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HISTORY 12
UNIT 5 COLD WAR 1963-1991 PART II
NOTES
Ben LeporeMay 30, 2018 (V4)
MIDDLE EAST
Arab-Israeli Wars: Palestinian War and Suez War
The Middle East in the 20th Century
the strategic location of the Middle East and its oil resources have made the area attractive to industrial powers in the 20th century
after World War I Britain received Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq and France received Lebanon and Syria as mandates from the League of Nations
after World War II the U.S. and U.S.S.R. try to gain influence in the region
The Creation of a Jewish Homeland – Israel
the creation of the state of Israel from the British mandate of Palestine in 1948 and the subsequent refugee crisis of Palestinian Arabs in the region has created the problem that exists today in the Middle East
1917 Balfour Declaration British promised support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine but promised not to infringe on rights of non-Jewish Palestinians (Arabs)
1930s Jews flee Nazi Germany and Word War II increased pressure on the British to raise quotas on immigration to Palestine
after World War II the Zionist movement gains momentum as the Holocaust provided sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine but British needed to consider interests of the Palestinian Arabs
Zionist groups use terrorism (Stern Gang, Irgun) against British to force them to establish a Jewish state > violence erupts between Jews and Arabs
1947 Jewish and Arabs leaders reject partition plan for Palestine and British hand over Palestine to the U.N. May 1948
U.N. partition plan was accepted by the Jews but rejected by the Arabs May 14, 1948 the state of Israel was proclaimed and in response Arab nations
invade Israel to support Palestinian Arabs resistance
Palestinian War May 1948-March 1949
2
Causes
UN partition plan accepted by Jews but rejected by Arabs May 14, 1948 Jews proclaim the creation of the Jewish state of Israel and the
armies of the Arab League (Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Lebanon) attacked the following day
refer to map on page 2
Palestinian War May 1948-March 1949
Egyptians moved north to destroy the main Israeli forces at Tel Aviv while Jordan’s army advanced towards Jerusalem
Israelis repelled the attacks and counterattacked and held their territory Israel and the Arab states signed a truce in 1949
Consequences
3
Israel gains territory and increases the size of its state from that assigned by the UN
Palestinian Arabs are displaced from their territory and become refugees and establish refugee camps in the West Bank (seized by Jordan) and Gaza Strip (seized by Egypt) and other neighboring Arab nations > the refugee camps become an area of discontent and result in the formation of armed resistance groups against Israel
Israel is subjected to armed raids by Palestinian refugees from neighbouring states especially by the fedayeen (guerrillas) from the Gaza Strip and Sinai
Egypt blockades the port of Eilat, controls the Straits of Tiran and refuse Israel access to the Suez Canal
4
Suez War October-November 1956
Causes
July 23, 1952 Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser became president of Egypt and emerged as the leading nationalist in the Middle East
Nasser was determined to modernize the Egyptian economy and build up the armed forces in order to maintain the struggle against Israel
Nasser encouraged Palestinians in the Gaza Strip (under Egyptian control) to attack Israeli settlements
U.S. withdrew financial aid for the construction of the Aswan dam after Egypt purchased arms from the Czechoslovakia so Nasser turned to the Soviets for economic aid and established a relationship with the U.S.S.R.
July 26, 1956 Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal taking control of the canal away for the British which was a critical waterway to the Far East
British, French, Israelis developed a plan to regain control of the canal and destroy Egypt’s ability to threaten Israel and stop the attacks by Palestinians in the Gaza Strip > the Israelis would launch a preemptive strike on Egypt and British and French would intervene under the pretense of restoring order
Suez War October-November 1956
October 29, 1956 the Israelis invaded the Sinai Peninsula and the next day British and French planes bombed military targets in Egypt and followed with paratroopers and an amphibious force November 5
the U.S. pressured British and French to halt the campaign as they did not want the British and French to re-establish their influence in the region and wanted to have a balance between Arabs and Jews that would enable the U.S. at the same time to protect Israel and maintain access to Arab oil
the U.N. called for a cease-fire and withdrawal of all foreign forces and sent a peacekeeping force to maintain peace
Consequences
5
UNEF occupies the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip to prevent attacks on Israel and end Egyptian threats to Israeli shipping in the Straits of Tiran
Israel withdrew from Egyptian territory (Sinai dessert) but freed the port of Eliat from Egyptian blockade
USSR strengthens its relationship with Egypt and provide economic and military assistance to Arab nations
Palestinian terrorist/armed resistance groups such as El Fatah (Palestinian Liberation Organization in 1964) attack Israel from the Golan Heights in Syria, Jordan and Lebanon
March 1957 U.S. issue the Eisenhower Doctrine which provides the use of American troops to intervene in the Middle East to help against communist aggression
the withdrawal of Israeli forces and presence of U.N. peacekeepers provides 10 years of relative stability in the region
Arab-Israeli Wars: Six Day War and Yom Kippur War
6
