Unit 4, Lesson 24 Civilization in Mesoamerica and Andean ...mshouapworld.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/9/1/14918798/4...ousce for in Mesoamerica, since other groups saw them as a troublesome

Keywordsaccla

ayllu

pochteca

quipo

Essential Questions• Whatwerethepolitical,religious,andculturaltraditionsoftheToltecs,

Aztecs,andInca?

• WhateventstookplaceduringtheriseandfalloftheIncaEmpire?

Civilization in Mesoamerica and Andean Regions

Unit 4, Lesson 24

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The Rise of Mesoamerican Tribes: The Toltec and Aztec PeoplesIntheyearsofthefirstmillennium,manyadvancedcivilizationsdevelopedinMesoamerica.InadditiontotheMayaandtheOlmecs,manyotherdistinctsocietiesemergedafter800C.E.,andmanyofthesesocietiessharedsimilarcharacteristics.OneofthefirstwastheTolteccivilization,whichdominatedwhatisnowMexicoforalmost400yearsattheendofthefirstmillennium,from900to1175C.E.

TheToltecs,originallypeoplewhomovedaboutfromplacetoplace,cametotheareaaftertheMayadeparted;theymayhavedevelopedfromtheculturesthathadpreviouslydevelopedatTeotihuacan,ortheymayhaveadaptedconceptsfromthosepreviousresi-dents.Thesimilaritiesbetweenthetwosocieties—theToltecandtheTeotihuacan—implyaverylikelycon-nection.YettheToltecpeoplehaduniquecharacteris-tics.Forexample,moresothansomeotherculturesinMesoamerica,theToltecsdependedheavilyonarmedforcestotakeoverawideswathofterritorythrough-outmuchofthenarrowstripbetweentheNorthandSouthAmericancontinentsfollowing700C.E.ThearmedforcesremainedactivethroughouttheToltecs’timeinpower,protectingthelandtheirpeoplealreadyheldandstrengtheningitsborders.

What,precisely,didthesearmiesdefend?TheToltecsmadetheirbaseatthecityofTula,orTollan(nearMexicoCity),centrallylocatedbytheTulaRiver.Thecity’slocationmadeitpossibleforitsresidents—over50,000—tosustainthemselvesandtheirfamilies,wholivedincomfortablehomesof

Set the StageThe people in the New World faced different challenges than those people in the Old World; they had fewer beasts of burden to share in farming and cultivation, for example, and they retained their polytheistic belief systems long after Europeans had turned to monotheism. Yet the people of the New World had many similarities to their Old-World counterparts. Both groups believed firmly in their own religions; both engaged frequently in trade and commerce; and both became interested in expanding their empires.

These stone columns, built by the Toltecs to adorn a religious building in Tula, depict great soldiers with massive heads and strong bodies. The use of soldiers to decorate a religious temple shows the extent to which religion and military strength were combined in Toltec culture.

Unit 4, Lesson 24 2


theirown,whichhadbeenconstructedfromavarietyofmaterials.Tulabecameacommercialdestination,acosmopolitanareathatlookedratherlikeChichénItzá,anurbancenterthatbelongedtotheMaya.Infact,beginningin1000C.E.,ChichénItzáwouldbecomestronglyinfluencedbytheToltecs.

Despiteitspowerfularmy,thereignoftheToltecswasshort-lived:theToltecpeoplebeganvanishingattheendofthe1000sC.E.Thereasonforthisignomini-ousendtotheTolteccultureremainsunresolved,althoughagreatfirethatragedinTulainthelate1100smayhavesealedtheToltecs’fate.SomeEuropeanswhovisitedToltecsocietyduringthe1500sandthereafterbelievedthattheToltecshadaparticularformofgovernmentthatinvolvedsplitauthoritybetweentwoleaders(somewhatlikemonarchs)whooversawtheToltecrealmasateam.Inthe1500s,theEuropeansthoughttwoToltecleadershaddisagreedinthe1150sC.E.,andtheirdisagreementhadledtothedissolutionofToltecsociety.OtherhistoriansbelievethattheToltecgovernmentcouldnotmaintainholdofanincreasinglydiversepopulationafter1125C.E.,especiallybecausenewpeopleunfamiliarwiththeToltecwaysandcustomskeptmovingtothearea.

