UNIT 4 TRANSFORMATION AND TENSION

COLD WAR 1945-1963 PART I

NOTES

HISTORY 12

LEPORE

November 30, 2015

THE COLD WAR

Bipolar World – Emergence of Superpowers

after World War II the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. emerged as superpowers and were followed by former great powers as middle powers (Britain and France)

Cold War – Definition

it implies a non-violent confrontation between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. the term is accurate in Europe where the cold war began but not accurate

in Asia, Africa, and Latin America where the cold war spread the cold war occasionally involved soldiers from the U.S. and U.S.S.R. in

significant numbers such as Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan instead of fighting directly the U.S. and U.S.S.R. armed their proxies or

substitutes in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to do their fightingDefinition ideological struggle between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. for power and

influence over regions of the world struggle to gain influence and extend their ideologies over the rest of the

world through economic and military aid, alliances, propaganda, conquest

Basic Causes of the Cold War

Ideological Differences fear and suspicion arose over differences such as the authoritarian state

versus the democratic state and communist economics versus free enterprise or capitalism

West feared communist ideology that promoted world revolution > Cominform (Communist Information Bureau)

USSR feared capitalist imperialism and encirclement which would always pose the threat of counterrevolution within and against the USSR

Strategic Concerns and Suspicions establishment of Soviet-style communist governments in Eastern Europe

concerned U.S. who developed the domino theory which stated European countries would fall one by one to the Soviets

Methods of Competition and Techniques used by the Superpowers

military alliances > NATO versus Warsaw Pact nuclear weapons > arms race establishing backyards > Hungary 1956, Cuba 1962 espionage (spying) military and economic aid economic imperialism > economic role of the company was so powerful it

could dictate political, economic, and social policy by threatening to pull out of the country and thereby ruining the economy

containment > Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, NATO, Korea, Vietnam buffer zones > Eastern Europe

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CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR 1945-1948

1945-1947 Soviets take over Eastern Europe the Soviets seize control of Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Romania causing concern in the U.S. about Soviet domination in Europe (as represented by Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” speech)

February 1946 Stalin’s post-election speech in Moscow the speech alarms the Americans who interpret it as a “delayed declaration of war” on the West

February 1946 George Kennan’s Long Telegram Kennan proposes a “policy of containment” against the spread of communism which eventually leads to the Truman Doctrine

March 5, 1946 Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech in Fulton, MissouriChurchill is disturbed and laments the Soviet domination in Eastern Europe which he states is not why the Allies liberated Europe

1945-1946 Soviets threaten Turkey and refuse to withdraw from Iran the Americans view Soviet interest in Turkey and Iran as evidence of Soviet expansion

July 1946 Americans conduct atomic bomb testing in the South Pacificthe America’s intent with the testing is to intimidate the Soviets to

discourage expansion (U.S. still has a monopoly on the atomic bomb)

1946 Paris Conference of Foreign Ministers /Secretary of State James Byrne’s speech September 6, 1946 Paris Conference of Foreign Ministers Americans and Soviets disagree over Germany’s futureByrnes speech on Germany indicates American desire to rebuild Germany’s economy

1946 Polish border disputethe Americans challenge the western Polish border agreed upon at Yalta

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March 12, 1947 President Truman’s speech to Congress/Truman DoctirneTruman’s speech introduces the Truman Doctrine and policy of containment to stop the spread of communism

June 5, 1947 Marshall Plan announced (passed by Congress March 31, 1948)the plan is part of the policy of containment and provides Western European countries with economic aid to rebuild their economy and contain the spread of Communism

1947 Soviets introduce Cominform and Comecon the Soviet’s respond to the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan by introducing Cominform and Comecon

February 1948 the communist seize power in a Czechoslovakia the Americans view the communist coup as evidence of Soviet expansion in Europe and it convinces Congress to approve the Marshall Plan

1945-1948 American and Soviet disagreement over Germany the Americans and Soviets disagree over the future of Germany as Americans want to rebuild but the Soviets want reparations the disagreement will eventually lead to the Berlin Blockade and permanent separation of West and East Germany

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CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR

Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

George Kennan’s Long Telegram and the Policy of Containment

February 1946 U.S. State Department official George Kennan argued in his Long Telegram that the best way to contain communism was to strengthen governments politically, economically, and socially and therefore provided justification for American intervention in Greece and Turkey and laid the foundation for the American policy of containment that shaped US foreign policy for many years

Truman Doctrine

by 1947 Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia established communist governments and were Soviet satellites in Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia who was expelled from Cominform in June1948) behind the iron curtain

in addition there were strong Communist parties in France and Italy and a civil war in Greece between communist and non-communist forces

February 1947 British informed U.S. that they could no longer afford to support the government in Greece and would withdraw financial and military support in March

Truman feared the Soviets would intervene and the communist would gain control of Greece causing a domino effect whereby Turkey would fall to the communist followed by the Middle East > this concept became known as the domino theory

March 12 1947 Truman delivered a speech to Congress and asked them for economic and military support for Greece and Turkey to prevent the expansion of communism

it was significant because it introduced the U.S. policy of containment and American foreign policy would be focused on containing communism first in Europe and then the rest of the world

the Truman Doctrine would eventually lead to the development of the Marshall Plan

Marshall Plan

June 5 1947 Secretary of State George Marshall suggested that poverty in Western Europe would lead to communism dominated by the USSR and the best defence against Soviet expansion was to strengthen the economies of Western Europe and proposed economic assistance to rebuild their economies

February 25 1948 the Communist overthrew Czechoslovakian President Eduard Benes and seized control which shocked the U.S. and from theirperspective it demonstrated the U.S.S.R. intended to have tight control over the satellites within its sphere

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March 11 1948 US Senate voted to extend Marshall Plan aid to Europe in the hope to prevent the spread of communism elsewhere

in April the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established to implement and distribute the aid to the European countries who requested it

Marshal Plan provided funds for the reconstruction of 16 European nations outside the Soviet sphere of influence

the U.S. offered aid to the U.S.S.R. and its satellites but the U.S.S.R. refused aid for itself and its satellites in Eastern Europe

1948-1952 the plan provided $13.2 billion of aid given and the economic redevelopment of European economies allowed them to re-establish trade with the U.S.

assistance provided to Western Europe further stimulated the U.S. economy

U.S. Policy of Containment

Kennan’s Long Telegram

Civil War in Greece

Truman Doctrine

Cominform Marshall Plan Comecon

EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

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Berlin Blockade and NATO

Berlin Blockade June 1948-May 1949

after the Western zones of Germany were included within the OEEC in April 1948 U.S. and Britain began moving towards the creation of a separate Western Germany as part of the plan for the economic recovery of non-communist Western Europe

