. (9/11, Snowden

incident, etc.)

Social categories or groups, such as gender, race, or education level, may influence an

individuals opinion. Calledcohort effects, these characteristics might shape opinion in

three ways:

1. People learn about politics from the people around them.

2. People may rely on others who look like them as a source of opinions.

3. Candidates and political consultants often formulate their campaign strategies in

terms of groups. (African-Americans, women, etc.)

Politicians and other political actors, such as political parties and party leaders,

influence and change opinion because people rely on their presumed experience.

These leaders work to shape public opinion in order to win support for their proposals.

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C. Describe basic survey methods and potential issues affecting accuracy

Some information comes from mass surveys. They typically use samplesto provide

accurate estimates of public opinion for a large population. Another technique of

measuring public opinion uses focus groups. However, they arent as accurate andcant be used to draw conclusions about large populations. Different surveys can also

be combined to create a powerful measuring tool.

There are a few issues:

-Difficulty of creating a random sample

-Influence of the wording in questions

-Unreliable respondents; many give socially acceptable answers instead of the truth

(social desirability bias). They also may give quick and thoughtless responses.

-Respondents may make up answers to avoid appearing uninformed

D. Evaluate the relationship between public opinion and what government

does

Public opinion remains highly relevant in American politics today. It exerts an influence

in widespread areas of the government. Many congressional outcomes and actions as

well as govt. policy decisions reflect public opinion. Public opinion also influences govt.

during election time.

Key Terms

1. Liberal-conservative ideology- a way of describing political beliefs in terms of

a position on the spectrum running from liberal to moderate to conservative

2. Latent opinions- an opinion formed on the spot, only when needed (as

distinct from a deeply held opinion, which is stable over time). For most

Americans, most opinions are latent

3. Political culture- widely shared beliefs, values and norms concerning the

relationship of citizens to govt. and to one another

4. Political socialization- the process by which an individuals political opinions

are shaped by other people and the surrounding culture

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5. Sampling error- a calculation that describes what % of people surveyed may

not accurately represent the population being studied (aka margin of error)

6. Random sample- a subsection of a population chosen to participate in a

survey through a selection process in which every member of the populationhas an equal chance of being chosen

7. Push polls- polls where a campaign uses biased survey questions as a way of

driving support away from an opponent

8. Ideological polarization- the effect on public opinion when many citizens

move away from moderate positions and toward either end of the political

spectrum, identifying themselves as either liberals or conservatives

9. Policy mood- the level of public support for expanding the govt.s role in

society; aka whether the public wants govt. action on a specific issue

10. Reinforcing cleavages- divisions within society that reinforce one another,

making groups more homogeneous (not common)

11. Cross-cutting cleavages- divisions within society that make groups more

heterogeneous, e.g., an African-American woman from the south who is a

protestant

12. Political predisposition- a characteristic of individuals that is predictive of

political behavior, e.g., Jews are democrats

13. Efficacy- a citizens capacity to understand and influence political events;

can be internal- ability to understand and take part in political affairs, or

external- ability to make the system respond to the citizenry

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Chapter 7: The Media

Objectives

A. Trace how the American mass media has evolved over time, and describe

the major types of news sources today

History

Since the Founding, politicians have known that most American learn about politics from

the media. Ben Franklin published one of the earliest newspapers, the Pennsylvania

Gazette, in 1729.

In 1833, the New York Sun began selling papers for a penny a copy (penny press).

Made newspaper available to the mass public for the first time. Early newspaperspushed political ideologies or focused on yellow journalism (e.g. New York Journal

pub. by William Randolph Hearst), which used bold headlines and entertaining writing to

appeal to a wider audience. Many newspapers were openly partisan and used their

coverage to support a particular position.

At the same time, some investigative journalistsopenly criticized politicians and

policies to raise public concern, and helped usher in the trend of journalistic impartiality

and accuracy, moving away from partisan goals to unbiased coverage.

