Unit 5 Mineral Resources

Unit 5

Mineral Resources

Table of Contents Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 5.1: Minerals 5

Objectives Warm-up Learn about It Key Points Web Links Check Your Understanding Challenge Yourself

5 5 6

11 11 12 15

Lesson 5.2: Finding and Mining Minerals 17


17 17 19 28 29 29 31

Lesson 5.3: Processing of Minerals 32

Objective Warm-up Learn about It Key Points Web Links Check Your Understanding Challenge Yourself

32 32 34 39 39 40 41

Lesson 5.4: Reducing Impacts of Mining Minerals 42


42 42 43 47 48 49 51

Laboratory Activity 52

Performance Task 55

Self Check 56

Key Words 56

Photo Credits 57

Wrap up 57

References 58

Copyright © 2018 Quipper Limited2

Have you ever wondered why diamond is the woman's best friend? Is it because it is one of the hardest known mineral or because of its high value and brilliant shine? It is undeniable that diamonds captivate the hearts of most women. However, before diamonds become jewelries, it undergoes a lot of process. Obtaining diamond does not happen in just a blink of an eye. It takes a lot of perseverance to get a gram of diamond out of tons of rock. Literally and figuratively, searching and extracting diamonds and other minerals that are very essential in our everyday life is a huge business. In return, when extracting minerals for human use were done irresponsibly, the environment is put into danger. The cost of mine production does not outweigh the environmental cost of irresponsible mining.

Copyright © 2018 Quipper Limited 3

At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.

● What is the importance of minerals to humans? ● How do we know where to extract valuable minerals? ● How can minerals be obtained out of rocks? ● How can the mining site can be rehabilitated to its pre-excavation condition? ● What can the people do to lessen harmful impacts of mining to the

environment?

● Rocks are naturally-occurring aggregates of mineral that may or may not contain organic matter.

● Minerals are solid, inorganic substances that occur naturally in the ground and are usually in the form of crystals. These are characterized by specific chemical compositions, with molecules arranged in a long-range geometric pattern.

● All minerals have a unique arrangement of elements in its crystal structure. It can be represented by a chemical formula, which presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them.

● The most common mineral group is composed of silicates. Silicates are composed of silicon and oxygen, often combined with a metal.

● Most minerals are composed of two or more chemical elements. Other minerals are considered as native elements, which are composed of a single element.


Miners were not the only one who make use of minerals in their advantage. Even normal people depend on minerals to accomplish things in their everyday living. Usually, people often use minerals without noticing it. For example, the light bulb, carpet, clock, flower pot, refrigerator, utensils, toothpaste, toilets, computers, pens and pencils are all made of minerals. These are just few examples of things containing minerals. Can humans live without the presence of minerals?

Minerals in Your Everyday Life Material:

● electronic gadget with internet connection. Procedure:

1. Click the link below.

● Metals in Your Everyday Life Discovery Education. n. d.. ‘Metals in Your Everyday Lifel.’ http://www.digintomining.com/metals-your-everyday-life

2. You will explore different areas with materials made from some minerals

such as copper, gold and molybdenum. 3. Click the item to know more about its composition. 4. At the end of every room in the interactive, you need to click the material if

you have encountered it in your daily life.


http://www.digintomining.com/metals-your-everyday-life

http://www.digintomining.com/metals-your-everyday-life

5. Take note of how many items you have interacted with. It will be shown after the interactive.

Guide Questions:

1. How many items in the interactive do you encounter in your daily life? 2. List at least 5 materials made from copper, gold, molybdenum. 3. What will happen to humankind if minerals were not present?

Minerals are important in our lives. People interact with minerals. Minerals are components of materials we use, buildings we build, and assets we keep. Nowadays, minerals are usually raw materials in making structures, machineries, and other devices. Minerals and Human Development The first production of mineral-based fire strikers dated back 500 000 years during the time of the Homo erectus, even before the Homo sapiens became expert fire starters 40 000 to 50 000 years ago. Minerals were used during the ‘Stone Age’, ‘Bronze Age’, and ‘Iron Age’. More than 30 000 years ago, our ancestors created stone tools from fine-grained rocks such as flint. During 30 000 B.C., metals like copper, silver, lead, and zinc were extracted from ores, which were typically used in forming alloys. From the extraction of these metals, smelting methods were developed which led to the extraction of one of the most important metal, that is, iron. Home and Personal Uses of Minerals Minerals are seen in many places. These are present in rocks, in oceans, and even in the food that we eat. Chances are, you have already encountered a mineral and even ingested it without even noticing. For example, the source of rock salt which is the mineral halite is one of the essential minerals that we always use at home. It makes food tastier and brings out the flavor of what you are eating. Imagine food without salt. If there is no salt added, even if the presentation is beautiful, the food will still taste bland. That is how important salt is. However, minerals contained innately in food such as iron, calcium, sodium, and zinc are not considered as true minerals by mineralogists.


Aside from salt, other minerals compose some of the items and equipment found in our houses. The materials together with its mineral composition are listed in the table below.

Table 1. Mineral Composition of Common Household and Personal Materials.

Materials Mineral composition

Description

Light bulb Tungsten Among the metals, tungsten has the highest melting point. This is the reason why the tungsten is used in making the filaments of a light bulb since the bulb can be very hot.

Ceramic flower pots, plates, bowls, cups, saucers and mugs

Clay minerals

Clay is easy to form when wet and when it is dried and fired in a kiln, it creates a durable ceramic products.

Utensils Stainless steel (made from the mixture of molten iron and chromium)

Chromium prevents the steel from rusting.

Windows Quartz The glass of the window is made from quartz. It is hard, rigid, and transparent so it is suitable for making a window.

Toothpaste Fluorite The toothpaste is made from fluoride which comes from the mineral fluorite. Fluoride helps to prevent tooth decay.

Face powder Talc The mineral talc is soft and can absorb moisture. This the reason why the talc is grinded and made into a face powder.


Electronics, Infrastructure, and Manufacturing The uses of minerals are not only limited at home. Other minerals are also important components of electronics, infrastructure, and manufacturing. Without these minerals, we will not have a shelter to live in or even use technology. Some examples of minerals together with the materials where it can be found are listed in the table below.

Table 2. Mineral Composition of Materials Used in Electronics, Infrastructure and Manufacturing


Description

Electronic circuit boards

Gold Gold is a good conductor of electricity and can be easily formed into fine wires.

Electrical capacitors and high temperature insulators

Muscovite mica

The mineral mica is a poor conductor of electricity and has a high melting point.