June 18 a new currency-Deutschmark -was introduced in the Western zones of Germany so Soviets responded with a new currency in their zone including Berlin

June 23 the Deutschmark was introduced into the Western sector of Berlin the Soviets declared that the Americans, British, and French were creating

a new Germany in the West and had no business in the Germany of the East

Stalin viewed the Western occupation of Berlin as a festering sore in the Soviet zone and believed the Western Allies would not fight to save Berlin

June 24 the Soviets closed the roads, railroads and waterways that linked West Berlin to the Western zones leaving only the air routes

Berliners feared that they would be abandoned by the West but the American view led by General Lucius Clay was that if the West allowed the takeover of Berlin the Soviets would be encouraged to continue to West Germany so they decided to remain in occupation and supply West Berlin by airlifting the necessary supplies

the blockade was not effective as the American and British were able to airlift supplies indefinitely so Stalin lifted the blockade May 12 1949

May 23 1949 West Germany was declared to be the Federal Republic of Germany thus formalizing the division of Germany

a few weeks later East Germany was created and became the German Democratic Republic (it was not democratic)

the Berlin Blockade was significant because it was a major defeat for the Soviets as they did not achieve their goal of driving the West out of Berlin and preventing the establishment of a new state in the west, it was a public relations victory for the US, the airlift was an example of the Truman Doctrine in action, it led to the establishment of West Germany and thus the permanent division of Germany, and it led to the creation of NATO

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North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

the Czechoslovakian coup and the Berlin Blockade led to the formation of a Western European military alliance supported by the US called NATO

the US feared that without a strong military defensive system Western Europe was threatened by Soviet expansionism

April 4 1949 Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Holland, Britain, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Canada, and the US signed the North Atlantic Treaty which stated that an act of aggression on one member is an attack against all members > it was a defensive military alliance binding its members to assist each other in the event of an attack by an aggressor > this concept is know as collective security

Effects of the Berlin Blockade

the Berlin Blockade signaled a serious turn of events in the Cold War indicating to the West that it must secure a military balance with the USSR in Europe so NATO strengthened the American position in Europe

the partition of Europe into rival spheres of influence had be fostered by the West: diplomatically and politically by the Truman Doctrine, economically by the Marshall Plan and militarily by the formation of NATO

USSR response to Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

the USSR responded to the Truman Doctrine with the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) whose goal was the consolidation of communism in Eastern Europe under the leadership of the USSR, the Marshall Plan with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), and NATO with the Warsaw Pact (1955) which included Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the USSR

U.S. Policy of Containment

U.S. Policy of Containment U.S.S.R. response topolicy of containment

1947 Truman Doctrine (political)

1947 Marshall Plan (economic)

1949 NATO (military)

Cominform (Communist Information Bureau)

Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)

1955 Warsaw Pact

Berlin Blockade June 24 1948 – May 12 1949

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Causes

AimsStalin wanted to destroy Germany; Britain and U.S. wanted to rebuild Germany

Stalinhe wanted Britain, France, U.S. to leave Berlin; prevent the establishment of a separate West German nation

Marshall Plan western zones of Germany to receive economic assistance (refer to map p.208 TCH)

BizoniaBritish and Americans merge their zones; plan to establish a separate German nation (refer to map p.208 TCH)

Deutschmarknew currency introduced into western zones and western sector of Berlin

Consequences

Cold War it got worse and intensified

West and East GermanyMay 23 1949 Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) established from the three western zonesJune 7 German Democratic Republic established (refer to p.121 MHMW)

NATO April 4 1949 NATO established > Soviets establish Warsaw Pact 1955 (refer to map p. 121 MHMW or p.179 GF)

Arms RaceSoviets develop atomic bomb August 1949; U.S. and U.S.S.R. engage in an arms raceSeptember 22 1950 Soviets successfully test atomic bomb

EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

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Korean War, Containment Alliances, Warsaw Pact

Korean War 1950-1953 (refer to map TCH p.212 or handout)

Background August 1945 Japanese forces in northern Korea surrendered to the Soviets

while Japanese forces in southern Korea surrendered to the Americans Korea was divided at the 38th parallel with the U.S.S.R. occupying the

north and the U.S. occupying the south and after plans for a permanent government for the entire country was completed the occupying forces would withdraw

when negotiations for uniting the country reached an impasse the issue went to the UN which adopted a resolution providing for national elections under UN supervision

May 1948 elections were held in the south but the UN was refused permission to enter the north > Syngman Rhee formed quasi-democratic government in the south and Kim II Sung formed a communist government in the north who both claimed to be the legitimate government of all Korea

1949 the Soviets and Americans withdrew their forces leaving opposing hostile governments behind

War June 25 1950 North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel and invaded

South Korea and captured Seoul in the first few days and by mid-September had captured most of South Korea except an area around Pusan

within hours of the invasion Truman asserted that the Truman Doctrine applied to Asia as well as Europe and sent the U.S. Seventh Fleet to patrol the sea between China and Formosa (Taiwan) to prevent an invasion of the island held by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist by Mao Zedong's Communists who had defeated the Nationalists and established the People's Republic of China, extended military aid to the French in their fight against the Vietminh in Indo-China (Vietnam), and referred the invasion to the UN Security Council

June 25 the UN Security Council declared the attack a breach of the peace and passed an American resolution demanding North Korea halt its hostilities and withdraw from South Korea > North Korea ignored it

June 27 the Security Council passed another American resolution which called on its members to help South Korea repel the attack and restore peace and authorized a UN command under American leadership> General Douglas MacArthur Commander-in-Chief, United Nations Command

UN resolutions thus gave legitimacy to U.S. military involvement in Korea although it was officially a UN military operation and 15 other nations

participated in reality it was an American military operation as more than 50% of the army, 85% of the naval forces, and 90% of the air force were American

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September 15 1950 UN forces landed at Inchon and in less than a week recaptured Seoul and pushed the North Koreans back behind the 38th parallel

September 27 Truman instructed MacArthur to move through the North if there were no signs of Russian or Chinese resistance

October 7 the UN approved the forcible reunification of Korea and the objective was no longer to repel the invader but to conquer North Korea

October 7 UN forces under MacArthur’s command crossed the 38th parallel into North Korea and advanced towards the Yalu River which separates Korea from China

the Chinese believed the Americans would move from Korea to overthrow Mao Zedong’s communist government and reinstate its ally Chiang Kai-shek

October 26 Chinese armies crossed the Yalu River and within two weeks pushed the UN forces out of North Korea, back across the 38th parallel and captured Seoul > by mid-Jan 1951 China advanced further into South Korea

mid-January and February 1951 MacArthur pushed the Chinese back across the 38th parallel into North Korea