After WW I, America utilized radios and eventually TVs to receive information fromnational media sources. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)was

initiated to regulate broadcast media. The chief purpose of the FCC was to ensure that

no single broadcast corporation could monopolize a community and provide only their

point of view. The FCC enacted the fairness doctrineand the equal time provision,

with the goal of maintaining political neutrality.

The 1996 Telecommunications Act deregulated media and communications,

accelerating the trends of concentration(one company owning multiple media

sources) and cross-ownership(one company owning several media outlets, often in

the same community), and giving rise to media conglomerateslike Viacom.

Major Types of News Sources Today

-National newspapers like the New York Times, Washington Post, etc. cover American

politics using a large global staff. Main drawback is timeliness. They are limited to the

news cyclebecause they only publish once a day. Declining readership.

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-Television: Four major TV networks (ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC) as well as other cable

channels (CNN) offer news programs. Major television networks offer prime-timenews

programs, though several cable stations offer continuous news coverage, resulting in a

24-hour news cycle. Main drawback is lack of breadth. News programs only have a

certain amount of time to deliver reports, leading to very brief discussion.

-Radio: Major radio networks like ABC, CBS, and Clear Channel Communications offer

some news programs, but most political content comes from talk radio programs that

include a host discussing with listeners who phone in (e.g. The Rush Limbaugh Show ).

Many more conservative radio programs than liberal.

-Internet: Has become prominent in the last two decades. Lots of content on the internet

is a just a different version of content found elsewhere. Has made new kinds of political

info available to the average citizen, and created more opportunities for homegrown

media. Also creates new chances for interaction between citizens and govt. through livechat, discussions, etc.Theres little evidence showing that Internet has led to a

better-informed and more politically active citizenry, due to reliability issues, people

only visiting a couple sources, etc.

B. Describe where reporters and others in the news media get political

information

Reporters and politicians share a complex relationship: Reporters want complete and

accurate information, while politicians want only their version of events to be reported.

Reporters who do a good job of cultivating relationships with government officials often

get the best information.

Governmental organizations have two main tactics to prevent classified information from

being leaked:

There are laws to prevent the publication of classified information, and if informationis published, to allow the prosecution of those responsible for leaking the information.

Officials can try to persuade reporters to voluntarily omit sensitive and specificinformation while still publishing the story. Reporters and publishers might restrain

their stories due to coercion from the government and rewards for cooperating. May

also restrain in the name of the national interest.

Staging the News

Politicians often try to shape the information given to the media so that it suits their

personal goals. Often, government officials will hold a press conference to inform the

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public of important happenings. At other times, when discussing sensitive or potentially

incriminating information, officials generally speak on backgroundor off the record

with reporters.

Revealing Sources

While many states have shield lawsthat allow reporters to withhold information or

names of their off-the-record sources or leaks, reporters and editors can occasionally

be compelled by the courts to identify their sources. In particular, there is no shield law

on the federal level, which means that federal prosecutors can require a sources

information to be made available.

C. Analyze who uses which news sources and whether it matters

Americans have an abundant source of political information readily available to them,

including radio, Internet, print media, and television. For the most part, Americansacquire political knowledge and opinions unintentionally rather than seeking it out. This

is called the by-product theory. After encountering new info, it depends on the

individuals level of interest as to whether he/she remembers that information later or

uses it to modify his/her thoughts about politics. Media coverage is most likely to affect

the beliefs of people who take a moderate interest in politics.

Media Usage Trends

The use of TV and newspapers for political information has significantly dropped in the

past fifteen years, while the use of Internet sources has dramatically increased.

Does the Source Matter?

People acquire different kinds of information in different formats from each type of

media source.

Peoples preferred source of media often reflects their overall understanding of modern

politics: those who rely on morning or local news shows for their political information are

far less informed than those who listen to NPR or watch the Rachel Maddow Show.

Different sources tailor their programming to their particular audience. The biggest

problem for media is to gain the intention of a disinterested, distracted audience.

D. Explain the four main ways in which the media may influence politics

The influence of the medias political coverage on the average citizens thoughts or

actions is called media effect. Much of the medias impact is centered on what is

omitted from reports and news stories, rather than what is presented.