AlthoughtheTolteccivilizationfell,itspeopleleftbehindmanyideasandobjects,bothofwhichtraveledinavarietyofdirections,reachingasfarastheUnitedStatesandspreadingthroughoutMexico.Thereasonforthisdisseminationofideashasnotbeendeterminedeither.SomeToltecscouldhavemovedtotheYucatánandintermarriedwiththeMaya,ortheToltecscouldhavetraveleduptoNorthAmericaandmetorinfluencedmembersofNativeAmericantribes.However,theseideasremainpossibilitiesonly.TheToltecs’claimtoaconnectionwithanothergroupofMesoamericans,theAztecs,isfarmoreassured.MuchofwhathistoriansknowoftheToltecscomesthroughthelensoftheAztecpeople,alatercivilizationthatgreatlyrespectedToltecsociety,customs,andideas.YettheAztecsgavetheToltecscreditforconceptsthatcamefromMesoamericaandwerenotexclusivetoToltecculture;thus,theToltecs’exactimpactonMesoamericaischallengingtodetermine.

The Rise of the AztecsTheAztecsdevelopedfromanothergroupofMesoamericanindividualsknownastheMexica(sometimes,both“Mexica”and“Aztec”areusedtorefertothisgroupofpeople)whobecameincreasinglyinfluentialduringthe150yearsafterToltecsocietyfell.TheAztecssharedmuchoftheToltecgeneticandgeographicalbackground,buttheyhadamoredifficulttimeestablishingthemselvesasaseri-ousforceinMesoamerica,sinceothergroupssawthemasatroublesomeminorityupthroughthe1200sC.E.Evenso,theAztecseventuallyachievedfullpowerin1325C.E.Aftertheirinitialsuccess,theAztecswouldthriveforarelativelyshorttime—onlyuntil1521C.E.—buttheyleftaprofoundimpactonMesoamerica.

ThoughtheAztecshadlivedintheregionforaconsiderableperiod,1325C.E.markstheirbeginningpointfortheirempirebecauseinthatapproximateyear,theAztecsbuilttwoimportantcitiesnearLakeTexcoco:TlatelolcoandTenochtitlan,whatisnowMexicoCity.AccordingtoAzteclegend,thecitieswerefoundedatthistimebecausepeoplereceiveddivinedirectiontobuildthem.Thecitiesbecamebeautifullyorganized,efficient,andwell-maintained.Thenearbylakemadecommerceeasierandprovidednecessarywater.TheAztecsoftenreferredtotheirmainheadquarters

Unit 4, Lesson 24 3


assimplyTenochtitlan,andattheAztecEmpire’sheight,nearlyhalfamillionpeoplelivedthere.Technically,theAztecEmpireactuallyincludedmanysmallterritories,eachwithitsownleader,buttheleaderofTenochtitlanheldauthorityoverall.

Priorto1325,theAztecswereledbyregionalgovernmentalleaders,knownastlatoanis.After1325,theAztecsabandonedtheirformergovernmentalsystemoftlatoanileadershipandformedakindofelectoralmonarchy.Themostelitefolkcouldchoosethenextking(typicallyaman),andthekingwouldhaveresponsibil-ityforhispeopleandland,notjustpoliticallybutalsospiritually.Todefendtheirtwonewcities,theAzteckingsmaintainedskilledgroupsofarmedforces.UnlikeEuropeanarmies,theAztecsoldiersdidnotservefull-timeinthemilitary,butonlywentoutonoperationswhennecessary.Despitetheirnon-permanentnature,theAztecarmieswereveryeffective.Gradually,theAztecspushedthesearmedforcesfurtherandfurtheroutaroundneighboringregions.

TwoofthefirstandmostimportantAztecleaders,Itzcóatl(r.1428–1440)andMontezuma(r.1440–1469),helpedenlargethebordersoftheAzteclandstoencompassOaxacaandtheGulfCoast.Later,theAztecEmpirealsocametoincludetwootherimportantareas,TlacopanandTexcoco,andatitsheightmeasured125,000squaremiles.Atthatpoint,theleadersofthefinecitiesofTlatelolco,Tenochtitlan,Tlacopan,andTexcocogovernedmorethan12millionpeoplethroughouttheMesoamericanregion.TheAztecswouldholdthisregionuntilSpanishexplorersenteredandtookthelandfromthemduringthesixteenthcenturyC.E.(Atapproximatelythesametime,anotherimportantMesoamericansociety,theInca,wouldalsofallperiltoEuropeanexploration.)

Aztec Belief SystemsThroughouttheepochoftheirempire,theAztecssharedsimilarspiritualbeliefs.Infact,theAztecbeliefshadmanysimilaritiestootherreligionspracticedinMesoamerica.Theirpolytheisticfaithincludedover128deities.TheseAztecgodsresembledmen,women,animals,anddirections(forexample,northorsouth)

This religious building from Tula, Mexico, is typical of the pyramid-like structure used for religious observance by Mesoamerican civilizations.

Unit 4, Lesson 24 4


simultaneously.TheAztecssharedsomeofthesegodswithothercultures:forexample,someotherMesoamericansalsobelievedingodslikeQuetzalcóatlandTezcatlipoca,whowereinchargeoffarminganddeathrespectively.Inordertoworshiptheirgods,theAztecsmetinhousesofworshipshapedlikepyramids.