Six Day War June 5-10 1967
Causes
May 1967 Egyptian President Nasser asks UN peacekeepers to withdraw, mobilize his forces (as did Syria, Jordan and Iraq) and blocked the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping
June 5,1967 Israel launched preemptive strike against Egypt, Syria, Jordan
Six Day War June 1967
the Egyptian air force was destroyed and Syrian and Jordanian troops decimated within six days the Israelis occupied the Sinai Peninsula, West Bank of the Jordan
River and the Golan Heights in Syria
Consequences
7
Israel gains territory as it occupies the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip (Egypt), the West Bank along the Jordan River (Jordan), and the Golan Heights (Syria) and significantly improves its defensive position
Arab nationalism intensifies because Israel occupies former Arab territory especially Old Jerusalem (West Bank) which has religious significance for Muslims
the war heightens tensions between Israelis and Palestinian Arabs and the PLO and other armed resistance groups increase attacks against Israel prompting Israel to retaliate
the USSR mobilized troops and considered intervening to aid its Arab allies which would have drawn the U.S. into the war and escalate the conflict
Yom Kippur War October 1973-January 1974
8
Causes
Israel refuses to negotiate with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat for the return of Egyptian territory (Sinai Peninsula) unless Egypt recognizes Israel’s right to exist
October 2, 1973 Egyptian and Syrian forces launch a surprise attack on Israel to win back territory and pressure the U.S. into demanding a settlement of the issue
Yom Kippur War October 1973-January 1974
Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal and breached the Bar Lev Line and opened the Sinai and southern Israel to attack and at the same time Syrian forces moved onto the Golan Heights with 800 tanks
Israel suffered heavy losses at first but after two weeks of tank battles the Israelis gained the upper hand > rearmed by the Americans the Israelis drove back the Syrians as far as Damascus, the capital of Syria
Israelis launched a counterattack against Egypt but were prevented from crossing the Suez Canal and occupy more Egyptian territory by U.S. diplomatic pressure
OPEC Arab nations impose an oil embargo against nations supporting Israelthat created an energy crisis in the West and economic recession
October 31 both sides accepted a U.N.-sponsored ceasefire agreement
Consequences
9
UN sent a peacekeeping force to maintain the peace between Egypt and Israel the OPEC oil embargo by Arab nations leads to an increase in oil prices in the
West that adversely affects the economy and results in an economic recession in the West
the U.S. sponsors peace talks between Israel and Egypt to resolve the conflict resulting in the Washington Treaty and peace between the two nations
The Camp David Accords and Washington Treaty
Sadat realized Israel could not be destroyed and needed to focus on the economy > Israel’s economy was adversely affected by spending on defence > U.S. wanted a settlement to stabilize the region and protect its access to oil and initiated peace
Sadat paid a visit to Israel in 1977 and Israeli PM Menachem Begin responded by visiting Egypt soon afterward which lead to peace talks at Camp David in September 1978 hosted by President Jimmy Carter
the U.S. pledged economic support for both Israel and Egypt > Israel would receive $3 billion in military assistance and Egypt would receive $1.5 billion as well as $500 million in economic assistance
Washington Treaty March 26, 1979 ended the war between Israel and Egypt, called for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai and return of Egyptian sovereignty in the area, established diplomatic relations between Israel and Egypt, Israel could use the Suez Canal and get oil from Egypt, and required the two nations to live in peace with one another
Washington Treaty allowed Egypt to concentrate more of its resources on domestic needs, increased Israel’s national security, Arab nations denounced the treaty and aroused hostility towards Sadat
Lebanon
10
Lebanon – Civil War
1975 civil war broke out in Lebanon between Christians who dominated the government and Muslims who were supported by the PLO and Syria
PLO used southern Lebanon as a base to attack Israel so in March 1978 Israel invaded Lebanon in an attempt to protect the villages of southern Lebanon from infiltration by PLO guerillas
during the next three years the Israeli air force bombed Lebanon 1981 the UN successfully negotiated a ceasefire June 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon in an attempt to destroy the PLO who were
based in Beirut and re-establish Christian rule throughout Lebanon during the siege of Beirut the Israeli air force bombed apartment buildings killing
civilians and the Israeli army allowed the Christian Phalangists to murder hundreds of civilians in Palestinian refugee camps > as a result the PLO agreed to leave Beirut for Tunisia, Syria, Jordan and other Arab states
1983 Israel began a slow withdrawal of forces but as they retreated south they were attacked by fanatical Shia Muslims who inflicted heavy casualties and spectacular defeats with suicide bombing missions
April 1985 the Israelis withdrew their last forces behind a heavily fortified buffer zone along Lebanon's southern border
May 2000 Israel withdrew its forces from southern Lebanon
Israel - Intifada/Uprising 1987-1988
Causes Jewish settlements continued to be constructed in the West Bank in violation of
the Camp David Accords and provoked demonstrations and protests by Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza which turned violent and developed into an uprising in December 1987 and as a result the Israeli government responded with equal aggression and violence