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Modern theories of media influence point to four main media effects that largely shape a

citizens viewpoint:

Filtering (aka agenda-setting): journalists and editors decisions about whatinformation to report

Slant: giving favorable coverage to one candidate or policy without providing a

balanced perspective

Priming: the altering of the publics image of a candidate caused by negative or positive

coverage of the candidate

Framing: influence as a result of the way a story is presented, including or excluding

details, explanations, or context

These media effects do not imply that all reports are deliberately spun and intended to

sway the audience one way or another. Rather, space or time limitations in print or

broadcasts will often result in unintended media effects. Filtering and framing of the

news is inevitable.

E. Assess whether the media fulfill their role in American democracy

including the four types of media coverage

Media Bias

In general, conservatives think the media is liberally biased, while liberals think the

media is conservatively biased. Most Americans do not have great confidence in the

mainstream media, though they trust that there are several reliable sources.

Many publications or broadcasts, such as The Rachel Maddow Showor The OReilly

Factor, make no secret that they are left- or right-leaning. In the aggregate, it is hard to

measure media bias, but there is little evidence of a systematic media bias in a left- or

right-leaning direction.

Other Negative Aspects

In a democracy, the medias job is to transmit relevant news to the public so it can make

decisions based on full information. Often, media coverage falls short of this goal.

Attack journalism, in which bad news makes for good news, focuses on scandals

and controversies.

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Campaign coverage often over examines the horse racequalities of the campaign, in

which poll results and questions of who is leading take precedence over substantial

issues and the stances of the opposing candidates.

Media coverage also emphasizes soft news, the use of sensational and entertaining

reporting over hard news, the presentation of important information, figures, and facts.

Citizens low level of trust in govt. and high levels of disapproval may have more to do

with how the media reports on politics than how the actual govt. works.

The Effect of Market Forces

This overemphasis on soft news, horse races, and attack journalismreflects the

interests in the news industry not only to inform the public but also to make money.

Sensationalistic news stories are far more popular and sell better than policy-centered

news.

While most editors and journalists may prefer providing hard news, the need for

coverage that attracts an audience leads to the abundance of attack stories and soft

news.

Role of the Media

Observer role- records and transmits info (gatekeeper role)

Participant role- acts as a watchdog/critic, serves as a check on abuses of power

Agenda setting role- helps set the policy agenda by choosing what to cover or notaddress; aka they cant tell people what to think, but they can tell them what to think

about (gatekeeper role)

Key Terms

1. Mass media- sources that provide info to the average citizen, such as

newspapers, TV networks, radio stations, websites, etc.

2. Federal Communication Commission (FCC)- est. by the Communications Act

of 1934 to regulate broadcast media

3. Broadcast media- communications technologies, such as TV and radio, that

transmit info over airwaves

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4. Fairness doctrine- an FCC regulation requiring broadcast media to present

several points of view to ensure balanced coverage. Created in late 1940s

and eliminated in 1987

5. Equal time provision- FCC regulation that required broadcast media toprovide equal airtime on any non-news programming to all candidates

running for office

6. Concentration- one company owning multiple media sources

7. Cross-ownership- one company owning several media outlets, often in the

same community

8. Media conglomerates- companies that control a large number of media

sources across several types of media outlets

9. Mainstream media- books, newspapers, TV, radio, and magazines

10. News cycle- the time between the release of info and its publication, e.g.

the 24 hours between issues of a daily newspaper

11. On background/off the record- comments a politician makes to the press on

the condition that they can be reported only if they arent attributed to that

politician

12. Shield laws- law that allows reporters to refuse to name their sources (only

at state level; theres no federal shield law)

13. By-product theory- idea that many Americans acquire political info

unintentionally rather than seeking it out

14. Narrowcasting- the dissemination of info to a narrow audience, not the

broader public at-large

15. Hyperlocalism- news coverage of very local events, especially to theexclusion of more important world events

16. Linkage institutions- the channels or access points through which issues and

peoples policy preferences get on the govt.s policy agenda (institutions

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that link citizens to govt., and govt. to citizens; i.e. media, elections and

voting, political parties, and interest groups)