TwoofthemostinfluentialdeitiesintheAztecfaith,TlalocandHuitzilo-pochtli,reignedoveraparticularlyimportantreligiousbuildinginthecapitalofTenochtitlan.Bothgodsrepresentedamultitudeofideas,includingwar,nature,andthecosmos.Tlaloccouldalsorepresentnewlifeandbirth.Huitzilopochtli,oftenrepresentedbyahummingbirdfigure,becametheAztecs’equivalentofasungod.HuitzilopochtliplayedabigpartintheAztecunderstandingofcreation-ism:theAztecsbelievedthateachevening,Huitzilopochtliworkedonbehalfofthesuntobringlightbackintotheworld.

TheAztecsbelievedferventlyinhumansacrifice,asdidmanyotherMeso-americans,andsawitasoneofthemostpowerfulwaysofplacatingtheirgods.Inparticular,humansacrificeplayedanimportantroleintheworshipofHuitzilopochtli.TopleaseHuitzilo-pochtli,theAztecssacrificedmanypeopleatatime.Huitzilopochtlirequiredtheheartsoflivingvic-tims.Theselivingvictimshadtobepresentedtothegodsinacertainstate,purifyingtheirbodiesbygoingonrestricteddietsandpractic-ingcelibacy.Thesestandardsensuredthatthegodsreceivedthepurestpossiblesacrifices.InordertocontinuemakingsacrificestoHuitzilopochtli,theAztecshadtoincreasetheirempireandacquiremorecitizens,sothatthosecitizenscouldbeoffereduptothegod.

The Aztecs practiced many othertypesofritualsacrifices.First,theAztecalsohonoredtheirgodsbygivinguptheirbloodinsmalleramounts:sometimeswor-shiperswouldgivethemselvessmallcutsaspartofreligiousceremonies.Inthisway,bloodwouldbespiltandthegodappeased,butnoonewoulddie.Second,Aztecsviewedmen’sdeathsinbattleorwomen’sdeathswhilegivingbirthtochildrenastremendousandworthysacrifices.Infact,mostofthemenwhofoughtonbehalfofAztecarmieswerewillingandeagertoperishincon-flict:doingsowouldgrantthemthemostreligioushonor.Warriorswhoemergedfromconflictsunscathedwouldsome-timesgive themselvesupasofferings

1SeLf-checK

What was a tlatoani?

This image of the Mesoamerican god Huitzilopochtli, taken from an ancient text called the Codex Borbonicus, reveals a powerful figure worshiped by both the Toltecs and the Aztecs, among others. Huitzilopochtli demanded human sacrifice to be appeased.

Unit 4, Lesson 24 5


duringpeacetime,too.Third,onotheroccasions,religiousworshiperswouldconsumethebodiesofthesacrificed.

Allthesetypesofsacrifices—thefatalsacrificesalonemayhavecometo250,000perannum—showthattheAztecswenttogreatlengthstoplacatetheirgods.Thisnumberisequivalenttoonepersonoutofevery100beingsacrificed.TheAztecsbelievedtheirworldtobeindangerofimminentruinafteralreadyhavingbeenruinedinthepast.

Aztecs and the Importance of classAztecsocietyorganizedpeopleingroupscalledaltepetls.Thealtepetlsalsoincludedanimportantsegmentofthepopulationknownasthecalpolli;thepeopleofthecalpolliactedlikebureaucratsoradministratorsandweresetupinfamilialunits.Originally,theAztecsweremadeupofsevencalpollis,andmanyofthesefolkwouldlaterendupinthehigherclassesofAztecsociety.Thepeopleinthealtepetl,whooriginallynumberedabout10,000,livedandthoughtasageneralgroup,andtheypracticedthesamereligiousfaith.Originally,upontheirarrivalintheregion,thepeopleofthealtepetlslivedinharmonywiththeregion’slocalsforatimewhilefosteringtheirownambition.AsharedlanguagederivedfromtheToltecs,Nahuatl,fosteredthisharmony.

Thepeopleofthecalpollicreatedanewkindoffarmingplancalledchinampa.ChinampafarmingreliedonsoilfromLakeTexcoco,whichhadbeenformedintospecificpetitefields,eachonededicatedtoasmall,differenttypeofcrop.Thepetitefields,calledchinampas,lenttheirnametothefarmingplanitself.TheAztecsgrewskilledatdevelopingfooduponthechinampasandenjoyedplentifulharvests,whichallowedtheirsocietytoflourish.