Computers Quartz, silicon

Silicon chip is important in computers. Quartz is composed of silicon. The screen of the computer is also made from quartz.

Bricks and tiles Clay minerals Clay is easy to form when wet and when it is dried and fired can make durable roof tiles and house bricks.

Cement Clay mixed with limestone and other minerals

Clay is also a component of cement used to stick bricks or tiles.


Nails, screws, nuts and bolts

Iron Iron when made into steel can serve as a framework in buildings.

Electrical wiring Copper Copper is an excellent electrical conductor.

Airplanes Titanium, aluminum

Being lightweight and strong, titanium and aluminum are good in manufacturing airplanes. It is also good in making space shuttles.

Health and Medicine In some cases, minerals are used in the medical field. Examples of these minerals are: barium, a helpful additive to medicine in X-rays of the digestive system and iron which is used to treat anemia. In addition, without some of the minerals listed below, our health might be at risk or will not be able to recover from some nutrient deficiency related issues.

Table 3. Mineral Composition of Materials Used for Health and Medicine


Description

Plaster casts Gypsum Bandage soaked in wet plaster can make a cast. The mineral gypsum is suited for making a cast since it is strong, rigid and quick to set or harden.

Thermometer Mercury which comes from cinnabar ore

Since mercury is liquid at room temperature and expands when exposed to high temperature, it is a suitable material for making thermometers.

Medicines Kaolinite Medicines are also composed of some minerals. An example is kaolinite which is sometimes included in the medicines you intake or lotions that you put on your skin.


Precious Minerals and Other Uses Some minerals are used as gemstones, being valued for their rarity and beauty. Minerals such as diamond, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and opals are the components of most jewelries. Rubies and sapphires are composed of aluminum oxide. Emeralds are a form of the mineral beryl. Quartz, in its certain forms, is also considered semi-precious. The strap of watches is made from gold or silver. Diamond, a form of carbon, is considered as the most precious mineral. It is also the hardest mineral (10 on the Mohs Scale). Though commonly used for jewelry, some uncut diamonds are placed as additive for metal cutters because of its hardness.

Fig. 1. From top left to bottom right: diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, opal


● A mineral is considered as an essential part of the everyday living of humankind.

● Minerals were used during the ‘Stone Age’, ‘Bronze Age’, and ‘Iron Age’. ● Minerals can be seen at home, in personal things, as components of

electronics, for making jewelries, and for health and medicine. ● The use of minerals depends on the mineral’s physical and chemical

properties.

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● Click this link to know more about the composition of most common household items. Mineralogical Society of America. 2015. ‘Minerals in Your House.” http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/minerals-your-house

● For you to recall some of the mineral properties, click this link and play this interactive mineral mix and match game. Oxford University Museum of Natural History. 2006. ‘Mineral Mix and Match.’ http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/minerals/usage/games/set01.htm

● Are you fond of singing? Try this mineral rap for you to recall some of the minerals and their properties. Science with Tom. 2017. ‘All of the -ites (Minerals Rap).’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnyHzTvBZnU


http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/minerals-your-house

http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/minerals-your-house

http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/minerals/usage/games/set01.htm

http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/minerals/usage/games/set01.htm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnyHzTvBZnU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnyHzTvBZnU

A. The following illustrations are rebus puzzles. Identify the mineral name by

analyzing the picture given. Then, give at least one use of the mineral.

1. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

2. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

3. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________


4. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

5. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

6. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________


7. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

8. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

9. Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________

10.Mineral Name: _________________________________________

Use: ____________________________________________________


B. Pick 5 materials that you can see in the illustration below. Then, identify its mineral composition.


1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Answer the following questions. Limit your answer in 2-3 sentences.

1. The characteristics of minerals define its purpose. Cite an evidence to support this statement.

2. One characteristic of mercury is it expands when heated. This feature is also true for water. If this is the case, why can’t we use water instead of mercury in making thermometers?


3. What do you think are the characteristics of the minerals used in making spacecrafts?

4. Is a mineral that is a poor conductor of electricity still useful? Explain. 5. What do you think will happen to humans if there are no more supply of

minerals to be extracted from Earth’s surface?


It is no doubt that minerals are important in the daily living of humans. However, the search for these minerals in nature is not an easy task. Extracting minerals scattered in rocks is a long and complex process. How could the miners know where specific minerals could be found? After searching for the wanted mineral, how could they extract and obtain it?

Cookie Mining Activity Materials:

● three different cookies ● play money ● flat toothpick

● round toothpick ● paper clips ● large square graph paper

Procedure:

1. Form a group and decide a name for your mining company. Each group will purchase one mining property and one or more mining equipment. Miners cannot share equipments. The price of properties and equipment is listed below. Choose only one mining property and one mining equipments.

Mining properties: First cookies – P30 Second cookies – P50 Third cookies – P70

Mining equipment: Flat toothpick – P20 Round toothpick – P40 Paper clips – P60


2. After purchasing a cookie, place it on a graph paper. Trace the outline of the cookie and count how many square it covers. If only half of the square is covered, count it as a full square. If it covers less than half of a square, do not include it in the counting.

3. Fingers are not allowed to hold the cookie. Only the mining equipments and the paper where the cookie is placed should touch it.

4. One minute of mining the chip cookie costs P10. The miners are only given 5 minutes to mine. If miners will finish mining ahead of the allotted time, they will only pay the time spent mining. For example, the miners only used two minutes to mine the cookie, the mining cost will only be P20 but if the miners used the entire 5 minutes to mine, they will pay P50.

5. Broken equipments are not allowed to be used anymore. Another mining equipment should be purchased.

6. The remaining cookie after mining should be returned to the outlined circle on the graph paper. Only the mining equipment are allowed to be utilize for transfer. Hands or fingers are not allowed. Crumbs present after mining should also be transferred but only using the equipment. Crumbs that cannot be transferred by the equipment are considered as tailings. A fine of P50 will be assessed.

7. Count the number of squares covered by the cookie after mining. Subtract it from the original number of squares before mining. Divide your answer by the original number. Then, multiply it by 100. This represents your percentage of reclaimed land. The number of exposed square is considered as un-reclaimed land. It will receive a fine of P10 per square.

8. Count the number of mined chocolate chips. The price of one mined chocolate chip is P30.

9. The winner of this cookie mining activity is the mining company with the highest profit. Complete the information below to calculate your profit. (Refer to the one written beside this comment. It is entitled Summary of Total Mining Profit).