Truman changed his mind about liberating Korea and instead wanted to contain communism and end the war but MacArthur wanted to continue a war of liberation > Truman prepared to negotiate a cease-fire but MacArthur sabotaged it by crossing the 38th parallel and demand North Korea surrender > April 1951 MacArthur publicly criticized American policy (i.e. Truman) (refer to quote TCH p.213) and as a result was fired by Truman

the Korean War became a stalemate as most of the fighting occurred around the 38th parallel and the war became a Sino(Chinese)-American conflict

July 1951 armistice talks began the Chinese but broke down over the repatriation of prisoners of war and the war continued

November 1952 Dwight D. Eisenhower became U.S. President and appointed John Foster Dulles as Secretary of State > Dulles threatened to use the atomic bomb on China if they did not agree to return American POWs > the Chinese agreed to the POW terms and signed an armistice July 23 1953 which established a demilitarized zone separating North and South Korea

Consequences and Significance

U.S.S.R. recognizing the failure of threats in an attempt to control Tito in

Yugoslavia Stalin was determined to keep China's Communist leadership under his influence by economic and military measures > Stalin provided economic assistance to Mao to rebuild China after years of civil war in return for Soviet bases in Dailan and Lushun > Stalin thus found ways to support a communist colleague while maintaining Moscow's superiority

support for the North Korean invasion seemed to provide the opportunity to consolidate communism in Asia and block any reconciliation between

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China and the U.S. and as a result led to increased military assistance to China

the war turned Soviet foreign policy outward and laid the foundation for Nikita Khrushchev's thrust into the Third World

United States (refer to map on p.l4) although its main focus was still Europe the U.S. made a commitment to a

stronger presence in Asia and as part of its policy of containment established several containment alliances that involved a series of treaties or aid agreements in order to hem in communism September 1 1951 ANZUS Pact: U.S. guaranteed Australia and New Zealand's security1954 Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO): U.S., Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines and Thailand agreed to mutual defence

the Americans feared that Indo-China (Vietnam) would become communist and between 1950-1954 provided France with $1.2 billion of military aid to defeat the communist guerrilla's known as the Vietminh

in addition to Asia containment alliances were established in Latin America with the 1947 Organization of American States (OAS) and in the Middle East with the 1955 Baghdad Pact (renamed CENTO in 1959)

the war led to a significant change in the U.S. relationship with Japan as the Americans realized that Japan could serve as a counterweight to the communist presence in Asia and began to invest money and technology into Japan that sparked a spectacular economic recovery > as with West Germany Japan's economic reconstruction and military self-sufficiency were seen as essential to the Western alliance in its attempt to limit Soviet expansion

Western Europe the war led to the rearmament of Western Europe as the U.S. committed

additional divisions to NATO (also a containment alliance) and increased its defence budget

West Germany was seen as the key to the security of the West so German troops were integrated into NATO

1955 was the high point of success for the containment policy as the U.S.S.R. and its allies were encircled (refer to map p.14)

China Chinese-American relations deteriorated as the war made China and the

U.S. bitter enemies for over 20 years the U.S. refused to recognize the PRC (People’s Republic of China) and

instead recognized Taiwan (Republic of China) > Taiwan represented China in the UN Security Council

Warsaw Pact

the Warsaw Pact was not a result of the Korean War but rather partly a result of Stalin's death and Nikita Khrushchev's policy of destalinization

the Warsaw Pact was a direct response to NATO May 14 1955 Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary,

Poland, Romania, and the U.S.S.R. signed the Warsaw Pact which was a

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defensive military treaty obligating the members to come to the aid of any member attacked by an aggressor nation

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EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

Khrushchev Era and Polish and Hungarian Unrest

Khrushchev Era

March 6 1953 Stalin died and a struggle for leadership followed that lasted two years and eventually Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the leader of the U.S.S.R.

de-Stalinization was one of Khrushchev's primary goals and he was determined to denounce (condemn) Stalin and propose a new direction for the U.S.S.R.

February 1956 Khrushchev delivered a speech to the Twentieth Party Congress that included the following three themes:denunciation of Stalin (as part of the de-Stalinization program)Lenin's contention that "there are many roads to socialism"recognition of the growing importance of the Third World

Peaceful Coexistence: Khrushchev promoted “peaceful coexistence” which meant that the U.S.S.R. would compete with the West for influence around the world but not by war or violent revolution as was the case under Stalin’s leadership

the denunciation of Stalin created expectations that Khrushchev could resolve the ills created by Stalin and over the next eight years he attempted to fulfill these expectations by changes to both domestic and foreign policy

agricultural reform was one of Khrushchev's top domestic priorities but the reforms were not successful

Khrushchev's policy altered the U.S.S.R.'s relationship with China as the change in foreign policy disturbed the Chinese because of the Soviet's interest in the Third World and the U.S.S.R. appeared unlikely to promote the Chinese government's desire for international recognition or assist in the overthrow of the Nationalist government in Taiwan > this was the beginning of the Sino-Soviet split (China and the U.S.S.R.)

the most significant effect of Khrushchev's policy was on Eastern European satellites Poland and Hungary

Polish Unrest June 1956 labour unrest in Poznan grew into riots protesting Soviet

economic and political domination as a result Moscow agreed to allow Poland greater control of its own

affairs, Soviet military control was curtailed, many restrictions of individual liberties were removed and an alliance between the Polish state and Catholic church was formulated

Wladyslaw Gomulka recognized the strategic nature of Poland's geographical position between the U.S.S.R. and Germany and affirmed Poland's allegiance to Soviet foreign policy (Warsaw Pact)

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Hungarian Revolution October-November 1956

Causes

• Economic Conditions food and industrial goods produced were sent to the Soviet Union• Soviet Control Hungarians resent Russian control and dominance > AVH, schools• Catholic Church Hungarians are religious but the Communist banned religion• West/American Support

Hungarians thought the Americans would help them gain freedom• Poland

reforms in Poland inspired Hungarians to seek similar reforms• Destalinization Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization influence Hungarians to demand reforms

Uprising

October 6 1956 approximately 200, 000 workers, students and intellectuals demonstrated in Budapest against the abuses of Matyas Rakosi's government so the Soviets reacted by replacing Rakosi with Imre Nagy October 23 > his government included non-communists and he declared free elections would be held in the near future

October 30 Moscow promised to eventually withdraw Soviet troops and it appeared the revolution would achieve its goal of independence

after Soviet troops left Budapest November 1 Nagy announced Hungary would withdraw from the Warsaw Pact prompting a Soviet invasion

the Soviet Union could not allow Hungary to establish a precedent that could bring about the disintegration of the Soviet bloc so on November 4 5000 Soviet tanks and an army of 250, 000 soldier entered Budapest

after three days of fighting the Soviets defeated Hungarian resistance > the destruction of Budapest was enormous and as many as 20, 000 people were killed and another 20, 000 imprisoned while 200, 000 left the country > Nagy was tried and executed in Romania in 1958