17. Selective exposure- the process by which individuals screen out messages

that do not conform to their own biases

18. Selective perception- the process by which individuals perceive what they

actually want to perceive in media messages and disregard the rest

Chapter 8: Political Parties

Objectives

A. Define political parties and the three major aspects of American

parties

Political parties and their candidates compete for control of the presidency, each offering

different visions of what government should do. Parties unify and mobilize disparate

groups in society, simplify the choices facing voters, and bring efficiency and coherence

to government policy making.

What are political parties?

Political parties are the organizations that run candidates for political office and

coordinate the actions of officials elected under the party banner.

Unlike the unified and homogeneous political parties in most European countries,

American political parties are composed of three separate and largely independent

pieces. Though they generally have the same goals, the groups rarely act in an

organized manner, and have no obligation to work together.

The party organizationinvolves the structure of national, state, and local parties,

including party leaders and workers.

The party in governmentis made up of the politicians who were elected as candidates

of a specific political party.

The party in the electorateincludes all the citizens who identify with the party.

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B.Show how American political parties and party systems have

evolved over time

History of American Political Parties

The term party systemis used to describe periods in which the major parties names,

their groups of supporters, and the issues dividing them are all constant. In all, there

have been six party systems in American history, each separated by periods of

realignment.

(Some extraneous info coming up; ignore if you want)

The First Party System, 17891828

Political parties formed soon after the founding of the United States. The first political

parties were the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans. Federalists

favored a strong central government and a national bank, while Jeffersonian

Democratic-Republicans opposed these positions in favor of concentrating power at the

state level. These political parties differed from the modern party system in that few

citizens thought of themselves as party members, and candidates for office did not

campaign as representatives of a political party.

The Second Party System, 18291856

The Federalist Party disintegrated as its members were defeated in re-election bids or

switched parties. After a brief period as the only major political party, the Democratic-

Republicans became the Democratic Party, the ancestor of the modern-day

organization. Meanwhile, another new party, the Whigs, emerged.

The new Democratic Party embodied two important innovations:

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1) It cultivated electoral support as a way of strengthening the partys hold on power in

Washington. The party built organizations at the state and local level to mobilize citizens

to support the partys candidates. This innovation became known as the party

principle, the idea that a political party exists as an organization distinct from its elected

officials or party leaders. These developments gave way to the first party in theelectorate.

2) In addition, the Democrats developed the spoils system, whereby party supporters

were rewarded with benefits like federal government jobs.

The Third Party System, 18571892

The issues of slavery split the second party system. Antislavery Whigs left the party and

formed a new organization, the Republican Party, which also attracted antislavery

Democrats. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party became the party of the South, and the

party defending slavery. The demise of the Whigs and the rise of the Republican Party

illustrates that parties exist only because elites, politicians, party leaders, and activists

want them to.

The Fourth Party System, 18931932

While the Civil War settled the issue of slavery, the Democrats and Republicans

remained as the dominant parties, though their issues of division evolved. In the fourth

system, the parties divided on concerns such as the withdrawal of the Union Army from

southern states, and whether the federal government should involve itself with the

rapidly growing American cities and the swelling number of recent immigrants.

The Fifth Party System, 19331968

In the wake of the Great Depression, the Democratic Party emerged out of the New

Deal Coalition, drawing support from African Americans, Catholics, Jews, union

members, and white southerners. This transformation established the basic division

between the Republican and Democratic parties that would persist for the rest of the

twentieth century. Democrats generally favored a large federal government that took an

active role in managing the economy and regulating individual and corporate behavior.

Republicans believed that many of these programs should either be provided by stateand local governments or kept entirely separate from government.