Inlateryears,thecalpollisseparatedintomoremarkedclassdistinctions.Ineveryclasslevel,menheldsuperiorpositionstowomenbecausetheAztecvaluedstrengthandprowessinbattle,andwomendidnotparticipateinAztecwarfare.Theconnectionofmentoleadershipemphasizedthefirmgenderboundaries,whichbegantobeenforcedinchildhood.Whilewomenenjoyedmanyofthesamerightsasmen,bothgenderswereassignedtodifferentspheresandheldtothosespheresstrictly.MenwhoheldhighpositionsintheAztecarmedforcesrosetothetopofAztecsocietyalongwiththeirfamilies;doingwellinthearmygavementheonlyopportunityforsocialmobilitywithinAztecsociety.Successfulsoldierswouldbemarriedtohigh-rankingwomentopadvanceinclassstanding.Someofthehighest-rankingwomenhadinfluenceoverthefuturerulersoftheAzteclands(forexample,themothersofmonarchscouldsometimesinfluencetheirsons).

ThemoreterritorytakenoverbytheAztecEmpire,thewealthierandmoresuc-cessfulthehighest-rankedwarriorsbecame—andtheirfamiliesalsorosetothetopofAztecsociety.Withinthesefamilies,women’sresponsibilitieskeptthemsoundlywithinthedomesticspace.Thesedomestictaskswerenotseenaslesserthanthoseofthesoldiers;instead,womenwereintellectuallyandspirituallyresponsiblefortheotherfolkintheircommunities.AnywomanwithasonwhoachievedgreatfeatsaspartoftheAztecarmyreceivedaccoladestoo.

Alongwiththewealthiestfamilies,thehighest-classlevelofAztecsocietyexpandedtoincludereligiousleaders,whocametowieldenormouspowerand

2SeLf-checK

What is the name of

the Aztec sun god?

Unit 4, Lesson 24 6


influence.Sometimes,thereligiousleaderscouldalsobecomeAztecmonarchs.Eventually,thefewatthetopofAztecsocietyheldclaimtothemostwealth,land,andproperty,includingslaves.Attheotherendofthespectrumweretheslaves,andslightlyabovethemthepoorerfreefolkandlaborers:forthemostpart,laborersandslavessharedthedirtyworkinhomesandfarms.ThemajorityoftheslavescamefromAztecbackgroundsandarrivedintheirpositionsduetounfortunatecircumstances.Inthemiddlewereartistsandcraftsmen,andslightlyabovethemwerethetraders,orpochteca.

TheclassdivisionsinAztecsocietybecamequiteextreme.Thewealthyatthetophadmuchbetterlivingsituationsandmuchhealthierfoodtoeatthanthepooratthebottom;thewealthyalsohadthemostinfluenceinbothgovernmentandsociety.Thisdisparitybecameemphasizedbyeventhetypesofclothingpeoplecouldputon:noblesworecotton,andlower-classindividu-alsworehenequen.Classdisparityalsogainedreinforcementbecausepeopleofthelowerclassesandconqueredregions(asmanyas500regions)wereforcedtopaytributes(barteredobjectslikepreciousgems,animalmaterials,andproduce)toAztecsoldiersandnobility.Thesetributeobjectswouldoftenbeusedbythepochtecaforprofitonbehalfofthenobility,exchangeddownthelinethroughanotherbartersystem.Whilethepochtecaachievedfinan-cialsuccessthroughbusiness,theydidnothavethestatusofthearistocrats.Occasionally,thepochtecadidgarnerpoliticalimportancebyspyingonbehalfoftheAztecarmy.

Life and faith in the Andes RegionsWhiletheAztecsocietyprosperedtothenorthinMesoamerica,anothergreatsocietydevelopedtothesouth,intheAndesMountains:theInca.PriortothedevelopmentoftheIncancivilization,severalothergroupsflourishedinthisMesoamericanregion,suchastheChavin,wholivedtherefrom850to250B.C.E.;theMoche,wholivedtherefrom200to700C.E.;andtheTiwanaku,wholivedtherefrom375to1000C.E.ThepeoplewholivedinandaroundtheAndesMountainsandcoastshadtoovercomedifferentagriculturalproblems:themountain-dwellershadtodealwithperiodsofextremecoldandthecoast-dwellerswithperiodsofinsufficientwater.Toovercometheseproblems,peopleinbothregionsbecamedisciplinedandorganizedaboutwhattheycouldplantandwhen.