Summary of Total Mining Profit Revenue(income from mined chips): Number of mined chips = ________ × P30 = ___________ Total Revenue = _________


Costs: Mining property cost = __________ Equipments cost: No. of pieces of flat toothpick purchased = _____ × P20 = _________ No. of pieces of round toothpick purchased = _____ × P40 = _________ No. of pieces of flat toothpick purchased = _____ × P60 = _________ Mining cost: No. of minutes mining = _____ mins. × P10 = _________ Fines: No. of unreclaimed land = _____ squares × P10 = _________ Waste material (untransferred crumbs) cost = _________ Total Costs (Sum of Mining property cost, equipment cost, mining cost, and fines) = _________ Profit (revenue minus cost) Total Revenue = ______ Total Cost = ______ Difference = ______

Guide Questions:

1. Which equipment is best to use in mining the cookie? 2. What is the percentage of reclaimed land of your mining company? 3. Why do you think there is a cost if the land is not reclaimed? 4. Is the equipment used related to the mining cost? 5. Do you make economic choices as you mine your property? What are those

choices?

Since mineral resources have finite supply, it has become a global crisis especially for a continuously increasing population. Therefore, this scenario poses a dilemma as we need more minerals to supply this growing demand.


Four Groups of Mineral Deposits Mineral deposits are aggregates of minerals present in high concentration. Regardless of whether it has high economic value or none, an accumulation of minerals are still considered mineral deposits. However, when it is economically valuable, it is called ore deposit.

Mineral deposits can be categorized into four groups: energy resources, metal resources, industrial mineral resources, and essential resources. Energy Resources Energy resources can be further divided into fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. Fossil fuels include natural gas, coal, oil shale, tar sand and oil while nuclear fuels include thorium and uranium.

Fig. 2. Fossil fuels. From left to right: Natural gas, coal, oil shale, tar sand, oil


Fig. 3. Nuclear fuels. From left to right: Thorium, uranium

Metal Resources Metal resources include structural metals such as iron, copper, and aluminum as well as economic metals such as gold and platinum. These resources also include technological metals such as lithium and rare earth metals. Industrial Mineral Resources Industrial mineral resources include commodities such as salt, potash, and sand. These minerals are widely used in the field of construction, chemical industries and even agriculture.

Fig. 4. Industrial mineral resources. From left to right: Salt, potash

Essential Resources Essential minerals are minerals that pertain to those needed by living organisms. These minerals are found in soil and water. One good example of essential resource mineral is zinc that is naturally present in water and soil. Mineral Exploration In the lithosphere, minerals are present everywhere but usually in minute amounts. Therefore, high quality ore should be located in small area for mining to be profitable. Searching for valuable ore is called mineral exploration.


Remember that ore deposits are considered economically. Its profitability depends on the presence of high concentration of ore minerals. Grade refers to the concentration of the valuable minerals in an ore deposit. The minimum concentration required to profitably extract the ore is called cut-off grade. Most ore deposits are found in mixtures with minerals called gangue minerals or minerals that have no commercial value. For example, quartz (SiO2) is common gangue mineral that is usually associated with several metal deposits and is discarded as a waste product. However, when quartz is considered as a pure deposit, it becomes valuable in making glass and other profitable uses. The technology nowadays provides a means to search for high quality ore without doing the actual mining. Various exploration techniques were used to assess ore deposits prior to mining. These techniques include remote sensing, geophysical methods and geochemical methods. Remote Sensing This method uses devices such as sonar, radar, and satellite images to gather image representation of the earth’s surface. These representations aid us in finding for probable mining sites.

Fig. 5. NASA research satellite’s image of the mine in Baiyun Ebo, China

Geophysical Methods This is a technique that uses the properties of minerals and geology to determine


the its location. An example is diamond extraction. Through volcanic pipes, diamond bearing rocks known as kimberlites were carried from the mantle to the surface. Geologists search for these ancient volcanic pipes when looking for diamond deposits. The illustration below shows the first kimberlite pipe discovered. It is located in South Africa. The big hole was created after the pipe was excavated.

Fig. 6. Kimberley Big Hole in Africa

Geochemical Methods Merging the idea of the chemical properties of minerals and geology of a location, compounds present in the ore and its abundance will be identified. Two Methods of Mining After mineral exploration is done, the valuable ore needs to be obtained out of the ground. This process is known as mining. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals from mineral deposits. The practice of mining and processing of minerals dates back long time ago. About 3000 B.C.,


techniques in mining had already been established. Cyprus was well known for its mines and its Cyprian metal, which was later called as copper. Mining also gave an advantage to several empires such as the Ionians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans over the populations of the Stone Age. There are two methods of mining: surface mining and underground mining. Surface Mining Surface mining is being used to extract ore minerals near the surface of Earth. This type of mining is being performed to obtain sand, gravel, coal, phosphates, iron, copper, and aluminum. It is usually preferred than underground mining since it is less expensive, safer, and it involves less electricity and water. However, it poses more environmental problems than underground mining. The soil and rocks that cover the ores are being removed through blasting. Blasting is a controlled use of explosives and gas exposure to break rocks. There are five types of surface mining. This includes strip mining, open-pit mining, dredging, mountaintop removal mining, and highwall mining. Strip mining is usually used in extracting coal. This type of mining is ideal on surfaces that are flat and horizontal. In this method, a thin strip of layer is removed above the mineral deposit, and wastes are dumped just behind it. Once the mineral deposit is exposed, another strip parallel to the first strip is made, and this time, the wastes are dumped on top of the first strip. This is the cheapest type of mining, but it produces the largest environmental footprint.

Fig. 7. Machines used to strip mine coal in Hume, Missouri


Open pit mining, also known as open-cast mining, is considered as the most common type of surface mining. It is usually used to extract near-surface deposits like sand and gravel. This type of mining creates an open pit mine or a large-scale hole in the ground that is continuously enlarged by blasting and drilling the rocks apart. The mine becomes cone-shaped with benches or steps spiraling from top to bottom when exposed in a cross-section. This orientation allows the trucks to go down the mine from the sides while collecting the blasted debris.

Fig. 8. Udachnaya diamond mine in Russia

Dredging is a type of mining that is used to collect unconsolidated materials from bodies of water. Although this type of mining does not contribute to chemical pollution, it still affects diversity of organisms in the water by dispersing fine particles over a large area. In the long run, it could degrade marine habitats by disrupting water currents and sediment placement.

Fig. 9. Dredging ships in Port of Redwood City, California


Mountaintop removal mining is a form of strip mining where the mountaintops are removed to extract coal, and the wastes are dumped to nearby areas called valley fills.