Consequences and Significance
220 Palestinians were killed UN condemned Israel for violating human rights PLO achieved widespread international support when Arafat condemned terrorism
and recognized Israel's right to exist and thus removed a major obstacle to peace negotiations
Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988 and Persian Gulf War 1990-1991
11
Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988
Background: Islamic Revolution in Iran
Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi's government was supported by the U.S. and was dictatorial and repressive
1979 the Shah was overthrown and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the mullahs of the Shiite Muslim sect, returned from exile and seized control and began a fundamentalist Islamic revolution
Khomeini established an Islamic republic based on Islamic principles and set out to rid Iran of Western and secular (non-religious) influence which he believed corrupted Iranian society
Causes
Iraqi President Sadaam Hussein feared the fundamentalist revolution would spread to Iraq and wanted to overthrow Khomeini
control of the Shatt-al-Arab waterway that carries waters of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers to the Persian Gulf
control of the oil resources in the region Hussein wanted to establish Iraq as the dominant power in the Persian Gulf
War 1980-1988
September 1980 Iraq attacked Iran and destroyed its oil facilities and occupied most of southern Iran
September 1981 Iran launched a successful counteroffensive and recaptured the territory lost to Iraq
1984 Iran invaded Iraq and captured the Fao Peninsula in 1986 that connects the Persian Gulf to the Shatt-al-Arab waterway
February and April 1987 Iran attacked the port of Basra but were unable to seize the city and suffered 50, 000 to 70, 000 casualties
by 1988 the stalemate resulted in a cease-fire on August 20 1988
Consequences
the Iran-Iraq War had many consequences as both countries were devastated economically, socially and militarily: Iran's industry and oil production were crippled by Iraqi air attacks > by
1988 it was earning only $6 billion per year from oil exports but needed$10 billion per year to buy arms, food, and other necessities
Iraq owed $40 billion to Western Europe as well as money to Arab states
12
Persian Gulf War 1990-
1991
13
Causes: Economic, Territorial and Political
Economic
Iraq was $80 billion in debt after the war with Iran but Hussein expected that the $40 billion owed to Arab nations would be forgiven
40% of Iraq earnings was spent on military and economic development directed at increasing Iraq's regional power rather than providing jobs for returning soldiers > inflation soared to 40% and consumer goods scarce
Hussein hoped to solve Iraq's economic problems by selling more oil but the price of oil fell from $20 to $14 per barrel and Iraq faced a cash shortage
Territorial
the Rumailah oil fields extends from Iraq into Kuwait and Hussein demanded ownership of the entire oil field and presented Kuwait with a bill for $2 billion for oil which it claimed Kuwait had illegally sold during the Iran-Iraq War
Iraq does not have a port on Persian Gulf and depends on the port of Basra on the Shatt-al-Arab waterway for traffic in the Persian Gulf and therefore wanted the Kuwaiti island of Bubiyan in order to gain direct access to the Persian Gulf
Iraq's territorial and financial difficulties could be solved by annexing Kuwait
Political
Hussein wanted to dominate the Middle East and establish himself as the leader of the Arab world (much like Nasser was in Egypt)
Persian Gulf War January-February 1991
14
August 2 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait UN Security Council condemned the invasion and called for Iraq to withdraw August 6 the Security Council resolution imposed economic sanctions on Iraq August 28 Iraq annexed Kuwait and declared it a province of Iraq September and October diplomatic negotiations proved futile U.S. assemble a coalition force of ground troops, ships and aircraft from 25
countries including the Arab nations of Saudi Arabia, Syria and Egypt November 29 Security Council resolution approved the use of force to expel Iraqi
forces from Kuwait and established January 15 1991 as the date Iraq must withdraw its forces from Kuwait but Hussein did not withdraw
Operation Desert Storm with the bombing of Baghdad and other strategic locations
Iraq retaliated by launching Scud missiles on Israel (and Saudi Arabia) in an attempt to draw Israel into the war and break the allied coalition by making it difficult for the Arab nations to be allied with Israel
February 24 the coalition launched a ground offensive against Iraqi forces in Kuwait and southern Iraq and met little resistance and the fighting was over in four days
February 28 Hussein accepted all the12 UN resolutions
Consequences
April 7 Iraq accepted UN peace terms UN gained credibility for their role 1991 Kurds in the north and Shiite in the south attempted to overthrow Hussein in
a civil war but failed 1992 UN inspectors destroy material used to produce nuclear weapons 1992-1993 U.S. and Britain establish a no-fly zone prohibiting the Iraqi air force
from entering northern and southern Iraq to protect Kurds and Shiite
15
Afghanistan – USSR invasion and Civil War
Afghanistan
Background and Causes of the Civil War
because of its geographic proximity the U.S.S.R. was interested in the security of Afghanistan and provided economic and military aid
1973 the monarchy was overthrown by Mohammad Daoud Khan who was supported by a faction (group) of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) called the Parcham led by Babrak Karmal who promoted democratic reforms that may lead to socialism