Consequences/Effects

1956 Hungarian Revolution demonstrated the following:nationalism remained a vital force in Eastern Europe and bolstered anti- Soviet sentimentSoviet control of Eastern Europe could only be preserved by the Red ArmyEastern Europe was the key to the military defence of the U.S.S.R. and the Soviets were prepared to use force to preserve its control in the region

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U.S. did not assist the Hungarians because Hungary was in the Soviet sphere of influence or backyard and intervention would have meant open confrontation with the Soviet Union

EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

Berlin Wall 1961

Berlin Wall

the West German economy was prospering while the East German economy was not and prompted many East Germans to flee to the West> 1958 over 2 million fled to the West most of them skilled workers or highly trained professionals > this "brain drain" jeopardized East Germany’s economic recovery

Khrushchev was alarmed at the exodus of East Germans to the West as well as the growing military and economic strength of West Germany and demanded the Western powers occupying Berlin to evacuate within six months but the Western alliance refused so he backed down March 29

a summit conference was planned for May 15 1960 in Paris to work out a comprehensive settlement of Cold War issues including Berlin

May 5 the Soviets shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance plane (spy plane) over Soviet territory

Khrushchev demanded Eisenhower apologize for the violation of Soviet air space and stop the flights but Eisenhower refused so Khrushchev refused to meet with Eisenhower in Paris

Khrushchev may have taken his position because of criticism from hardliners in the Politburo over conciliatory moves made in Berlin and Europe and the Chinese were critical of his policy of peaceful co-existence

January 1961 John F. Kennedy became president of the U.S. and Khrushchev met Kennedy at a summit meeting in Vienna in June 1961

Khrushchev was determined to resolve the situation in Berlin and presented Kennedy with an ultimatum demanding a peace treaty with Germany, the evacuation of occupation troops from Berlin and the creation of a free city and backed up his ultimatum with a 33% increase in the military budget

Kennedy responded by announcing a $3 billion increase in the U.S. defence budget and doubling of draft calls

in the first six months of 1961 over 100,000 East Germans poured into the West via West Berlin

August 13 1961 the Soviets permanently closed the border between East and West Berlin and erected a barbed wire fence (a concrete wall replaced the barbed wire) and stationed armed guards along checkpoints

the Berlin Wall stabilized the situation in Berlin but did not resolve the issue

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EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

Cuban Missile Crisis October 1962

Revolution in Cuba

Cuba’s land and industry were owned by U.S. companies January 1 1959 Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista’s dictatorship in

Cuba and established a government that was a mix of Marxists and liberal

Castro nationalized millions of acres of land owned by American companies and gave it to the people

Cuba decided to buy oil from U.S.S.R. but American companies refused to refine it so Castro seized the refineries

February 1960 Castro signed $100 million trade agreement with U.S.S.R. whereby Cuba exchanged sugar for Russian oil, machinery, technicians > Soviet arms and equipment were sent to protect Cuba

July Eisenhower responded to Castro’s nationalization of U.S. companies by cutting 95% of Cuba’s sugar export to the U.S. and later imposed a complete trade embargo

Eisenhower agreed to CIA plan to train anti-Castro exiles for an invasion of Cuba

Bay of Pigs April 17 1962

April 17 1961 1500 anti-Castro forces supported by the U.S. landed in the Bay of Pigs but were defeated by the Cuban forces

after the invasion Castro announced Cuba was a Marxist state

Possible Reasons Khrushchev installed Missiles in Cuba

Khrushchev wanted to install missiles in Cuba because it would give him a strong position in the American sphere of influence and be able to negotiate more effectively the removal of Western powers from Berlin

another possible reason for installing missiles in Cuba was the Soviets had fallen behind in the space race and the U.S. was capable of launching ICBM's (intercontinental ballistic missiles) from American soil that could reach Europe while the Soviet range was limited to Europe and installing missiles in Cuba would equalize the strategic situation

another possible reason was the fear of an American invasion of Cuba which had already been attempted with the Bay of Pigs incident

another possible reason was to force the US to remove missiles from Turkey

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Cuban Missile Crisis October 14-27 1962

October 14 1961 American U-2 plane photographed an area around San Cristobal that showed evidence of medium-range ballistic missile sites and October 16U.S. Intelligence confirmed Cuba was being made into a missile base

October 16 Kennedy established Committee of the National Security Council and considered three options: an air attack or an invasion, diplomacy by offering to remove missiles in Turkey in exchange for the removal of missiles in Cuba or a naval blockade/quarantine to prevent Soviets transporting more missiles > the Committee decided on naval blockade/quarantine

October 22 Kennedy went on television to inform the nation that offensive missile sites had been established in Cuba by the Soviets and that in response to the threat he was imposing an air and naval quarantine of Cuba to prevent further deliveries (refer to speech TCH p.221)

October 23 Soviet government declared it would take the necessary measures to respond to aggression towards the U.S.S.R.

Thursday October 25 U.S. navy intercepted first of 25 Russian ships sailing towards Cuba

Friday October 26 Kennedy received a letter from Khrushchev that stated the Soviets would consider removing and destroying missile sites in Cuba if the U.S. did not attack Cuba and lift the blockade

Saturday a.m. October 27 a second letter from Khrushchev arrived before Kennedy was able to respond to the first that was more demanding than the first letter as Khrushchev proposed the removal of missile sites in Cuba in exchange for the removal of missiles in Turkey

the same morning U-2 plane shot down over Cuba and the pilot was killed Americans protested this action and demanded the Soviets agree to the

immediate dismantling of the missiles and refused any public trade of missiles in Turkey > Kennedy began to consider an air strike against Cuba

Attorney General Robert Kennedy suggested that they should ignore the second letter and reply to the first letter

Saturday evening Kennedy sent a letter to Khrushchev promising to lift blockade and not invade Cuba if the missile sites were removed and no more installed > he secretly agreed to the eventual removal of missiles in Turkey

October 28 Khrushchev agreed to the compromise Sunday morning and the crisis was resolved

the missiles were packed, loaded on to ships and returned to U.S.S.R. and the missile sites were flattened and ploughed over > November 20 Khrushchev agreed to remove Russian bombers from Cuba within 30 days

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and Kennedy lifted the blockade on Cuba > U.S. removed the Jupiter missiles in Turkey the next year

Consequences and Significance

both the U.S. and the Soviets learned the value of diplomacy and by allowing an opponent to save face one could avert disaster > the Soviets took no further action against the West in Berlin

the U.S. learned that the American commitment to NATO must be strengthened as well as the West’s position in Berlin