Fig. 10. Mountaintop removal in USA

Highwall mining is an open-cut mining which can be a combination of surface and underground mining. This type of mining is usually used in coal extraction. Rocks are drilled beneath the ground which can be very dangerous, especially when there is undermining on the high wall causing the ground to become unstable. Underground Mining Underground mining is used to extract the rocks, minerals, and other precious stones that can be found deep beneath Earth’s surface. The underground mining requires the creation of a tunnel so miners can reach the ore minerals. This kind of mining is more expensive and dangerous as compared to surface mining because miners need to use explosive devices to remove the minerals from the rocks surrounding them. This type of mining involves several methods such as room-and-pillar mining, shrinkage stoping, and vertical crater retreat (VCR). Room-and-pillar mining is a method used to extract mineral resources that are deep and tabular. Pillars are left to support the hanging wall. Rooms and pillars are arranged in regular patterns where pillars are designed with circular or square cross sections separating the rooms.


Fig. 11. Room and pillar mining

Shrinkage stoping is a method where the ore deposits are excavated by slicing a horizontal pattern, starting from the bottom of the deposit going upwards.

Fig. 12. A huge stope in treadwell gold mine, Alaska

Vertical crater retreat (VCR) is a method that uses crater blasting techniques where powerful explosives are placed in big holes. This method is widely used by miners worldwide.


Factors Affecting Mineral Availability Mineral availability is affected by several factors such as geologic, economic, and environmental factors. Geologic Factors Our mineral supply comes from mineral deposits. Mineral deposits are mixtures of elements or minerals formed from several geologic processes. From these mineral deposits, some important elements including metals can be economically extracted from specialized rocks called ore deposits. Examples of geologic factors that affect abundance of mineral deposits are geological origin of the area, presence or absence of volcano, and age of the geologic structure. Economic Factors Economic factors also affect mineral availability. These include the costs in getting the supply such as engineering, mineral extraction, and processing and costs for coping with the demand such as commodity prices, land tenure, taxation, and other legal policies. Environmental Factors Environmental factors affect mineral resources. Due to problems brought about by pollution associated with mineral production and waste products due to mining and mineral processing, these problems could be far greater than the costs in compliance with the government regulations and the profitability of the extracted mineral deposits.

● Mineral deposits are aggregates of minerals present in high concentration.

When it is economically valuable, it is called ore deposit. ● Mineral deposits can be categorized into four groups: energy resources,

metal resources, industrial mineral resources, and essential resources. ● Searching for valuable ore is called mineral exploration. ● Techniques used for mineral exploration include remote sensing,

geophysical methods and geochemical methods. ● There are two types of mining -- surface and underground mining. Surface

mining is used to extract ore minerals near the surface of the earth while underground mining is used to extract the rocks, minerals, and other


precious stones that can be found deep beneath the earth’s surface. ● Mineral availability is affected by several factors such as geologic, economic,

and environmental factors.


● To know more about mining in the Philippines, read this article entitled “Realizing the Philippines’ Mining Potential” Senate of the Philippines. 2013. ‘Realizing the Philippines’ Mining Potential.’ https://www.senate.gov.ph/publications/PB%202013-12%20-%20Mining_Policy%20B

rief_final_revised_010614.pdf

● Watch a documentary about mining in the Philippines. This video is entitled “Golden Gamble. Gold Mining in the Philippines, a Dirty Business”. RT Documentary. 2017. ‘Golden Gamble. Gold Mining in the Philippines, a Dirty Business.’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITlsoo5Gl5c

● Play this interactive game to apply what you learned in this lesson. Oresome Resources. 2018. ‘Mineral Exploration.’ http://www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/interactives/mineral_exploration/

A. Encircle 10 words that are related to the lesson. The first and last letter of each

word is given below. Then, provide a short definition.

1. M_____________G = ______________________________________________ 2. D_____________G = ______________________________________________ 3. O_____________E = ______________________________________________ 4. M_____________L = ______________________________________________ 5. G_____________E = ______________________________________________ 6. C_____________ L = ______________________________________________


https://www.senate.gov.ph/publications/PB%202013-12%20-%20Mining_Policy%20Brief_final_revised_010614.pdf



https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITlsoo5Gl5c

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITlsoo5Gl5c

http://www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/interactives/mineral_exploration/

http://www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/interactives/mineral_exploration/

7. F_____________ L = ______________________________________________ 8. G_____________E = ______________________________________________ 9. P_____________H = ______________________________________________ 10.B_____________G = ______________________________________________


B. Identify what group does each mineral deposit belongs. 1. coal 2. potash 3. copper 4. aluminum 5. tar sand

6. iron 7. salt 8. oil shale 9. natural gas 10.oil


1. Do you think mining will ever stop? Why or why not? 2. Which is more dangerous, underground or open pit mining? Explain. 3. The saying “finding a needle in a haystack” is often associated to mineral

exploration. Why do you think so? 4. Why is it important to do mineral exploration first before doing the actual

mining? 5. What do you mean by the statement, "All ore deposits are mineral deposits

but not all mineral deposits are ore deposits.”


The rocky road ice cream can be compared to an ore deposit. The peanuts and marshmallows are the minerals while the ice cream itself is the rock. Similar to how minerals were found, you also do the same thing selectively pick your favorite ingredient whether it is marshmallow or peanut that are embedded in between the ice cream mixture. This makes eating rocky road ice cream similar to mining minerals. . You used various techniques to separate the mallows and peanuts from the ice cream just like how minerals are usually extracted from the ore. How could the miners obtain the minerals out of the ore?

Cupcake Core Sampling Materials:

● white cupcake mix ● baking cups (foil) ● frosting ● food coloring ● plastic knives ● plastic transparent straws ● toothpicks ● drawing paper

Procedure:

1. A cupcake should be baked beforehand. It should consist of at least three layers of different colored batter. There should be a variety of thickness and unevenness among the layers. The cupcake should have a frost on top and


covered with a foil baking cup. These frost and foil cups prevent a person to see the interior of a cupcake just like the geologist can't see the Earth's interior.

2. Imagine the cupcake's interior if there were three various layers in it. Draw it in section A of the template. Refer to the illustration below to serve as a template/guide for drawing cupcake core-drilling cross sections.

Fig. 13. Template or guide for drawing cupcake core-drilling cross sections.

3. Use a plastic transparent straw to obtain a "core sample" from the middle of

the cupcake. To get this sample, drill into the cupcake by pushing and rotating the straw. Then, pull out the straw.