the other faction of the PDPA was the Khalq led by Hafizullah Amin who recruited support from the army
Daoud established a dictatorship and repressed all opposition including those who supported his bid to power, attacked Islamic fundamentalists, and moved closer to the pro-American shah of Iran
spring 1978 Daoud began to arrest members of the PDPA and when Mir Akbar Khyber was assassinated anti-government demonstrations followed and Daoud reacted by arresting PDPA leaders
April 27-28 a coup d'etat (military takeover) forced Dauod from power and Parcham and Khalq factions of the PDPA formed the government
16
December 1978 U.S.S.R. signed a treaty of friendship with the new government signaling its support for the PDPA
the government began a program of radical reform aimed at dismantling Afghanistan's feudal society but the PDPA was unable to present a united front on social or economic issues and internal squabbling hampered its effort to implement reforms especially land reform
land reform created a crisis in the countryside and a resistance movement began within a month of the coup which was backed by most of the mullahs (Muslim religious leaders)
in addition to the disorders caused by land reform the government suffered from factional competition between the Khalq and Parcham with Khalq emerging victorious but within Khalq rivalry between Amin and Nur Mohammad Taraki for leadership of the government developed
Taraki collaborated with the Soviets but was arrested and executed by Amin when this was discovered bringing an end to the regime
the U.S.S.R. distrusted Amin and feared a continuation of civil turmoil and the loss of a potential satellite and as a result invaded Afghanistan December 24 1979 and gained control of the capital Kabul by December 27
Amin was executed and Babrak Kamal was installed as leader of a Soviet puppet government January 1 1980
the U.S. demonstrated its disapproval by refusing to ratify the SALT II agreement and led a Western boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics, froze the sale of high-tech equipment and grain to the U.S.S.R.
Afghan War 1980-1988
by end of January the Soviets had significant numbers of tanks and fighter bombers but 90% of the countryside was controlled by the rebels known as the mujaheddin
the countryside proved to be unconquerable as it is an inhospitable region covered with deep valleys and mountain escarpments and Baluchi desert in the south
Soviets trained to fight conventional warfare were ineffective against the guerrilla forces used to the different terrain and the Soviets realized they had their own Vietnam, a war they could not win but could not abandon
by 1985 Soviet troops reached 120,000 but the mujaheddin refused to surrender as the war dragged on Soviet casualties and the economic effect decreased
support for the war in the U.S.S.R. May 1986 Kamal was replaced by Major General Mohammed Najibullah and the
Soviets began to withdraw troops and provide hope for an end to the war as victory eluded them, the casualties mounted and international pressure to
withdraw continued Mikhail Gorbachev showed a willingness to withdraw from Afghanistan as part of a growing détente with the West
April 14 1988 the Geneva Accords on the war in Afghanistan were signed by Pakistan and Afghanistan and a declaration guaranteeing the agreement was signed by the U.S. and U.S.S.R. > the accords provided a timetable for Soviet
17
troop withdrawal in 1989 and an end to the war, and the voluntary return of 3.5 million Afghan refugees who fled to Pakistan during the war
February 15 1989 the last Soviet soldiers left Afghanistan and left behind a country still engaged in civil war
Consequences
approximately 15,000 Soviet soldiers were killed during the war and it is estimated that it cost approximately $3.5 billion
approximately 15,000 out of 22, 000 villages were destroyed, millions of animals slaughtered, homes destroyed, irrigation systems destroyed and agricultural areas were riddled with hundreds of thousands of land mines
after the Soviet troop withdrawal fighting erupted between different ethnic groups (Uzbeks, Tajiks, Hazara, Pashtun) and the civil war continued until the Pastun dominated Taliban gained control of Kabul in 1996
winter 2002 Northern Alliance rebels and the U.S. defeated the Taliban it was a factor in the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991
18
Afghan and Vietnam War Comparison
similarities between Afghanistan and Vietnam: Soviets and Americans did not have support of the local population Soviets and Americans fought against guerrilla forces with conventional
tactics and were unable to defeat the guerrilla forces Soviet and American military forces were disillusioned and cynical Soviets and Americans suffered significant casualties and financial costs Soviets and Americans lost world public opinion, support and prestige Soviets and Americans were forced to withdraw their military forces and as a
result the military lost credibility
CHINA
Mao Zedong and the People's Republic of China (PRC) 1949-1960
Civil War 1946-1949
after WW II U.S. urged Chiang Kai-shek to broaden the base of the Kuomintang to include other parties including Mao Zedong’s Communists to avoid civil war
uneasy truce developed between the Communists and Kuomintang for most of 1946
Mao developed a model whereby the peasants would be his soldiers in a social revolution and wage a guerrilla war
19
1946 the Soviets left Manchuria and allowed the Chinese Communist access to the resources left behind > Kuomintang rushed into the north to counter the Communist threat and fighting broke out
Communist won the civil war and Chiang Kai-shek and Nationalists/Kuomintang fled to Taiwan where they came under the protection of the U.S.