The Sixth Party System, 1969Present

Changes in political issues and technology drove the transition from the fifth to the sixth

party system. Democrats came out against the separate but equal system of racial

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discrimination in southern states and in favor of programs designed to ensure equal

opportunity for minority citizens. Furthermore, while Republicans opposed expanding

the role of government, Democrats argued in favor of expanding the federal government

to provide health care funding, antipoverty programs, education, and public works. At

the same time, both Republican and Democratic party organizations transitioned intoparties in service, providing recruiting, training, and campaigning for their partys

congressional and presidential candidates.

Realignments

Each party system is separated from the next by a realignment, a change in the size or

composition of the party coalitions or in the nature of the issues that divide the parties. A

realignment begins with the emergence of a new question or issue debate that captures

the attention of large numbers of ordinary citizens, activists, and politicians.

In order to spur a realignment, the issue has to be cross-cutting, meaning that within

each party coalition, people disagree on what government should do. Realignments

typically occur within an election cycle or two, but they can also occur gradually over the

course of a decade or longer.

C.Describe the main characteristics of American parties as

organizations, in the government, and in the electorate

The Party Organization

The principal policy-making body in each party organization is the national committee,

comprising party representatives from each state. State party organizations have lots of

professional staff plus party organizations at the county, city, and town levels. Parties

include a number of constituency groups (the Democrats term) or teams (the

Republicans term), which are organizations within the party that work to attract the

support of particular demographic groups considered likely to share the partys issue

concerns. Each party organization also has groups designed to build support for

particular people. E.g. Young Democrats, Democratic Leadership Council, Young

Republicans, etc.

Many other groups are loosely affiliated with one of the major parties. Political action

committees (PACs)are interest groups or divisions of interest groups that can raise

money to contribute to campaigns or to spend on ads in support of candidates. The

amount they can receive from each of their donors and their expenditure on federal

electioneering are strictly limited. 527organizationsare tax-exempt groups formed

primarily to influence elections through voter mobilization efforts and issue ads that do

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not directly endorse or oppose a candidate. Unlike political action committees, they are

not subject to contribution limits and spending caps. While these groups often favor one

party or the other, they are not part of the party organization and do not always agree

with the partys positions or support its candidates.

Because the parties stand for different things, in terms of their preferred government

policies and their ideological leanings, the party names themselves are like brand

names because they offer a shorthand way of providing information to voters about the

parties candidates.

Party organizations are not hierarchies. Because individual committee members are not

appointed by their state party organizations, they have freedom of action. If the majority

of committee members disagree with the party leader, they can remove him or her from

office. The national party organization is also unable to force state and local parties to

share its positions on issues or comply with other requests. State and local partiesmake their own decisions about state- and local- level candidates and issue positions.

The Party in Government

The party in government consists of elected officials holding national, state, and local

offices who took office as candidates of a particular party. Because it is composed of

officeholders, it has a direct impact on government policy. Democratic and Republican

parties in government in the U.S. House and Senate are organized around working

groupsDemocrats call theirs a caucus; Republicans have a conference. The caucus

or conference serves as a forum for debate, compromise, selection of party leadership,and strategizing among party leaders.

The modern Congress is polarized; in both the House and Senate, Republicans and

Democrats hold different views on government policy, with little crossover support for

the other partys policy goals. Over the last sixty years, the magnitude of ideological

difference between the parties in Congress has increased considerably. Nonetheless,

the Democrats and Republicans are still quite internally heterogeneous, and

compromise within a party caucus is not inevitable.

The Party in the Electorate

The party in the electorate consists of citizens who identify with and show some loyalty

to a particular political party. Party identification(party ID) is a critical variable in

understanding votes and other forms of political participation. If you are trying to predict

how someone will vote, the most important predictor is party identification.

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Real participation in party operations is open to all citizens, though few dedicate their

time, effort, and money to supporting a party organization or one of its candidates.

Early theories of party identificationdescribed it as a deeply felt attachment. Further

work, however, has shown that party ID is more of a running tallya frequently updated

mental evaluation of parties and candidates that allows citizens to incorporate new

information in their choice to identify with one or another party. Thus, when one chooses

a political party, that decision is based on what they have seen in American politics.