Kennedy’s reputation improved in U.S. and the West > he employed brinkmanship which is a form of diplomacy that takes events to the edge

Cuban relations with U.S.S.R. strengthened and it was more dependent on Russian aid and protection and Cuba became a Soviet ally

it was the first direct military confrontation between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. and the first conflict of the Cold War that involved nuclear weapons

the crisis made the U.S. and the Soviets aware of the vulnerability of a world dominated by nuclear weapons and on June 20 1963 they demonstrated their determination to avoid accidental nuclear war by establishing a hot-line between Washington and Moscow to facilitate better communications

talks began on the issue of nuclear proliferation and testing and as a result of these talks the Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed August 5 1963 by the U.S., U.S.S.R. and Britain which banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere, under water and in space > it was later signed by more than a hundred nations with the notable exception of China

China’s reaction to the treaty indicated a split with the Soviet Union the treaty ushered in a period of détente (relaxation of tensions) between

the U.S. and the Soviets however the U.S. remained committed to containing communism in areas they believed they needed and had a right to act

Khrushchev was dismissed as Soviet leader in October 1964 in part for domestic failures but primarily his poor showing in the missile crisis

the Cuban Missile Crisis is considered the climax of the Cold War

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Cuban Missile Crisis October 1962

Causes

Superpower Tensionspace race, arms race, nuclear testing, Vietnam, Vienna summit, Berlin Wall

Cuban Revolution January 1959trade agreement with Soviets, U.S. trade sanctions, Castro nationalizes companies

Bay of Pigs Invasion April 17 1961Castro asked Soviets for weapons to defend against U.S.

Nuclear MissilesSoviet ICBMs not within range of U.S

Missiles in Turkeyremove Jupiter missiles in Turkey

Berlinforce Western Allies to leave Berlin

Main Developments October 14-28 1962

October 14 U-2 photographs missile sites in Cuba and provides evidence of Soviet offensive missiles Medium Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBMs)

October 16 Kennedy meets with National Security Advisors and discuss possible diplomatic and military action (group later becomes Ex-Comm)

October 17 Executive Committee of the National Security Council (Ex-Comm) meet to discuss options; Joint Chiefs of Staff want an air strike followed by an invasion

October 20 after meeting with Ex-Comm Kennedy orders a quarantine of Cuba

October 22 Kennedy addresses the nation in a televised speech announcing the presence of offensive missile sites in Cuba and the establishment of a quarantine

October 26 Khrushchev sends a letter (first letter) to Kennedy proposing removing his missiles if Kennedy agrees not to invade Cuba

October 27 Khrushchev sends another letter (second letter) to Kennedy proposing removing missiles in Cuba in return for removing U.S. missiles in Turkey

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October 27 U-2 is shot down over Cuba killing the pilot

October 27 Kennedy ignores the second letter and sends a letter to Khrushchev stating that the U.S. will not invade Cuba if the Soviets remove the missiles from Cuba; Kennedy also offers to remove Jupiter missiles in Turkey

October 28 Khrushchev announces on Radio Moscow that he has agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba

Consequences

Kennedy and KhrushchevKennedy gained prestige, Khrushchev lost prestige (he was dismissed in 1964)

BerlinSoviets took no further action against the Western Allies in Berlin

NATOAmericans strengthened its commitment to NATO and West Berlin

Cuba and U.S.S.R.Cuban relations with U.S.S.R. strengthened and Cuba became a Soviet ally

June 23 1963 Hotlinehotline established between Washington and Moscow to improve communications

Partial Test Ban Treaty August 5, 1963treaty banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere, water, space

DétentePartial Test Ban Treaty ushered in a period of détente

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EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

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The Arms Race and Arms Control 1945-1968

Background

1949 U.S. lost its monopoly of nuclear weapons when the Soviet Union developed the atomic bomb and for two decades the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. waged an arms race with each attempting to achieve superiority in number and types of weapons

until the 1960s or early 1970s the U.S. retained nuclear superiority but the Soviets maintained conventional superiority

once the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. mastered the production of thermonuclear power they became preoccupied with developing delivery systems

1950s and 1960s were characterized by technological innovations that resulted in several new weapons

the arms race developed out of a desire to possess enough new and technologically superior weaponry to prevent the opposition from striking first

The Nuclear Arms Race and Arms Control

August 1957 the Soviets successfully tested an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)

October 4 1957 the Soviets launched Sputnik I which was first earth satellite to achieve space orbit and meant that nuclear missiles could be delivered without the use of airplanes

November 1957 the Soviets launched a satellite containing a test animal as a result these successes Khrushchev was very confident and

determined to bluff regarding the true size of the quality of the aircraft and missile force of the Soviet Union and attempted to use the supposed Soviet superiority in technology as leverage to wrest control of West Berlin from the West in 1958 > however the U.S. had been monitoring missile sites in Siberia using the recently developed U-2 spy plane and had been able to determine the Soviets did not have nuclear superiority and the bluff failed

February 1958 U.S. conducted its first satellite launch but the Soviets continued to lead in space technology when in 1960 they sent two dogs into space and retrieved them from orbit and followed this success on April 12 when Yuri Gagarin was the first human to travel in space

despite these achievements the Soviets lagged behind the U.S. in the arms race as the U-2 flights had revealed the Soviets had fewer missiles than they claimed and the Americans had the lead in long-range missiles

the development of the Polaris missile with a range of 1700 to 2500 nautical miles gave the U.S. strategic superiority as no point on earth was outside its range

by 1964 the US possessed 1880 strategic units to the Soviets 472 the Cuban Missile Crisis was in part caused by the Soviet attempt to

overcome inferiority in missile deployment by placing missiles within American sphere of influence

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after the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 the U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed on the Partial Test Ban Treaty which limited nuclear testing in the atmosphere, under water, and in outer space but the superpowers continued to stock pile their nuclear arsenals throughout the 1960s

by 1969 the Soviets had tripled its stock of ICBMs and increased significantly its supply of submarine-launched ballistic missiles which ended U.S. superiority

the U.S. changed its goal as a result of the end of its superiority and in the early 1970s rather than increasing the numbers of the same weapons the Americans embarked on a program designed to develop innovation and nuclear technology

a new anti-ballistic missile program was created and also the Multiple Independent Targeted Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) was developed which would give the ICBM three to ten separately targeted nuclear warheads

to check this dangerous and expensive arms race the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. began to discuss the possibility of limiting the number of strategic weapons in the late 1960s