October 1, 1949 Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
The People’s Republic of China (PRC)
PRC now had to gain diplomatic recognition from other nations but only the Soviets extended immediate recognition while the U.S. recognized Taiwan
nations withheld recognition because Mao wanted to export revolution and in a speech in 1949 stated his support for all wars of national liberation
the U.S. were moving towards recognizing the PRC when the Korean War started in 1950 > Chiang’s forces in Taiwan were now deemed necessary to the U.S. defence perimeter which was an important factor in the containment of communism
Soviets and China signed a mutual defence treaty in 1950 aimed against U.S. and its ally, Japan > Stalin hoped to dominate Mao
Mao’s immediate problems were political and economic as he inherited a backward nation devastated from years of fighting
Mao’s first task was to establish a strong central authority in Beijing (Leninist idea of democratic centralism) and China was divided into six military regions > centralization proceeded rapidly as there was no opposition to the PRC and the Communists were a symbol of nationalism and greeted by the peasants as their own
Taiwan was the only immediate threat to the PRC as Chiang prepared for a return to the mainland > U.S. intervention in Korea in 1950 seemed to be the first step in a counter-revolution against the PRC and U.S. success in Korea hardened Chinese landowner class in its resistance to land reform
Korean War brought new problems and new opportunities for the PRCin the middle of its efforts to stabilize control of the cities as the cost of the war in human and other resources further drained them
the U.S.S.R. and U.S. took action to limit China’s influence in Asia asthe U.S.S.R. normalized relations with Japan and Khrushchev visited India and Afghanistan and promised aid to Third World nations while the U.S. began giving aid to the French in Indo-China and established an island containment perimeter from Japan through the Philippines and Australia
due to Soviet and American policy in Asia the PRC modified its policy of supporting revolutions in Africa and Latin America and based its policy on five principles: policy of coexistence, respect for each other’s boundaries, promise not to subvert national governments, equal treatment of other states, and renouncement of expansionism
Agricultural and Industrial Reforms 1949-1960
Agricultural Reforms/Collectivization the aim of land reform was to abolish private ownership and redistribute the land
on an equitable small-plot basis, later the plots would be merged into collectives and finally communes to take advantage of economies of scale (large scale production) but the mergers would be gradual and voluntary (unlike Stalin's collectivization)
by 1952 the initial reorganization of the farming sector was complete but redistribution did not solve the problem of inadequate yields or rural poverty even though grain production did increase 13% per year and peasants marginally improved standard of life
20
Five Year Plan 1953-1957 agricultural surpluses were needed to pay for the nation’s industrialization and
the government hoped to revitalize industry by implementing Soviet-style five year plans
the first Five Year Plan (1953-1957) was to produce energy and hydroelectric power and emphasized heavy industry > the U.S.S.R. provided financial aid and technical assistance but it was not adequate
a state planning commission modeled on Soviet Gosplan was established to provide control over all production processes > industrial growth was designed for interior of the country and new factories established close to raw materials and markets
by 1957 production in farm machinery, trucks, tractors and jet planes doubled and production increased in steel, coal, cement, electricity but light industry suffered
growth in industry came at the expense of the peasantry as it revitalized cities and attracted millions of people and as a result the urban population increased from 60 to 100 million and caused major problems > growth of the cities led to increased bureaucratization and political cadres began to see themselves as a new urban elite
industrialization had a significant effect on the party hierarchy as some party leaders became comfortable in the urban centres and consequently the party began a split into a group of right-wing conservatives who favoured industrial and economic growth and a group of left-wing radicals who favoured rural development
the neglect of the farming sector during the first Five Year Plan could not be ignored and it was necessary to increase yields to keep pace with population growth and pay for industrial development
Mao wanted to increase the pace of collectivization to combat Chinese kulaks so he appealed to the masses to revitalize the revolutionary spirit of social change and as a result millions of peasants responded and by 1960 almost all farms had been organized on a village-collective basis
One Hundred Flowers Campaign Spring 1956
by 1956 the government controlled most farms and industries but Mao was concerned with the bureaucratization of the Communist party and its apparent abandonment of its rural roots as well as the new political and economic elites that had risen to challenge the authority of the party
May 2, 1956 Mao called for “one hundred schools of thought” and encouraged writers and artists to comment on society
Mao was attempting to rid the party of its conservative elements but the campaign got out of hand as pent-up criticism was directed at the party and socialism as a system and as a result in the autumn of 1956 Mao ordered repressive measures against the intellectuals who were critical of the government and consequently lost their jobs and underwent reeducation
as a result of the campaign Mao and the party learned that not all the people were united behind the socialist system
Great Leap Forward 1958
1958 Mao launched the Great Leap Forward which promoted industrial and agricultural development and was a reversal of the philosophy of the Five Year Plan and thus a criticism of the Soviets
Mao believed urban unemployment could be solved by sending millions in the cities to the countryside where they could be the vanguard of local communities
21
peasants could participate in industrial growth by establishing their own backyard businesses in the off-season by manufacturing the fertilizers, tools, etc.