New information tends to reinforce existing loyalties.

The parties in the electorate have transformed considerably in the past 40 years.

People who identify as political independents have been hard to characterize. Recent

work suggests that many people who identify as independents actually have some weak

attachment to one of the major political parties.

Party coalitionsare groups who identify with a political party, usually described in

demographic terms, such as African American Democrats or evangelical Republicans.

The Republican and Democratic party coalitions differ systematically in terms of their

policy preferences.

D.Explain the important functions parties perform in the political

system

Organizing Elections

Virtually everyone elected to a state or national political office is either a Republican or a

Democrat.

The process of recruiting candidates has become very systematic, with national party

leaders playing a central role in finding and recruiting candidates.

Parties do not control who runs in House or Senate races. In most states, candidates for

these offices are selected in a primary electionor a caucus.

Running as a partys nominee is the easiest way to get on the ballot. Thus, virtually all

prominent candidates for Congress and the presidency run as Democrats orRepublicans, even if they do not agree with everything the party stands for.

National parties also manage the nomination process for presidential candidates, which

involves a series of primaries and caucuses. Voters in these primaries and caucuses

determine how many of each candidates supporters become delegates to the partys

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national nominating convention, where delegates from each state select the partys

presidential and vice presidential nominees and approve the party platform.

One of the parties primary activities is helping candidates with their campaigns. Along

with supplying campaign funds, party organizations give candidates other kinds of

assistance, ranging from offering campaign advice to conducting polls.

A party platformis a set of objectives outlining the partys issue positions and priorities.

Although candidates are not required to support their partys platform, party platforms

generally reflect the brand-name differences between the parties, giving citizens an

easy way to make judgments about candidates.

Cooperation in Government

Conditional party government refers to the theory that when the parties are polarized

and internally homogeneous, lawmakers from the same party will cooperate to developpolicy proposals. On the other hand, when the parties are not polarized, or when the

parties are internally heterogeneous, lawmakers may cooperate with members of the

opposite party.

Throughout the year, the parties in government meet to devise strategies for legislative

action. Congressional leaders use their power to control when proposals are

considered, which amendments are allowed, and how long debate will proceed to

ensure speedy consideration and to prevent the opposing minority party from delaying

votes or offering alternatives.

Political parties can play an important role in coordinating the actions taken in different

branches of government. Such coordination is important for enacting new laws: unless

supporters in Congress can amass a two-thirds majority to override a veto, they need

the presidents support. Similarly, the president needs congressional support to enact

proposals that he or she favors. Thus, the president routinely meets with congressional

leaders from his party, and occasionally meets with the entire caucus or conference.

One of the most important roles of political parties in a democracy is giving citizens

identifiable groups to reward or punish for government actions, thereby providing a

means for voters to focus their desire for accountability.

During periods of unified government, when one party holds a majority of seats in the

House and Senate and the president is a member of that same party, that party is the

party in power; it has enough votes to enact policies in Congress. During times of

divided government, when one party controls Congress but not the presidency or the

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House and Senate are controlled by different parties, the presidents party is considered

the party in power.

E.Consider the role of minor parties in a system dominated by two

major parties (WHEN WILL THIS TEST END?!?)Minor Parties

Minor political parties in America are so minor that they are not significant players on the

political stage. Very few Americans identify with minor parties, especially since most

minor parties exist for only a short period of time.

Effects on Election Outcomes

People vote for minority party candidates because they find those candidates positions

more attractive than those of the major parties, and also because they believe thatneither major party can govern effectively.

Unique Issues Facing Minor Parties

Duvergers lawstates that in a democracy with single-member districtsand plurality

voting, like the United States, only two parties candidates will have a realistic chance

of winning political office.

F.Evaluate the benefits and possible problems of the American party

system

What Kind of Democracy do American Parties Create?