PeopleliketheMochehadskillsindevelopingirrigationandcouldliverela-tivelyfarfrombodiesofwater:theycouldbranchoutandcontrolagreatdealoflandinthenorth,wheretheybuiltcitieslikeCerroBlanco.Inthe500yearsfol-lowing200C.E.,theMochearmytookoverseveralneighboringpeoplesandputthoseindividualstoworktosupporttheburgeoningMochenation.AsinseveralotherMesoamericancultures,theMocheconnectedtheirreligionandtheirgovern-ment,puttingspiritualfaithintheirpoliticalleader;alsolikeotherMesoamericangroups,classdistinctionsbetweentherichandpoorwereeasilyapparentandalwaysobserved.Theclothingwornbymembersoftheupperclassesemphasizedtheseclassdistinctions.

pochteca traders who lived in Aztec society

Unit 4, Lesson 24 7


In700C.E.,acombinationofenvironmentalproblemsandconflictwithanothergroup,theWari,ledtotheMochecivilization’sfall.TheWari,whomadetheirhomeinwhatisnowPeru,hadcloseconnectionswithanothersociety,theTiwanaku,whowerebasedclosetowhatisnowconsideredBoliviaandwhowouldsoonsupersedetheWari.Historiansbelievethetwogroupssharedmanyculturalandagriculturalcharacteristics.TheTiwanakuhadstrongsimilaritiestotheMocheinthreeways:first,bothgroupshadastronglydelineatedclassstructurethatsepa-ratedtherichandthepoor.Second,bothgroupsemployedmanyfineartisans:theMocheworkedonmetalandadornments,whiletheTiwanakuworkedonstone.Third,bothgroupsusedirrigationtechnologytotakefulladvantageofthelandsurroundingthenearbyLakeTiticaca.

LateranothergroupdevelopedinthemountainsclosetoLakeTiticacaonitswesternside:theChucuito.TheChucuitodidnotattemptirrigationastheMocheandTiwanakuhad,andtheylivedinanarearatherdifficulttofarmandmaintainbecausetheirlandstoodatsuchaheightabovesealevel—morethan13,000feet.Tonourishthemselves,theyterracedtheirlands,asotherMesoamericansocietiesdid,andgrewprimarilyrootvegetables.Terraces,partofanagriculturalmethodthattakesadvantageofdifficultterrain,resembleaseriesofsmallplateausorstepsthatcanbebuiltintomountainsides;theplateausleadupthemountainandcreatearableland.TheChucuito,unlikeotherMesoamericansintheregion(untilthe1500sC.E.),dependedontwotypesofdomesticanimals,llamasandalpacas,forfood,labor,andcommerce.

Finally,anotherimportantgroup,theChimu,livedalongtheplainsofwhatisnowPerufor100years,beginninginthemid-1300s.TheChimupeopleremaineddividedintospecificlevelsofclasses,justaspeopledidinotherMesoamericansocieties.Intheirregion,theChimuhadplentyofwaterandarableland.WhiletheMochehadCerroBlanco,theChimubuilttheirowngreaturbancenter,Chanchan,whereanywherebetween50,000to100,000peoplemayhavelived.

Generally,allthesepeoples,includingtheMocheandTiwanaku,livedinfamilialgroupscalledayllus.Thepeopleofeachaylluworkedtogetherasteamstonourishandprotecttheirfamilialgroups;usuallyseveralfamiliescomprisedasingleayllu,andallwouldanswertoasingleleader,whotookuphispositionaccordingtofamilybackground.Generally,thissingleleaderwasmale,andoverallmendidmoreofthehunting,administrative,andgovernmentalworkamongtheayllu.Insteadofwriting,theaylludevelopedacountingmethodthatusedaseriesofknotstokeeptrackofcommerceandexchange:quipo.TheIncawouldalsocometorelyonquipoinlateryears.

Afterthe1000sB.C.E.,theayllugroupedthemselvestogetherinlargerforcescalledmit’a.Withineachmit’a,menandwomenhaddifferentobligations.UnliketheAztecpeoples,womenhadmanyfewerrightsthanmen;liketheAztecwomen,however,mostwomenintheaylluhadtodotheirworkwithinoraroundthedomesticspace.However,bothmenandwomenworkedtogethertoensurethemit’aransmoothly.Themit’agroupswereresponsibleforservingandprovidingforwealthierelitesandnobles.Dependingonitslocation,eachmit’awouldbechargedwithproducingaspecificcropthatgrewespeciallywellinthatarea.

ayllu a cluster of people related to one another who lived and worked together in the Andes regions

quipo method of tying knots used by Andes residents, including the Inca, to document commerce; used instead of writing

Unit 4, Lesson 24 8


Life Among the IncaThegroupsthatflourishedintheAndesattheendofthefirstmillennium,liketheChimuandChucuito,hadseparate,viablerealmsinSouthAmericaanddidnotenterintoconflict.Forthefirst400yearsofthesecondmillenniumC.E.,thesegroupsremainedconflict-free,evengettingalongwiththeirnewneighbors,theInca,whoarrivedpeaceablyduringthe1200sC.E.ThedisparategroupsexchangedgoodsandrefrainedfromconflictuntilnearlythemiddleofthefifteenthcenturyC.E.