Mao’s proposal required a shift towards light industry as he believed this would provide consumer goods that would spur peasants to greater productivity and the higher yields would sustain growth in heavy industry > there would be simultaneous developments in agriculture, light industry, and heavy industry > backyard furnaces to make iron and steel tools were constructed
conservatives thought Great Leap Forward was irrational and doomed to fail as China did not have the resources to make progress in all areas at the same time
organizational problems, poor quality, and droughts adversely affected the program
Mao also accelerated the merging of village collectives into regional communes and by the end of 1960 750,000 collectives had merged into 24,000 communes around 5000 households (30, 000 people) apiece
Mao hoped the communization would be the first step of the withering away of the state since self-sufficient communes would have little need for party apparatus
unrealistic work assignments and harvest quotas ended the program local officials reported crop yields and industrial growth that did not exist and
shortfalls in food production were evident in 1958 > lack of harvesters and the chaos of forced reorganization had taken their toll on the farms
the party moved to end the communization movement and reassert its central authority so private ownership was reintroduced to stimulate production and by 1960 most of the communes had been abandoned
partly as a result of the failure of the Great Leap Forward Mao resigned as President but remained as Chairman of the Communist Party a powerful position so he still retained much influence and power
Foreign Policy and the Cultural Revolution
Foreign Policy: Sino-Soviet Split
"Take steel as the key link, leap forward in all field "Take steel as the key link, leap forward in all fields"
22
China and the U.S.S.R. had friendly relations since the 1949 revolution but several factors caused the relationship to deteriorate by the 1950s and eventually resulted in a split between the two communist nations by 1960
the Chinese resented the lack of Soviet assistance during the Korean War, the slow return of railways and industries in Manchuria seized after World War II and intention to treat China as another satellite
Stalin’s death in 1953 led to a rift between as Mao felt that he should be the leader of the world’s communist movement but the Soviet’s would not permit it
Mao was angered at not being consulted about Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization speech to the Twentieth Congress in 1956
Mao opposed Khrushchev’s foreign policy of promoting communism in Asia because he thought China not U.S.S.R. should be the leader of communist nations in Asia
Mao objected to Khrushchev's policy of peaceful coexistence which he interpreted as promoting the U.S.S.R. as the leader of all communist nations
1957 the Chinese attacked the island of Quemoy which was held by Chiang Kai-Shek but the U.S.S.R. did not support China
although the Soviets provided aid to China they were not prepared to make China a rival global power so they did not support China in its border war with India in 1959
Khrushchev criticized Great Leap Forward and opposition to peaceful coexistence China criticized Khrushchev's visit to the U.S. which they saw as a sign of
weakness and when Khrushchev visited Beijing a few days later for the tenth anniversary of PRC he was criticized by the Chinese for his opposition to the Great Leap Forward
December 1960 Khrushchev ordered all Soviet technicians and scientists in China to return home and the split between the two nations was complete
China-USSR Relations following Sino-Soviet Split
23
during the 1960s the Sino-Soviet dispute developed into a power struggle as a result of the inability of the Chinese and Soviets to resolve key issues: Moscow maintained the ideological leadership of the communist world China wanted to initiate its own policies in the Third World and resented
Soviet influence in especially in India China resented their military dependence on Moscow partly due to the Soviets
unwillingness to assist them in developing nuclear technology > developed the atomic bomb in 1964 and the hydrogen bomb in 1967
long standing border grievances existed between China and the Soviets > 1964-1969 there were 4000 incidents between them
Mao was concerned about the Soviet’s after Khrushchev was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev and issued the Brezhnev Doctrine in 1968 that stated the Soviet Union had a responsibility to intervene in other socialists countries in the interest of communist solidarity as the Czechoslovakian experience demonstrated > the doctrine was established after Soviet troops invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, to stop a revolution
March 2 1969 fighting broke out between Soviet and Chinese border patrols on the Usuri River and as one million Soviet troops mobilized along its northern borders China began to seek a rapprochement (renew friendly relations) with the U.S.