The question of whether political parties are good or bad for democracy depends on

how the individual party members and officials carry out these tasks. Despite all the

efforts parties put forth to select good candidates, they are still made up of individuals

who are primarily interested in their own careers, policy goals, and winning political

office, rather than cultivating democracy.

Recruiting Candidates

One of the most important things the Republican and Democratic parties do for

democracy is recruit qualified, capable candidates for national political offices who can

run effective campaigns and responsibly uphold their elected positions. Nonetheless,

party organizations do not get to select the candidates who win their partys nomination;

voters do.

Working Together in Campaigns

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Parties also work to simplify voters choices by trying to get candidates to emphasize

the same issues or take similar issue positions. That said, members of the party

organization and the party in government do not always agree on what government

should do, and party leaders have very little power over candidates.

Working Together in Office

Because candidates are not required to support their partys platform, there is no

guarantee that party members will work together in office. Voters cannot expect that

putting one party in power is going to result in specific policy changes. Instead, policy

outcomes depend on how (and whether) individual officeholders from the party can

resolve their differences.

Accountability

A party must serve as an accountability mechanism that gives citizens an identifiablegroup to reward when policies work well and to punish when policies fail. However,

individual legislators work to develop a personal constituency that is independent of

their party label.

Citizens Behavior

Citizens are under no obligation to give money or time to the party they identify with or

to any of the partys candidates. Even if they are strong party identifiers, they do not

have to vote for their partys candidates, or even vote at all. This lack of participation by

the citizenry weakens party organizations and reduces the likelihood that the partyorganizations will be able to work in a more organized, team-oriented manner.

A political machineis an unofficial patronage system within a political party that seeks

to gain political power and government contracts, jobs, and other benefits for party

leaders, workers and supporters. While machines were common in nineteenth-century

cities, their decline began at the turn of the twentieth century.

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Key Terms

1. Party system- periods in which the major parties names, their groups of

supporters, and the issues dividing them are all constant

2. Realignment- a change in the size or composition of the party coalitions or in

the nature of the issues that divide the parties

3. National committee- the principal policy-making body in each party

organization, comprising party representatives from each state

4. PAC- interest groups or divisions of interest groups that can raise money to

contribute to campaigns or to spend on ads in support of candidates. The

amount they can receive from each of their donors and their expenditure on

federal electioneering are strictly limited

5. 527 organization- tax-exempt groups formed primarily to influence elections

through voter mobilization efforts and issue ads that do not directly endorse

or oppose a candidate. Unlike political action committees, they are not

subject to contribution limits and spending caps

6. Primary election- a ballot vote in which citizens select a partys nominee for

the general election

7. Closed primary- primary election system in which only registered party

members can vote in their partys primary

8. Nonpartisan primary- primary election system in which candidates from both

parties are listed on the same primary ballot. Afterwards, the two candidates

who receive the most votes in the primary compete in the general election,

even if theyre from the same party

9. Open primary- a primary election system in which any registered voter can

participate in either partys primary, regardless of the voters party affiliation

10. Semi-closed- a primary election system in voters registered as party

members must vote in their partys primary, but registered independents

can vote in either partys primary

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11.Caucus election- a local meeting in which party members select a partys

nominee for the general election

12. National nominating party convention- a meeting held by each party every

four years at which states delegates select the partys presidential andvice-presidential nominees and approve the party platform

13. Party platform- a set of objectives outlining the partys issue positions and

priorities

14. Unified government- when one party holds a majority of seats in the House

and Senate and the president is a member of that same party, that party is

the party in power; it has enough votes to enact policies in Congress

15. Divided government- when one party controls Congress but not the

presidency or the House and Senate are controlled by different parties, the

presidents party is considered the party in power

16. Single-member districts- comprise an electoral system in which every

elected official represents a geographically defined area, such as a state or

congressional district, and each area elects one representative

17. Plurality voting- a voting system in which the candidate who receives the

most votes within a geographic area wins the election, regardless of whetherthat candidate wins a majority (more than half) of the votes

And this is only 3/5s of the test.

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Documents

Unit 2 Test Gov Ch. 6-8 Study Guide