4. Draw the cupcake's interior using the information from the core sample. Put it in section B on Fig. 13.

5. Repeat step 3 but this time obtaining the core sample from either side of the cupcake's center. Make a new drawing based on this new information. Put it in section C of the template.

6. Slice the cupcake, bisecting the drill holes. Draw this cross section in section D of the template.


Guide Questions: 1. Compare your drawing in section A to the other three drawings. Cite

similarities and differences. 2. What do you think accounts for the difference in your drawing? 3. Where do you prefer to drill cores in the cupcake if you would collect two to

four core samples? Why? 4. Other than getting a core sample, suggest another method for obtaining data

to identify the structure of subsurface material.

Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use. The primary steps involved in processing minerals include sampling and analysis, comminution, concentration, and dewatering. Sampling Sampling is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this material. One or more samples are needed. Analysis Analysis is important to evaluate the valuable components in an ore. This includes chemical, mineralogical, and particle size analysis. Chemical Analysis Chemical analysis uses electric discharge which excites the elements in the sample to emit a certain spectrum which will reveal the identity of the elements as well as its concentration. Mineralogical Analysis Mineralogical analysis uses heavy liquid-testing that aims to separate the less dense, same density, and denser materials. Coarsely grounded minerals are classified according to particle size through sieving. Comminution After the mineral has been found and mined, it needs to be obtained out of the ore. Let us use a chocolate chip cookie as an analogy to explain comminution. Just like


the thorough distribution of chocolate chips in a cookie, minerals are also spread throughout the rocks. Most of the time, the chocolate chips are very evident in the cookie but sometimes it not easily seen since it is inside the cookie. One possible way to identify the amount of chocolate chip is by crushing the cookie. Once the cookie is crushed, the chocolate chips can now be identified. Similarly, some minerals in rocks are visible, some are not. To identify the minerals and its concentration within the rock, the only way is to crush the rock or break it into smaller pieces. This process is known as comminution. It is where the valuable components of the ore are separated through crushing and grinding. This process begins by (1) crushing the ores to a particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a powder form. Once crushing is done, (2) valuable minerals can now be separated from unwanted rock also termed as “waste rock”. Fig. 13 below shows a jaw crusher that breaks large rocks into smaller pieces. After jaw crusher, the smaller rocks were broken further in the ball mill until the texture is almost similar to a fine powder.

Fig. 15. From left to right: ball mill, how ball mill works

Concentration The minerals must be separated from the waste rock before it can be used. The process is called concentration. It involves the separation of the valuable minerals


from the raw materials creating an end product called concentrate. Various separation techniques are used such as optical, density, flotation, magnetic and electrostatic separation.

Optical Separation Optical separation is a process being used in the concentration of minerals with distinct contrasting colors (black and white) seen with the naked eye. Density Separation Density separation is a process that uses the density of minerals as the concentrating agent and performs a sink and float separation of water and the grounded minerals. An example is panning, the technique used in mining gold. Since the particles of gold are denser, it will sink to the bottom once the pan is shaken. This makes gold easier to be removed.

Fig. 16. Gold panning

Flotation Separation Flotation separation is the most widely used method that makes use of the mineral’s induced surface physicochemical properties. Chemicals were used to alter the mineral’s surface properties to make them float forming a froth layer. This


makes the valuable minerals easier to separate from the rest.

Fig. 17. Flotation separation

Magnetic Separation Magnetic separation is a process that involves different degrees of attraction of minerals to magnets. An example is the iron ore since it has magnetic properties. The ores were carried by a conveyor belt passing onto a strong electromagnet which will then separate the magnetic minerals and non-magnetic waste. In Fig. 18, the container at the right contains the magnetic iron ore.

Fig. 18. Magnetic separation


Electrostatic Separation Electrostatic separation is a process that separate the mineral particles based on their electric charges. As shown in the illustration below, an electrostatic separator utilized mineral’s electrical properties to separate them from one another.

Fig. 19. Electrostatic separation

Dewatering Dewatering uses the concentrates to convert it to usable minerals. This involves filtration and sedimentation of the suspension, and drying of the solid material harvested from this suspension.


● Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use.

● The primary steps involved in processing minerals include sampling & analysis, comminution, concentration, and dewatering.

● Sampling is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this material.

● Analysis is important to evaluate the valuable components in an ore. ● Comminution is where the valuable components of the ore are separated

through crushing and grinding. ● Concentration is a process where the minerals are separated from the

waste rock. ● Dewatering uses the concentrates to convert it to usable minerals.


● Do you want to know about the tax issues and concerns on small scale mining in the Philippines? Click this link to read the article. _____________. ‘Philippine Small-Scale Mining.’ NTRC Tax Research Journal 27, no. 6 (2015): 14-26. http://www.ntrc.gov.ph/images/journal/j20151112b.pdf

● Click this link to watch the Philippines Chromite Ore Mining Processing Approach with Gravity Separation. Wen, Silvia. 2013. ‘Philippines Chromite Ore Mining Processing Approach With Gravity Separation.’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_ij9OxoV2g

● Play this interactive game to expand your knowledge on mineral deposits and how is it found, mined and processed. Oresome Resources. 2018. ‘Minerals Downunder Interactives.’ http://www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/interactives/minerals_downunder/


http://www.ntrc.gov.ph/images/journal/j20151112b.pdf

http://www.ntrc.gov.ph/images/journal/j20151112b.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_ij9OxoV2g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_ij9OxoV2g

http://www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/interactives/minerals_downunder/

http://www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/interactives/minerals_downunder/

A. Write the term being described in each item. Use the scrambled words at the

left as a clue. All terms are two words. 1. ATSOCKREW - It is a term describing the unwanted rock. 2. ORLIPSGICRSMNAEEN - The process of extracting minerals from the ores,

refining them, and preparing these minerals for use. 3. LLMBLAIL - An equipment wherein the smaller rocks were broken further

until the texture is almost similar to a fine powder. 4. LSENPTAOAIPOARICT - A process used in the concentration of minerals with

distinct contrasting colors (black and white) seen with the naked eye. 5. PIGNLANNOGD - A technique used in mining gold. 6. OAARIDESITNPTSEYN - It is a separation technique wherein a sink and float

separation of water and the grounded minerals were performed. 7. TRONTNSOIAETAFOLPA - It is the most widely used separation technique

which forms a froth layer to easily obtain the minerals. 8. GETESAICOIRANNPMTA - A process involving different degrees of attraction

of minerals to magnets. 9. ETCCEAOLRAEOTRNSIATTSIP - It is a process that separate the mineral

particles based on their electric charges. 10.RCUSRAEWJH - A machine that breaks large rocks into smaller pieces.