China-U. S Relations – Rapprochement 1971-9172
President Richard Nixon viewed the Sino-Soviet split as an opportunity to step in between the two communists powers and mend its own relationship with China as well as future political and economic advantages
October 1971 PRC replaced Taiwan in the UN and took its seat in the Security Council which the U.S. sponsored although it still supported Taiwan's independence
February 1972 Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit the PRC and during the visit the U.S. and China issued a statement of joint opposition to attempts by outside nations establishing hegemony (control) in East Asia that was intended to be a warning to the Soviets
24
Cultural Revolution 1966-1976
the Cultural Revolution initiated by Mao was essentially a power struggle between radical and conservative factions within the Communist party and was Mao's final battle against the Party and bureaucracy
Mao encouraged students to travel the country and identify revisionists and hoped to instill the decentralized idea of a peasant revolution in their minds
its stated goal was to enforce socialism in the country by removing capitalist, traditional and cultural elements from Chinese society, and to impose Maoist orthodoxy within the Communist Party
Mao viewed the Communist Party as corrupt, privileged and elitist Mao was supported by Defence Minister Lin Piao and his wife Chiang Ch'ing Mao’s strategy was to use youth to raise consciousness to the dangers of
modified capitalism therefore the revolution began in universities and spread to schools
millions of students called Red Guards campaigned across the country criticizing authority and corruption within the party with their Little Red Book which contained quotes from Mao about serving the people and self-discipline and were given free provisions and transport and the PLA was ordered to assist them
students destroyed public buildings and government files and empowered by the army brought anarchy
factory workers joined the movement in the winter of 1966 and industrial production was paralyzed
Red Guards established local councils that refused to recognize any authority January 5 1967 Shanghai workers carried out their own revolution and established
their own dictatorship of the proletariat by the summer of 1967 central authority had been replaced by a chaos of local
council, production had come to a halt, the economic progress to date had been destroyed and the nation appeared headed for a civil war
September with the nation on the verge of a civil war Premier Zhou Enlai ordered the PLA to restore order by force and approximately 400,000 were killed and millions sent to correctional camps for re-education
17 million people were sent out to work brigades in the country and the government backlash was hardest on students and intellectuals
Destroy the old world; forge the new world."
Totally Smash Capitalism!
25
Aftermath of the Cultural Revolution
the Cultural Revolution began as a power struggle between radicals and conservatives in the Communist party and it continued after the Cultural Revolution officially ended in 1969
the radicals received their support from the unions, militia and Communist Youth League and the key leaders were Mao's wife Chiang Chi'ing and three other politicians from Shanghai and were referred to as the Gang of Four
the radicals believed in a class struggle and agreed with the conservatives for the need for economic growth but they also thought that the elimination of the bourgeoisie must accompany it
the conservatives received support from the Party, government administration and the armed forces and were led by PM Zhou Enlai
the conservatives wanted to achieve political stability in order to focus on economic growth and development
January 1974 radicals embarked on a campaign April 1976 Zhou Enlai died and when police tried to remove wreaths placed in his
memory in Tiananmen Square 100,000 people rioted a display of public support for Teng Hsiao-Ping and other conservative leaders > the radicals blamed the riots on Teng and he was removed as Minister of Public Security
September 9 1976 Mao died and the radicals prepared to seize power October 7 the Politburo elected PM Hua Kuo-feng as Chairman of the Party and as
a result now controlled the Party, the government, and the army the Gang of Four was arrested and imprisoned on the same day
Mao Zedong – Success and Failure he guided the revolution from its early days, through the civil war with the
Nationalists and the Japanese invasion to political victory in 1949 he rid the China of imperialists and set it on a course toward modernization he was a strong populist leader but was unable to create a popular mass
government near the end his idea of an agrarian socialist utopia was at odds with his idea of a
modern industrial power
Economic Reform and Tiananmen Square Protest
Economic Reforms
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Mao’s death in 1976 started a power struggle within the Communist party that was to last until 1978 between the radicals and conservatives
the radicals wanted to continue the ideological revolution and create a socialist utopia while the conservatives wanted to focus on economic development and rapprochement with the West
by December 1978 the conservative Deng Xiaoping who was the Vice-Chairman of the Communist Party, state vice-premier, Chief of Staff of the PLA emerged as the leader of China
Xiaoping favoured the conservative approach and encouraged foreign trade regardless of the dangers of foreign influence > China’s resources would have to be traded for equipment and technology if China was to become an industrial power
the liberalization of the economy was not accompanied with political reforms as the government suppressed students and intellectuals who demonstrated for democratic freedoms