1968 the U.S., U.S.S.R. and Britain signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and by the time it came into force in March 1970 97 countries agreed to limit the nuclear fraternity to those countries currently in possession of nuclear technology with China and France being important exceptions

despite agreements such as the Partial Test Ban Treaty and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty the Soviets and Americans were determined to maintain first-strike capability and thus a nuclear war between them would assure their mutual destruction (Mutually Assured Destruction -MAD) and both sides developed new nuclear weapons

EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

Nationalism and Decolonization in India

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Independence in India 1948

India during the Inter-War Years 1919-1939British in India Indian troops fought on Britain’s side in Word War I and by 1917 Britain

accepted India would become a dominion (a self-governing country within the Empire) but slowly

the first step in this direction was the 1919 Montagu-Clemsford reforms which established a two tiered government with the British and Indians dividing responsibilities but it was not enough for some and unrest developed like the violence in Amritsar

Gandhi and the Congress Party Mohandas Gandhi was leader of the Hindu-dominated nationalist Congress

Party and he preached and practiced non-violent resistance such as disobeying laws and refusing to pay taxes a method known as civil disobedience > Gandhi and Jawaharal Nehru were imprisoned periodically

Gandhi wanted an independent and united India in which Hindus and Muslims (as well as Sikhs) could live together and the untouchables would be alleviated from their misery

Jinnah and the Muslim League Hindu extremists were unwilling to share power with Muslims in an

independent India 1930s Muslim nationalists were concerned about Hindu domination and as

a result the Muslim League began to consider a separate state for Muslims > January 1933 Rahmat Ali called for creation of a separate state based on Muslim homelands of the Punjab, Kashmir, Sind, Northwest Frontier and Baluchistan to be called Pakistan (see map p.203)

Government of India Act 1935 gave control of the provincial governments to Indians and British and Indians shared control of the central government

1937 elections Congress Party controlled six provinces, Muslim League two and three were undecided > Congress declared the Muslims should take orders from Congress not Muslim League and as a result Mohammed Ali Jinnah was convinced Muslims would never be treated fairly in an India dominated by Hindus and run by the Congress Party

Independence and Separation of India

Congress Party refused to cooperate in the British war effort and in 1942 rejected plan for self-government and dominion status because Gandhi was concerned Britain would break its promise after the war

Congress mounted a civil disobedience campaign called Quit India and despite it non-violent approach riots erupted and Gandhi and Nehru arrested and imprisoned for most of the war

during the war the Muslim League made great strides in gaining support for a separate Muslin nation to be formed by partitioning India

the new British Labour government under PM Clement Atlee viewed India as a political liability and too costly (money, people) to retain and was willing to grant India its independence

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the British government hoped to grant independence to a united India but the divisions between Hindus and Muslims and rift between Congress and the Muslim League were to deep

despite objections from the Congress the British agreed to partition along religious lines but found it difficult to determine and establish a religious border especially in Bengal and the Punjab where Muslim and Hindu populations were mixed and relatively equal in numbers

the Muslim League began demonstrations in favour of separation from India and atrocities against minorities occurred throughout India

August 1946 riots occurred in Calcutta that killed 4,000 people and spread across the north of India > Muslims and Hindus fled their homes and reprisals led to increased strife that verged on civil war > there were not enough troops loyal to the central government to put down the fighting

as a result the British government in early 1947 announced they would hand over all power and responsibility for India by June 1948 and appointed Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy to prepare the transfer of authority

Indian leaders were faced with the prospect of chaos and violence after the British withdrew and as a result compromised and reached an agreement which would divide India into two separate nations one for Hindus and Sikhs to be called India and another for Muslims to be called Pakistan

as a result of continued Hindu/Muslim violence in June 1947 Mountbatten announced Indian independence would occur by August 15 and proposed and exchange of populations between Hindu and Muslim regions > the provinces had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan

as the date of partition approached millions of Hindus and Muslims moved from their homes into the soon-to-be new nations of India and Pakistan and were met with violence and approximately 200,000 were killed

August 15 1947 British relinquished rule in India and Nehru became PM of India and Jinnah Governor-General of Pakistan > violence ensued in the Punjab between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims

Muslims killed Sikhs left in the new Pakistan while Hindus and Sikhs killed Muslims in the new India > approximately 11, 000, 000 crossed the frontier in the Punjab > 400,000 Hindus moved out of Sind and 1,000 000 left East Pakistan for West Bengal (refer to map TCH p.203)

Hindus refugees who arrived in New Delhi threatened to kill remaining Muslims but Gandhi intervened and threatened to fast until death

January 30 1948 Gandhi was assassinated in New Delhi by a Hindu extremist

Conflict over Kashmir Kashmir did not join India or Pakistan by August 1947 and had a Hindu

ruler with populations of Hindus and Muslims October 1948 the ruler appealed to India for help when Pathans from

Pakistan invaded so Indian troops responded and cleared out the Pathans and waged war against Pakistani forces sent by Jinnah

1949 UN arranged truce and Kashmir has remained divided along the border and partitioned between India and Pakistan

EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

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Nationalism and Decolonization in Indochina/Vietnam

Vietnam War

Stage 1: French Indo-China War 1946-1955

1945 Ho Chi Min establishes a provisional government in North Vietnam 1946 Ho Chi Min and Vietminh fight French forces 1950 U.S. provide military aid to the French war effort 1954 French are defeated at Dien Bien Phu and as a result France decides

to withdraw from Indochina 1954 President Eisenhower is concerned about the spread of communism

in South East Asia and cites the “domino theory” April 1954 Geneva Agreement temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th

parallel and national elections to be held in1956 to determine a government; U.S. does not accept the Geneva Agreement

1955 Ngo Dinh Diem becomes president of South Vietnam and refuses to hold elections; Ho Chi Min was the leader in North Vietnam

Stage 2: Military Advisors 1956-1963

1956 U.S. provides military advisors to South Vietnamese to train South Vietnamese military forces

1957 communist guerrilla activity begins in South Vietnam; guerrilla’s assassinate government officials and bomb Saigon

1959 North Vietnam moves weapons along Ho Chi Minh Trail to support guerrillas in the south

1960 North Vietnam forms National Liberation Front (NLF) for South Vietnam and are referred to as “Vietcong”

1961 President Kennedy authorizes the Green Berets to assist South Vietnamese army fight guerrillas; Green Berets and South Vietnam army implement the protected hamlet plan to deny Vietcong food and shelter from villages > 1,364 military advisors > 1962 9,865 military advisors

1963 Vietcong defeat South Vietnamese army in Battle of Ap Bac > 15, 500 military advisors

1963 South Vietnamese military overthrow Diem and he is executed

Stage 3: Escalation 1964-1968

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1964 August 2-4 American destroyer in the Gulf of Tonkin is allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese patrol boat in Gulf of Tonkin

1964 August 7 Congress approved Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and gives President Johnson unlimited power to wage war against North Vietnam