Thispeacefulnesschangedin1438C.E.becauseoftheeffortsofoneman,Pachacuti.Pachacuticametopowerin1438andforthenext33yearshepursuedpowerandempire.UnderPachacuti’sleadership,theInca’smilitarybecameaformidableforce,andPachacutihimselfwascalled“theEarthshaker.”DuringtheInca’srelativelyshortbutpowerfulera,onlythreemenwouldrule:Pachacuti,whoreigneduntil1471;hisson,TopacYupanqui;andthefinalruler,HuaynaCapac,whodiedin1525.AfterCapacdied,twoofhisdescendantssquabbledforthethrone.Thetwocouldnotagreeandnosingle,powerfulnewmonarchemerged.Withoutasinglestrongleader,theIncanEmpirewobbled.Thetimingwaspoor:Europeanexplorersatthistimebecameinterestedintheregion.

The Many Legacies of the first Incan MonarchMuchoftheIncanEmpiretookshapebecauseoftheeffortsofPachacuti,theEarthshaker.PachacutifirstaddedtotheIncans’territorybyaccostinghispeacefulneighbors,theChucuito;whentheChucuitosuccumbed,PachacutisuccessfullytargetedtheChimu.UnderPachacuti’sdirection,theIncacametobelievethatthemonarchtechnicallyheldownershipofallthelandandgoodsintheirempire,andletthemuseorholdontoitthroughhiskindness.However,themonarchalsohadmilitaryresponsibilityandadutytocontinueexpandingthebordersoftheIncanEmpire.ThisresponsibilitymeantthatPachacuti’sdescendantshadtoenlargetheempireinordertopreservetheirpositionsasmonarchs.Later,Yupanquisuccessfullytargeted,andCapacmovedinonArgentina.BothYupanquiandCapacpushedIncansoldiersintoChile.Atitsheight,theIncanEmpire(sometimesalsoreferredtoasTwantinsuyu)coveredatremendousportionofthecontinent,rang-ingfromArgentinathroughPerutoBolivia,reaching3,000milesandoverseeingmorethan11millioncitizens.

LedbyPachacuti,theIncangovernmentemployedseveraldifferentmethodstomaintaincontroloverthisincreasinglylargeterritory.First,theIncanskidnappedimportantpeoplefromconqueredareasandusedthemascollateral.PeoplefromtheconqueredareaswouldnotretaliateagainsttheIncabecausetheywantedtoprotecttheirrelatives.Second,theIncanstookadvantageofculturalpatternsalreadyinplaceintheAndes,suchasthedependenceontheaylluandmit’a.Thepeopleoftheaylluandmit’acontinuedtoworktosupportthemembersoftheupperclassesinIncanlands.TheIncanskeptthelowerlevelsoftheclasssystemthesameandenteredthesystematitshighestlevel.Third,tomaintainpeaceinthefartherreachesoftheempire,theIncansleftregionalleadersinchargeofaffairs,ameasureoftheirtrustinthepeopletheyhadcolonized.ThismovefosteredmutualtrustandalsohelpedtheIncafromtakingontoomuchofabureaucraticburden.

Unit 4, Lesson 24 9


TheIncansalsofollowedabureaucraticsetofpracticesdevelopedbyPachacuti:Pachacutihaddividedadministrationandarmyworkintotwopartsandassignedthemtodifferentleaders.Later,atitsheight,theIncanEmpirewouldseparateintofoursmallpartswiththeirownbureaucraticoverseers,eachofwhomansweredtothemonarch.Inthesedifferentareas,theIncanlanguageofQuechuawasspokenandallpeoplewereresponsibleforsupportingthemaingovernmentandmonarch;thelowerclassessupportedtheupperthroughphysicalwork.

LiketheRomans,Pachacutidevelopedtransportationsystemsandtaxationregu-lations.TheroadsPachacuticreated,forexample,stretchedasfaras25,000miles,ortheequivalentoftheentirecoastlineonthePacificside,andcrisscrossedtheentireIncanEmpireinatleasttwodirections.Atmanypoints,differentroadscametogethertointersect,whichmadetravelinggreaterlengthsacrosstheIncanEmpireeveneasier.Thecreationofsuchroadsisquiteafeat,consideringthedifficultenvironment—bothmountainousandwaterbound—thatfacedtheIncanlaborers,mostofwhomcamefromordinaryorlower-classbackgrounds.TheIncansendedupbuildingtwotypesofroads:themountainousroadshadbarriersmadeofstonearoundthemandbetterqualitypavementthantheroadsbythewater.Eachareahadonemajorthoroughfareaswellaslesserthoroughfares.