B. In column A, write the step in mineral processing being described. Then,

arrange the steps in order. Write number 1 for the first step, 2 for the second and so on. Put your answer in column B.

Column A

Column B

Steps in Mineral Processing

The valuable components in an ore are evaluated.

Minerals are separated from unwanted rock.

A portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this material is removed.


Filtration and sedimentation of the suspension, and drying of the solid material harvested from this suspension were involved.

The rocks were crushed into smaller pieces.


1. Why do having a sample of a portion of an ore prior to comminution important?

2. Why is the floatation method the most widely used separation technique? 3. Why is sorting by hand considered an ineffective mineral separation

technique? 4. What do you think is the reason why the mining production costs a lot? 5. Why are there numerous separation techniques? Is it possible to have a one

general technique to separate minerals? Explain


Let us use the cookie as an analogy to discuss the impacts of mining. Cookie is the ore and chocolate chips are the minerals. In getting the chocolate chip from the cookie, it needs to be crushed. After crushing, it is now easy to separate the chip from the crumbs. You will get the chocolate chip for your consumption but what will happen to the the crumbs? Are you going to leave it that way? Can you rebuild the crumbs back to its original form? It is possible but you need to exert much effort. Similarly, if the area is destroyed due to mining, the mining company should do their part to rehabilitate the area. As much as possible, it should look like the pre-excavated condition. Whatever profit that the mining companies will have on mining will not be enough to compensate the environmental cost of irresponsible mining. What are the ways to lessen this environmental cost?

Mining and the Environment

Materials: ● one clear shoe box ● pieces of charcoal ● sand, potting soil, gravel ● small plant or different artificial flowers ● plastic cup that is cut down to 1 to 2 inches deep. ● small plastic toy animals ● spoon


Procedure:

1. Put the pieces of charcoal inside the clear shoebox. 2. Layers of soil, sand and gravel should cover the coal. 3. A surface terrain should be made. It should consist of a lowland area and a

hill placed on top of the coal. 4. Put the shallow cup into the soil beside the lowland. 5. Pour water into the shallow cup. This is simulating a lake or pond. 6. Toy animals and plants should be placed on top of the terrain. 7. Dig out the charcoal by means of a plastic spoon. Make sure that little to no

effect should be made on the toy plants and animals or the present ecosystem.

8. After the charcoal is obtained, reclaim the area. Try to make the area as close as possible to its pre-excavation condition.

Guide Questions:

1. What are the affected things or organisms due to mining? 2. Is the area restored to its pre-excavation condition? 3. What are the impacts of mining to plants and animals? 4. How is the lake or pond represented by the shallow cup with water affected?

It is undeniable that minerals are essential in everyday living of humans but in order to obtain minerals, lot of wastes will be generated. For example, a mine processes ores into refined copper. In this process, finishing with a kilo of the refined product would produce 99 kilos of wastes. With this information, it can be computed that in a mineral ore, only one percent (1%) will end up as refined product and 99% would go to waste. Can you imagine how much waste is produced in mining? Minerals are contained in ores. These minerals are processed and the remnants of the ores are disposed as waste. These wastes, called tailings, if not handled and managed properly, can cause serious environmental problems.


Environmental Cost of Irresponsible Mining Mining, especially when done irresponsibly, causes serious environmental impact. It affects the quality of air, water, and land resources. It also causes detrimental damage to ecosystem and local communities. Damage to Air Quality Dust may be produced in the process of mining ore since in order to obtain mines, it blasts through rocks. In addition, methane released by the coal mines adds to environmental problems since it is a greenhouse gas. Sulfur dioxide may also contribute to air pollution by risky smelter operations with inadequate safeguards. This smelting produced 142 million tons of sulfur dioxide released in the atmosphere annually. Damage to Water Quality Mine tailings not only pollutes the water but also destroys coral reefs. Small-scale fishermen were greatly affected by this since there were no more site as fishing area. This is what happens to the Pagatban River in southern Negros Oriental. Another example is the irresponsible mining in Sipalay, Negros Occidental. Numerous hectares of productive rice fields were damaged because of the spilled mine tailings. Damage to Land Resources An entire forest could be destroyed since trees must be cut down to be able to construct a mining site. Erosion might also be a result of mining activities. Huge holes or craters were also made because of the people digging areas to look for precious minerals. Damage to Ecosystem Mining and the results of mining activities completely destroys animal habitats and affects their health and way of living. Therefore, everything will be out of balance because mining adds or takes something from the animal’s daily lives. Damage to Local Communities Health, food security and livelihood of the Filipinos who first inhabited the area were in risk because of the mining operations.


Main Goal of Mineral Processing The main goal of mineral processing is to make it sustainable and to generate zero waste. This includes producing clean and reusable water, utilizing solid wastes, and maintaining clean air. Clean and reusable water. This includes recycling of water used within mining sites and removal of any metal particulates in the used water. Solid waste utilization. This includes the use of solid tailings in infrastructures and extracting useful minerals from the tailings. Clean air. This includes mining that is totally free from dusts or toxic gases and capture of emissions such as CO2 and H2SO4 to be converted to useful products.

Mining Waste Products and Their Management Heavy metal wastes can seep through soil making it poisonous for plants to grow. Water sources can be contaminated by the acid used in the mining process. Tailings can travel from the dump ponds into the water source of nearby communities. In the Philippines, some of these wastes damage mangroves, reefs, and impair agriculture. It is then crucial that waste products be controlled to prevent them from making a more pronounced impact in our environment. There are ways to lessen mining wastes and its effects on the environment. « Apply new technologies in extracting ore minerals. Recent improvements in technology enable mining companies to extract more minerals from the ores with fewer wastes in production. « Plan exploration to rehabilitation of mining sites. The mining companies must be able to plan out their sites from exploration to rehabilitation. The process of rehabilitating or restoring the land that has been previously mined is called mine


reclamation. Since overburden (natural rock and soil lying on top and around the ore) is removed to obtain a mineral, it must be reclaimed after mining operations through numerous activities such as restoring topsoil and planting grass or trees. An example of a reclaimed landscape is the coal mine shown below.