1965 February U.S. begins bombing North Vietnam in Operation “Rolling Thunder”; the bombing campaign will continue off and on for three years

1965 first American combat troops, 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade, arrive in Vietnam to defend the U.S. airfield at Danang > 75, 000 troops

1965 November first conventional battle between of the Vietnam war takes place between American and North Vietnamese Army (N.V.A.) forces in theIa Drang Valley; it ends in a draw

1965 American forces reach 200, 000 troops 1965 “teach-ins” (seminars, rallies, speeches) are organized at

universities to protest against the war in Vietnam 1966 U.S. bomb the Mugia Pass main route used by the N.V.A. to send

personnel and supplies through Laos and Cambodia into South Vietnam 1966 war veterans protest against the war in New York 1966 Nguyen Van Thieu is elected president in South Vietnam > 400, 000

troops 1967 January Operation Cedar Fall begins with 16,000 U.S. and 14,000

South Vietnamese troops set out to destroy Vietcong operations near Saigon

1967 Martin Luther King speaks out against U.S. policy in Vietnam > 500,00 troops

1968 January North Vietnamese launch Tet Offensive against South Vietnamese cities; although a military failure it is a political victory for the communists and turning point in the war for U.S. as it indicates the war is not close to ending and public opinion begins to shift and support decline

March 16, 1968 My Lai Massacre American troops in Charlie Company kill about 200 civilians in the village of My Lai

1968 Johnson announces he will not seek re-election May 1968 peace talks begin in Paris between U.S. and North Vietnam November 1968 Richard Nixon elected president

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Stage 4: Vietnamization and U.S. Withdrawal 1969-1973

1969 President Nixon authorizes secret bombing of Communist supply routes and bases in Cambodia

1969 April 33, 000 American troops have been killed in Vietnam 1969 Defense Secretary Melvin Laird announces policy of Vietnamization

and its objective to shift the burden of defeating the communists onto the South Vietnamese Army allowing U.S. ground forces to gradually withdraw

1969 August U.S. announce beginning of troop withdrawal 1970 April Americans invade Cambodia to cut off Ho Chi Min Trail

prompting protests in the U.S. 1970 May 4 National Guardsmen fired on a student antiwar protesters at

Kent State University in Ohio killing four students 1970 July Nixon orders the bombing of North Vietnam to get them to make

concessions at the peace talks in Paris 1971 February 325, 000 American troops remain in Vietnam >

approximately 45,000 Americans have died in Vietnam 1971 February-March South Vietnamese Army invades Laos with artillery

and aerial support from U.S. (no ground forces) to disrupt future offensives by N.V.A. > it ends in failure

1971 Nixon announces his intention to visit the People’s Republic of China 1972 Nixon reduces troops by 70, 000 1972 Nixon orders bombing of sites around Hanoi and Haiphong to force

North Vietnamese to make concessions in the ongoing peace talks 1972 October National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger announces that

“peace is at hand” with an agreement to end the war but U.S. bombs North Vietnam again

1973 January 27 cease-fire signed in Paris > Paris Peace Accord terms: removal of all foreign troops in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia

within 60 days, recognition of the sovereignty of both Vietnams, and release of prisoners of war

ceasefire agreement it brings an end to U.S. military involvement in Vietnam

Stage 5: Reunification 1973-1975

1973 cease-fire is broken and hostilities between North Vietnamese Army and South Vietnamese Army renew war

1975 April 30 Saigon falls to North Vietnam and becomes Ho Chi Min City and Vietnam is reunited under the communists

EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

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Indo-China and the Vietnam War 1946-1968

France and Indo-China after World War II

the war in Indo-China did not begin as a war against communism but as a war of decolonization

Indo-China was a French colony until the Japanese occupied it in 1940 Ho Chi Minh and the Communists resisted the Japanese occupation and

gained popular nationalist support in a united front called the Viet Minh (Independence League)

the British liberated southern Vietnam up to the 17th parallel and the Chinese Nationalists liberated northern Vietnam

Ho Chi Minh established a provisional government in northern Vietnam in Hanoi but when the French returned they refused to recognize his government and re-established control from Saigon in southern Vietnam

November 1946 the French bombed Haiphong and the Viet Minh responded with raids against French in Hanoi prompting a war that lasted until 1954

War of Liberation 1946-1954

the Korean War was taking place around the same time (1950-1954) and transformed the war in Vietnam into an anti-communist crusade for the U.S.

Eisenhower applied the domino theory as Vietnam lay on the West’s defensive perimeter and was therefore of strategic significance and he believed that if the U.S. did not take a stand against communism in Vietnam all of Southeast Asia could fall under communist control

by 1954 American aid to the French war effort totaled $1.1 billion (78%) November 1953 the French established a garrison camp at Dien Bien Phu

hoping to bring the Viet Minh guerrillas out in the open to do battle and was situated to stop supplies to the Viet Minh guerrillas from the North along the Ho Chi Min Trail which was a network of paths that formed a highway of goods sent by Ho Chi Minh to support the Viet Minh in the South

French hoped to draw Viet Minh out and destroy them but the Viet Minh surrounded the French and overran their defenses after a six-month siege

French defeat at Dien Bien Phu convinced the French to leave Indo-China April 26 1954 a conference on Vietnam met in Geneva and the Geneva

Agreement granted Laos and Cambodia independence, divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel and elections were to be held in the north and south within two years to choose a government > if the elections were held the larger population in the North would have guaranteed a communist victory(refer to GF map p.238)

U.S. was not part of the Geneva agreements and was not bound to its terms and because of U.S. support South Vietnam did not accept the terms

either

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U.S. and the Vietnam War 1954 –1968

U.S. Military Support 1954-1964 the Americans supported South Vietnam because they feared that if it fell

to the communists all the other states in Asia would follow > domino theory

Ho Chi Minh began a program of agrarian reform in North Vietnam modeled on the Chinese collective

Ngo Dinh Diem became president of South Vietnam and was corrupt, autocratic and intolerant of the Buddhist

Diem's government was very unpopular and there was widespread opposition including the political movement National Liberation Front (NLF) and a guerrilla force called the Vietcong which were both supported by North Vietnam who never accepted a divided Vietnam

U.S. involvement in Vietnam after the French left was minor and limited to military advisors to the South Vietnamese government but increased in time as the South Vietnamese government was unable to control the communists

1960 Diem cut off food supplies to the North to force them to agree to unification on his terms and Ho Chi Minh responded by sending aid to ant-Diem forces in Southern Vietnam such as the communist Viet Cong > the Viet Cong had broad support in the countryside because of the brutal treatment of the peasants by the Diem government

the first significant rise in American support occurred in 1962 when Kennedy increased the number of American forces from 500 to 10,000 but they were still referred to as military advisors