ThequalityoftheroadsmatchedRomanroads,beingbroad,well-constructed,andeasilytraversed.TheIncanstookgoodcareofeachroad,nomatterhowdif-ficultitbecametodoso,sincesomeoftheroadscamethroughareasthatweredangerousorpronetoinclementweather.SomeIncanroadsremainviableeveninthetwenty-firstcentury,atestamenttothegoodcaretheIncanstook.Travelalongtheroadsbecamepleasantandenjoyable.TheIncansconstructedmanystops,knownastambos,forthetravelerswalkingalongtheroads(duringtheIncans’time,theroadswereforwalkingonly).Asthepeoplemovedalongtheroads,theybecamebetterabletosharebothgoodsandideas,travelingasmuchas150milesina24-hourperiod.

ManyoftheseroadsledtotheIncans’greatcity,Cuzco.ThefirstIncanmon-arch,Pachacuti,hadfoundedCuzco,wherethemostimportantgovernmentaloccurrenceswereheld.Thecitybecameanexquisitedestination:ithadgrandbuildingsdecoratedingoldandwassurroundedbyimportedsand.Almosthalfahundredthousandpeoplelivedinthecity,whilemorethanfourtimesthatamountlivedinthesuburbs.Forthemostpart,themajorityofthepopulationinthecityproperconsistedofthehigherclasses,andpeopleofthelowerclasseshadtoliveoutsidethecity.

Incansocietyrevolvedaroundthearmedforces,whoalongwiththegovern-menthadthemostpowerandprestigeofanycitizens—after,ofcourse,themonarchandhiscloserelatives.Throughouttheempire,menreceivedprivilegesoverwomen.Womenremainedconfinedtodomesticspaces,likeAztecwomen,althoughtheycouldalsoserveasreligiousdevotees.Otherhigher-classindividualsincludedthenobility,religiousleaders,andsomemembersofthegovernment.ThemajorityofpeoplethroughouttheIncanEmpirehadpoorstandingandbelongedtothelowestclass;everyoneinthelowestclassworkedtosupportthemembersoftheupperclasses.Thelowestclassincludedadivisioncalledyanas,whichspecifically

3SeLf-checK

What monarch led

the initial expansion of

the Incan Empire?

Unit 4, Lesson 24 10


referencedpeoplewhoservedtheupperclass.OtherslaboredonbehalfoftheIncanEmpire,producingfoodforthedifferentclasses.Despitethisdisparityinsituation,thegovernmentdidtakesomemeasurestoprovideforthepoorandelderly.

UnlikemanyotherMesoamericansocieties,whichfavoredartisans,intheIncanEmpirefewengagedincommerceorcraftsmanship.Oneexceptiontothisrulewasclothing;makingbeautifulfabricsbecameaspecialtyoftheInca.Thisclothingalsohelpedtocreateaclassbarrier,sincethehigherclassesworespecialclothingthatdistinguishedthemimmediatelyfromthelowerclasses.

ClassandgenderalsoinfluencedthewaysthelegalsystemworkedinIncansociety.Legalcasesweredeterminedbythemonarchoraselectgroupofjudges,whowereallmale.Theselegalsituationsdidnotoccurfrequently,butincaseswhereseriousproblemssuchasstatebetrayalhadtakenplace,acriminalcouldfaceexecutionorforcedlabor.

Incan Religious BeliefsIncancivilizationcombinedsocialclassandreligiousimportance.Likemanyotherimperialleaders,themonarchhadbothpoliticalandspiritualauthority.ThistraditionofinvestingspiritualauthorityinthemonarchbeganwithPachacutiandextendedtohisdescendants.Overtime,theIncacametobelievethattheirmonarchhadadivineheritageandthatmonarchsheldtheirdivinepowerevenaftertheydepartedthislife.Whenamonarchdied,thenextrulerwouldtakeonallthegovernmentalelementsthathadbelongedtothemonarch,whilethemonarch’spersonalwealthwouldpasstohisrelatives.Tohonortherulers’divinepower,theIncansmummifiedthedeadmonarchsandincorporatedtheirremainsintoimportantceremonies.

Whiletheybelievedinseveralgods,includingViracocha(acreatorgod),Incansbelievedtheirmonarchhadarelationshiptotheirmostimportantdeity,thesungod,alsoknownasInti.Later,thesungodtookoverViracocha’spositionasthefounderoftheuniverse,andtheIncanscametobelievethatthesungodwasthemonarch’sfather.Correspondingly,themonarch’sspousehadconnectionstothegoddessofthemoon;otherimportantfemalegoddessesconnectedtothelandandtowater,whileothernaturalelementstookonaspectsofmalegods.SincethemonarchhadbothgovernmentalandspiritualresponsibilityintheIncanEmpire,Cuzco,whichwasthemostimportantgovernmentalarea,alsobecametheplacewhereIncansenactedtheirimportantreligiousoccurrences.InCuzco,peopleobservedtheirreligionintheTempleoftheSun,whichprimarilyhonoredIntiandemployedabout4,000peopleinjobsrelatedtoreligiousworship.