Fig. 20. Coal Mine Land Reclamation

« Ensure restoration of communities near mining sites. The mining company must also ensure that they are able to restore the community that was displaced because of their activities. These include, but are not limited to, community development projects and infrastructure improvements. « Ensure proper management of tailings from milling ores. Tailings from mines can be zoned in and surrounded by lands to avoid erosion of the ponds thus minimizing the possibility of seepage of the tailings. Better yet, these mine tailings should be surrounded by an impermeable, erosion-proof terrain. « Follow proper design for mining structures according to government regulations. Mine structures should be designed at par or even surpassing current rules and regulations set by the government and international standards. « Exercise good mining practices. Other mining practices include reforestation, slope stabilization, maintenance for dump facilities, managing and monitoring air


and water quality, erosion control, and water conservation. Existing Laws and Regulations for Mining in the Philippines. There are existing laws and regulations for mining in the Philippines. One of the laws governing mining in the Philippines is the Philippine Mining Act of 1995 or RA 7942. This law aims primarily to establish rules and regulations of mining practices in the country and to attract foreign investors to explore the potential of minerals in the country. At the same time, the law also intends to balance the mining industry, the culture, and the protection of the environment. In 2012, Executive Order (EO) 79, series of 2012 aimed to strengthen the provisions of the Philippine Mining Act of 1995. This EO imposed stricter rules on the environmental protection and waste management of different mining companies. The key in making mining sustainable is to implement and to practice responsible mining. This entails determination from the mining companies to do their part in abiding the law. Companies practicing responsible mining assure that from step one, they are looking forward to the rehabilitation steps that they will take after their exploitation. Responsible miners also consider the health, livelihood, and homes of the communities that will be affected by their ventures. However, it does not end with the mining companies. The government and residents must also do their part in ensuring that responsible mining is implemented.

● Mining affects the quality of air, water, and land resources. It also causes detrimental damage to ecosystem and local communities.

● The main goal of mineral processing is to make it sustainable and to generate zero waste.

● There are numerous ways to lessen the wastes and effects on the environment such as applying new technologies in extracting ore minerals, planning exploration to rehabilitation of mining sites, ensuring restoration of communities near mining sites, ensuring proper management of tailings from milling ores, following proper design for mining structures according to government regulations, and exercising good mining practices.

● One of the laws governing mining in the Philippines is the Philippine Mining Act of 1995 or RA 7942 which aims primarily to establish rules and


regulations of mining practices in the country and to attract foreign investors to explore the potential of minerals in the country.


● Read this article entitled “Mining in the Philippines – Concerns and Conflicts” to deepen your knowledge on impacts of mining. Institute for Environmental Security. 2007. ‘Mining in the Philippines – Concerns and Conflicts.’ http://www.envirosecurity.org/sustainability/presentations/Wicks.pdf

● Click this link to read a research journal entitled “Analyzing the Income Effects of Mining with Instrumental Variables for Poverty Reduction Implications in Caraga Region, Philippines” Balanay, Raquel et. al. ‘Analyzing the Income Effects of Mining with Instrumental Variables for Poverty Reduction Implications in Caraga Region, Philippines.’ Journal of International and Global Economic Studies 7, no. 1 (2014): 20-31. http://www2.southeastern.edu/orgs/econjournal/index_files/JIEGS%20JUNE%202014%20BALANAY%207-28.pdf

● Click this link to watch a video about the sad truth of mining in the Philippines. BuzzScoopBlog. 2017. ‘The Sad Truth About Mining in the Philippines | Heal the Hurt.’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUxQaIyyLVg


http://www.envirosecurity.org/sustainability/presentations/Wicks.pdf

http://www.envirosecurity.org/sustainability/presentations/Wicks.pdf

http://www2.southeastern.edu/orgs/econjournal/index_files/JIEGS%20JUNE%202014%20BALANAY%207-28.pdf



https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUxQaIyyLVg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUxQaIyyLVg

A. Analyze the mine site diagram below. Then, complete the table that follows. In

column A, identify the mining activities that may affect the air, water, land, energy, and waste management shown below. In column B, identify what activities shown in the diagram could reduce the given impacts in column A.

Environmental Aspects

Column A

Column B

Air

Water


Land

Energy

Waste Management

B. Imagine that you were the mayor of a small town. You decided to call different

people for a meeting to discuss the possible effects and the town’s future if a new mine will be built in your town. In column A, identify the possible concern of the people listed below. In column B, write your possible answer or solution to their concern.

Interest Groups

Column A

Column B

National Union of Mineworkers

Local Doctors

Department of Environmental Affairs

CEO of the Mining Company

Department of Minerals and Energy



1. Is it possible for the mining site to return to its condition prior to mining? 2. With the numerous damaging effects that mining do to the environment, are

you still in favor of mining? Why or why not? 3. Do you think the existing law on mining should be amended? Why or why

not? 4. If you were the one assigned to plan the rehabilitation site, what will be your

decisions? 5. As a student, what will be your contribution to help lessen the environmental

impacts of mining?


Activity 5.1

Mine Site Reclamation

Objectives At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:

● build a reclaimed landscape model; and ● describe the effects of varying composition in the growth of organisms.

Materials and Equipment

● mixture of gravel, sand and silt (overburden) ● potting soil ● mixed fertilizer ● grass seeds, bean seeds ● spray bottle with water ● lamp or access to sunlight ● small plastic container (shoebox sized) ● garden trowel ● measuring cups ● ruler ● large mixing bowl ● teaspoon

Procedure

1. The class will be divided into eight groups. 2. Label your plastic container with your group number. 3. Using a ruler, measure the length and width of the container. Multiply the

obtained measurements to get its area. 4. Each group should make 2 inches of overburden layer in the bottom of their

container. The volume of the needed overburden to make a 2 inches layer can be calculated by multiplying the area of the container by 2 inches. This will be the first layer in the tub of each group. The succeeding layers depend on the information given to your group. Refer to the table shown below.


5. Each group will make a landscape model with varying soil thickness, soil composition, type of landscape, and the presence or absence of fertilizer. This is summarized in the table below.

6. Record your observations regarding your landscape on your data sheet.

Group no.

Overburden

Type of landscape

(flat or sloped

overburden)

Soil Thickness

(Thin or thick soil layer)

Soil composition (layering or

mixing)

Nutrients (with or without

fertilizer)

1

Same amount of

overburden per group

(2 inch layer). The volume of

overburden needed can

be calculated

by multiplying 2 inches by the area of

the container.

Flat Thin (½ inch) Layering Without

2 Flat Thin (½ inch) Layering With

3 Flat Thick (1 ½ inches)

Layering Without

4 Flat Thick (1 ½ inches)

Layering With

5 Flat Thick (1 inch) Mixing Without

6 Flat Thick (1 inch) Mixing With

7 Sloped Thick (1 ½ inches)

Layering Without

8 Sloped Thick (1 ½ inches)

Layering With

9 None of these (This is a control set up. Only overburden should be placed

in the container.)