1963 Buddhist monks led mass demonstrations against Diem and Diem responded by attacking monasteries and torturing monks

by the summer of 1963 there was a possibility of civil war in South Vietnam so in November Diem was overthrown by the military and killed > several coups followed until stability was achieved in 1965 with Generals Nguyen Ky and Nguyen Van Thieu

during the early 1960s the Viet Cong extended their operations to drive the Americans out of the countryside but failed

North Vietnam sent regular divisions into the South to aid the Viet Cong and the Americans responded by sending special forces into the countryside to win the people to their side > under the protected hamlet plan peasants were gathered in defensive strong points to deny food and shelter to the Viet Cong and villages were relocated and placed under government protection causing even more opposition to the South Vietnamese government > most of the peasants resisted resettlement and did not see the Viet Cong as their enemy

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Escalation of U.S. Involvement 1964-1968 August 1964 an American destroyer was attacked by a Vietnamese

gunboat in the Gulf of Tonkin > the significance of this incident was to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam as President Johnson accused North Vietnam of unprovoked aggression on the high seas and asked Congress for authority to fight back and Congress obliged Johnson and passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution which gave Johnson virtually unlimited power to deal with Vietnam

Americans refused to accept the war as a civil war and a war of liberation and instead viewed it as a plan to expand communism

February 1965 Americans began to bomb North Vietnam and begin bombing Haiphong harbour and by the end of 1967 more bombs had been dropped on Vietnam than on Europe during World War II

June 1965 Johnson authorized American troops to drop the pretence of advisers and enter the combat on the ground and by the end of 1966 there were almost 400,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam and 500, 000 by the beginning of 1968

by 1967 it became apparent that the U.S. could not win the war without destroying the people and country they had come to protect and since a military solution was not possible a political solution was sought to end the fighting so Johnson offered to negotiate and end to the war provided South Vietnam could remain an independent state supported by American economic aid but Ho Chi Minh rejected it

end of January 1968 the Viet Cong launched a large scale offensive called the Tet Offensive on all American bases during the Tet holiday celebrations and attacked the cities with 84,000 men and hoped the people would rise up against the South Vietnamese government but the offensive was unsuccessful

although a military failure for North Vietnam the Tet Offensive was a turning point as it was the undoing of the American war effort

civil disobedience, draft-dodging, and widespread anti-war demonstrations indicated a decline in support for the war and the growing divisions in the U.S. was fostered by television which was broadcasting the war

the Tet offensive played a major role in turning U.S. public opinion against the war > Americans watched the fighting in the grounds of the U.S. embassy in Saigon on television and realized even if the war could be won it would be costly and long > television reporting brought the events into American homes and strengthened American criticism of the war

if escalation of U.S. commitment prior to 1968 had not deterred such an attack as the Tet Offensive then the war was a useless venture

May 1968 the U.S. and North Vietnam met in Paris to begin peace talks which would drag on for four years

Johnson decided not to run for reelection because of opposition to the war and Nixon became president as a result of his promise to end the war

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EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1948-1963

Vietnam War 1969-1973

Vietnamization and U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam 1969-1973

by 1969 the anti-war movement was broad based and although this did not entirely influence Nixon he was elected because of his promise to end the war but he needed to find an honourable way out

Nixon was faced with the dilemma of how to get the Americans out of an unpopular war without sacrificing South Vietnam to Ho Chi Minh and the Communists > Nixon's solution was the Vietnamization of the war which was his plan to make the military of South Vietnam capable of defending itself and therefore allow the U.S. to withdraw as well as establish a credible political government in South Vietnam

Nixon began to turn more of the fighting over to the South Vietnamese Army and with U.S. weapons and supplies were to take over the defence of their country as the Americans withdrew

August 1969 the Americans began to withdraw American troops after delays in the peace talks the Americans renewed attempts to cut off

the Ho Chi Minh Trail by invading Cambodia in April 1970 which prompted anti-war demonstrations in the US

July 1970 Nixon ordered the bombing of North Vietnam in an attempt to get the North Vietnamese to make concessions at the peace talks in Paris

by 1971 the war had changed almost entirely to an air war with the U.S. bombing North Vietnamese cities

by 1972 the Americans were down to 200,000 but continued the bombing of North Vietnamese cities

January 27, 1973 a cease fire was signed in Paris and the agreement called for the removal of all foreign troops in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia within 60 days, the recognition of the sovereignty of both Vietnams, and release of prisoners of war

after the American withdrawal in August 1973 fighting resumed despite the cease fire and the North and NLF/Vietcong defeated the South in the spring of 1975 when they captured Saigon April 30 1975 and unified Vietnam

unification of Vietnam did not stop the fighting in the region as Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1978 and in response China invaded Vietnam in 1979 but was repulsed with the support of the U.S.S.R. who saw Vietnam as a way to contain China

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Consequences and Effects of the Vietnam War

the war cost the US government $100-150 billion and made it difficult for President Johnson to implement his war on poverty in an effort to establish his Great Society > by 1973 U.S. economy was floundering and in a recession

Americans killed in Vietnam amounted to 57, 939 the U.S. lost influence throughout South East Asia turmoil resulted in the U.S. because of opposition to the war and the U.S.

lost its innocence and could no longer claim its moral superiority > the war had a significant effect on future foreign policy decisions

limitations were introduced regarding presidential powers to wage war

Reasons the U.S. lost the War

the U.S. fought a guerrilla war with sophisticated weapons and conventional tactics and therefore were unable to defeat the nationalists Viet Cong

as the war escalated it became unpopular in the U.S. with the public and the media because of the increasing casualties, cost of the war to the economy (inflation), and the development of anti-war movements

the U.S. and the South Vietnamese government could not gain the support of the South Vietnamese people (hearts and minds)

the U.S. lost prestige and its stature on the world stage suffered the U.S. military was half-hearted and disillusioned Nixon reoriented the U.S. Asian policy to accommodate China in 1972 and

by initiating diplomatic relations with China Nixon set aside the China containment policy which had been the basis of U.S. involvement in Indo-China for 25 years

Lessons of the Vietnam War

the U.S. learned that even superpowers have their limitations the U.S. government learned that war without popular support at home is

difficult to wage in a democracy > this was evident in the Gulf War 1991 the U.S. learned that military intervention in a nationalist war or war of

liberation can be futile the U.S. learned that conscript armies fighting in questionable causes are

not a reliable military force > consequently the U.S. eliminated the universal draft after the Vietnam War

the powers of the president to wage war were constitutionally restricted the domino theory lacked validity as the spread of communism in

Cambodia and Laos was only temporary Americans began to question many fundamental beliefs in American

society

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