Sometimes,theIncawouldhonorIntiattheTempleoftheSunbyperforminganimalsacrifices;thisdecisiontosacrificeanimalsratherthanpeopleisoneareainwhichtheIncadifferedsubstantiallyfromtheAztecs.Underextremecircumstances,ayoungwomanmightbeofferedupforsacrifice,butthatwastheexception,nottherule.TheTempleoftheSun,constructedofstonescutsofinelythatnomortarwasneededtogluethemtogether,hadhundredsandhundredsofyoungvirginsworkingthere,knownasacclas.Thetempleitselfhadabeautifulaspect,decoratedwithgoldthroughouttheinterior,anditsexteriorshapereferencedthegods’animalnaturesinceitresembledapuma.

4SeLf-checK

What title did the Inca

give their sun god?

accla one of many chaste and youthful girls employed at the Incan Temple of the Sun



OutsideofCuzco,peopleworshipedatanothertempleinthecityofMachuPicchu.Atthesetemples,peoplereceiveddirectionordivulgedtheirsinstoreligiousleaderswhohadcommittedtovowsofchastityandhumility.TheseleadershadmuchinfluenceandalsoreceivedbettereducationsthanmostinIncansociety.Tohelptheirfollowersaddressreligiousquandaries,thesereligiousleadersreliedonhealthandplantproducts.TheIncapermittedworshipinotherways,too:citizenscouldworshiptheirgodsatplacesinthenaturalworldcalledhuacasanddidnothavetogodirectlytothetemples.Ineverydaylife,theIncahonoredtheirgodsbybehavingvirtuously,adheringtotheirclassstanding,andhopingtoachievebless-ingsintheafterlife.MostpeopleinIncansocietywereexpectedtofollowIncanreligiouspractices,althoughotherreligionswerealsopermitted.

SummaryInMesoamericaandtheAndes,severalpowerfulcivilizationsappearedinthefirstfifteenhundredyearsoftheCommonEra.InMesoamerica,theToltecsandAztecsflourished.TheToltecswereinpowerfrom900to1175C.E.andtheircentralbasewasinTula.TheAztecs,whoruledincentralMexicofrom1325to1521C.E.,wouldadoptmanyTolteccharacteristicsandcustoms.TheAztecsexpandedfromtheirbaseatTenochtitlanthroughouttheregion,whichtheyheldwithaskilledgroupofarmedforces.TheAztecsdevelopedamonarchicalsysteminwhichasinglerulerhadprimaryauthority.Theirsocietygavewomenmorerightsthanmost.TheAztecsdevelopedacomplexpolytheisticreligionwhichdependedonhumanandbloodsacrificetoappeasetheirsungod.Othersocieties,liketheInca,developedintheAndesafterthe1000sC.E.TheInca,whoruledfrom1438to1525,gavewomenfewerrights,andwhiletheirpolytheisticfaithveneratedthesungod,theydidnotparticipateinhumansacrifice.

Looking AheadThepeopleoftheAmericashadwatchedastheirownempiresrose,prospered,andfell.Theysharedmanyculturalcharacteristicsandhaddevelopedtheirowncomplexreligiousfaithsandsocietalsystems.ThearrivalofEuropeanexplorersfromSpain,Portugal,andothercountrieswouldthrowtheseAmericansocietiesintoturmoil.TheEuropeanswouldlayclaimtolandsthathadbelongedtoNorthandSouthAmericannativesforcenturies—andeachsidewouldseetheotherasagroupofdangerousbarbarians,outtoreclaimwhatwasrightfullytheirown.

1. A tlatoani was the government leader who led the Mexica societal formations known as altepetl.

2. Huitzilopochtli is the name of the Aztec sun god.

3. Pachacuti led the initial expansion of the Incan Empire.

4. Inti is the title the Inca gave their sun god.

SeLf-checK AnSweRS



Unit 4, Lesson 24All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1,2 Toltec totem poles, ancient Mexico. Photos.com/Thinkstock 4 Pyramid temple, Tula, Mexico. © Afagundes/Dreamstime.com 5 Aztec god Huitzilopochtli. The Granger Collection, New York


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Unit 4, Lesson 24 Civilization in Mesoamerica and Andean ...mshouapworld.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/9/1/14918798/4...ousce for in Mesoamerica, since other groups saw them as a troublesome