For type of landscape: Flat landscape means the overburden has an even thickness. You can use a ruler to measure the depth of several parts in the container to make sure it has equal thickness.


Sloped landscape means the overburden should be placed in a container in a 45 degree angle. For soil thickness: To determine how much soil to put on top of the overburden layer, calculate the volume needed by multiplying the thickness required by the area of the container. For soil composition: Layering means that the overburden and the soil should not be mixed. Mixing means combining the overburden and soil thoroughly. For the fertilizer: If fertilizer is present, it should be mixed with the soil first. Therefore, a soil-fertilizer mixture will be placed on top of the overburden if the soil composition is layering while a soil-fertilizer mixture will be mixed with the overburden if the soil composition is mixing.

Waste Disposal Put all your trash in the appropriate waste bins.

Data and Results Table 1. Daily observation summary sheet.

Observation

Group No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Visibility of Growth

% of surface covered with plants (%)

Height of tallest plant (mm)

Plant description


(Do plants look healthy?)

Other observations

Guide Questions

1. What were the constant variables in the experiment? 2. Compare the growth of plants in a flat and sloped landscape. 3. Is mixing the potting soil and overburden help the plants grow better? 4. Which seeds grow better? 5. If given a longer time, do you think the landscape will be reclaimed better? 6. Which landscape did the plants grow best? 7. If you were to build a reclaimed landscape, what are the factors that you

need to consider? How will you design the landscape?

Crafting Gemstones out of Polymer Clay Goal

● Your task is to make a gemstone using the polymer clay. Role

● You are to make a gemstone that looks like the real one. You can bake the clay in the oven or add some paint to make it more realistic.

Audience

● You need to convince your classmates to purchase your crafts. Situation

● The challenge involves dealing with the details in crafting the gemstone. Product, Performance and Purpose

● You will create a gemstone craft in order to appreciate the beauty of some minerals especially those gemstones used in jewelries.


Standards and Criteria for Success ● Your work will be judged by your classmates and teachers since they are

your customers.

Put a checkmark on the space provided if you agreed on the statement given.

Check I can…

Enumerate the mineral composition of common materials.

Discuss how the minerals were found, mined, and processed for human use.

Cite ways on how the environmental impacts of mining could be lessened

Mineral deposits These are aggregates of minerals present in high concentration.

Mineral exploration Searching for valuable ore.

Mineral processing It is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use.

Ore deposits Economically valuable mineral deposit.

Philippine Mining Act of 1995

It aims primarily to establish rules and regulations of mining practices in the country and to attract foreign investors to explore the potential of minerals in the country.

Surface mining It is extracting ore minerals near the surface of the earth.


Underground mining extracting the rocks, minerals, and other precious stones that can be found deep beneath the earth’s surface.

Fig. 2. Natural gas Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Oil by Dirk Irgo Franke is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons. Coal Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Oil shale Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Tar sand by Ipab is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 3. Uranium Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

Thorium by Oelen is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gas_stove_burner_flame.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pumpe_Hemmingstedt.JPG

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pumpe_Hemmingstedt.JPG

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/de/legalcode



https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coal.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OIL_SHALE._IT_IS_THE_KEROGEN_IN_THIS_ROCK_WHICH,_WHEN_HEATED_TO_900_F.,_YIELDS_OIL_-_NARA_-_552543.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Layers_of_stone_and_tar_at_Carpinteria,_CA.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ipab&action=edit&redlink=1

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Uranium2.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thorium-1.jpg

http://woelen.homescience.net/science/index.html



Fig. 4. Potash Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Salt crystals by Mark Schellhase is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 5. NASA Research Satellite Terra Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

Fig 6. Kimberley Big Hole Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Fig. 7. Strip mining by Scott Clark is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia

Commons. Fig. 8. Open pit mining by Stepanovas is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia

Commons. Fig. 9. Dredging by Jeanjung is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia

Commons. Fig. 10. Mountaintop removal mining Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Fig. 11. Room and pillar mining by Dennis Jarvis is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via

Wikimedia Commons. Fig. 12. Shrinkage stoping Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Fig. 14. Jaw crusher Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. Fig. 16. Gold panning by Janothird is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia

Commons. Fig. 20. Coal mine land reclamation by Peabody Energy, Inc. is licensed under CC

BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Graves, Norman. 2013. Land, Water and Mineral Resources in Science Education:


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PotashUSGOV.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salt_Crystals.JPG

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Mschel




https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RE_mine_in_Baiyun_Ebo,_Inner_Mongolia.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RE_mine_in_Baiyun_Ebo,_Inner_Mongolia.jpg



https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kimberley_Big_Hole.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hume_Missouri_Coal_Mining.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:FlickreviewR




https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Udachnaya_pipe.JPG

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Stepanovas




https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Valhalla_Dredging_Port_of_Redwood_City(18_of_22).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Jeanjung212




https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mountain_top_removal_strip_mining_causes_damage_to_hillside.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roof_&_Pillar_(35525694880).jpg

https://www.flickr.com/people/22490717@N02?rb=1



https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stope_in_Treadwell_gold_mine.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jaw_crusher,_Sound_Democrat_mill.jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gold_panning_at_Bonanza_Creek.JPG

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Janothird~commonswiki




https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coal_Mine_Land_Reclamation.png

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Robert_PEnergy&action=edit&redlink=1




Science and Technology Education and Future Human Needs. Elsevier. Gupta, Ashok and Yan, Denis. 2016. Mineral Processing Design and Operations: An

Introduction. Elsevier. Hefferan, Kevin, and John O’Brien. 2010. Earth Materials. UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Klein, Cornelis and Philpotts, Anthony. 2016. Earth Materials. Cambridge University

Press. Marshak, Stephen. 2009. Essentials of Geology 3rd Edition. New York: W.W. Norton

& Company. Mooney, Carla. 2015. What Are Minerals? Encyclopaedia Britannica. Oxlade, Chris. 2016. Minerals. Raintree. Pivnyak, Genadiy, Bondarenko, Volodymyr, Kovalevs’ka, Iryna, and Illiashov,

Mykhaylo. 2013. Mining of Mineral Deposits. CRC Press. Ridley, John. 2013. Ore Deposit Geology. Cambridge University Press. Starke, Linda. 2016. Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustainable

Development. Routledge. Vaughan, David. 2014. Minerals: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Wills, Barry and Finch, James. 2015. Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology: An

Introduction to the Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Recovery. Butterworth-Heinemann.


Documents

Unit 5 Mineral Resources