early 1980s a modest return was made to a form of private enterprise in which the market system operated and profits could be made to improve the standard of living
even though only 16% of the businesses and factories were permitted autonomy in wages and hiring the effect was significant > as consumer goods entered the market inflation soared and the unemployment rose to 20% and only a 1% growth in the GNP and as a result the government returned many resources to central control
in a major break with the immediate past Xiaoping reinstated an Open Door trading policy with the rest of the world and special economic zones were established to conduct foreign trade and foreign investors received preferential status in China’s market > within the zones price and profit were used to guide transactions
opening up parts of China for trade created a demand for consumer goods and for the first time China had a trade deficit which reached $40 billion
1987 saw the beginning of normalized relations with the Soviets politically and socially Xiaoping brought a Western flavour to China in his efforts
to develop a more balanced approach to modernization but criticism of the system was not permitted and student demonstrations in Tiananmen Square in 1987 were crushed and organizers were sent to correctional camps
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Tiananmen Square Protest 1989
China’s economy boomed during the 1980s but by 1987 it was overheating and by 1988 it was out of control > while productivity grew 20% per year the critical infrastructure of support to industry (energy, transportation, etc.) lagged behind
to create a greater amount of goods the government allowed prices to fluctuate in a free market but this policy resulted in inflation and caused deep discontent among the third of China’s population that existed on fixed incomes > the cost of living increased 30% to 80% in 1988
Xiaoping responded to the economic crisis by returning to centralized price controls and imposed quotas on industries thus monopoly control was returned to the state in order to bring stability and re-establish economic order
the inflation of 1988 caused a conservative reaction and Xiaoping had to admit that the radicals were correct and that reform had caused hardship for the people and so there was a renewed emphasis on ideology and intolerance and marches and demonstrations were made illegal
some members of the government however continued to make demands for political reform such as Zhao Ziyang and supporters who favoured private ownership that would remove political interference in the market place
PM Li Peng opposed Ziyang and argued concentrated authority would guarantee individual freedoms as Li feared a return to days of the Cultural Revolution
the debate was brought to a head in April 1989 by the death of party secretary Hu Yaobang a liberal and who favoured political reforms
April 1989 the fortieth anniversary of the founding of the Chinese Republic was used by Ziyang to push for new reforms
initial student demonstrations began as a demand to attend Yaobang’s funeral and then grew to a 10,000 strong student demonstration on Tiananmen Square to demand political reforms and intellectual freedoms
hard-liners remembered what occurred when Mao had encouraged student activists during the Cultural Revolution and Xiaoping and his government were deeply afraid of what could happen if political reforms were authorized
by late April 100,000 students gathered in Tiananmen Square to demand political change but the government rejected their demands
a split developed in the Politburo near the time of Gorbachev’s mid-May visit and coincided with a hunger strike by a thousand students that was receiving much publicity > workers’ organizations joined the students
May 4 students demanded an independent council and Ziyang supported them May 18 more than one million people had joined the demonstrations and on May
19 the government imposed martial law the people of Beijing responded to the imposition of martial law by coming into
the streets and taking control of the city June 3 Xiaoping ordered the People’s Liberation Army to restore order after
foreigners and journalists were expelled from the Beijing troops entered central districts of Beijing firing at students and civilians by midnight 50,000 troops blasted through barricades erected around Tiananmen
Square > during next few days about 4500 or more civilians and 1000 soldiers died
over 30,000 people arrested during 1989-1990 (many executed), censorship of the press was re-imposed and foreigners were subjected to surveillance
approximately 564,000 graduating students were assigned jobs at the grass roots level in the countryside where they could be re-educated
1990 600,000 first-year students were forbidden to mix with more senior classes and had received intensive ideological and military training
consequently one off the top groups of intellectuals in China had been destroyed to re-establish government authority throughout the land
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Czechoslovakia: Prague Spring 1968
October 1964 Khrushchev replaced by Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary of the Communist Party and faced with the challenge of improving relations with the West and asserting control over the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe
January 1968 Alexander Dubcek replaced Novotny as party secretary in Czechoslovakia and introduced political, cultural, and social reforms referred to as the Prague Spring
March censorship of the press, radio and tv were abolished, and non-communist organizations tolerated
April rights to travel abroad, freedom of speech, free press was guaranteed although Dubcek continued to support the Warsaw Pact his attempts to promote
what he called “socialism with a human face” concerned Moscow as Czechoslovakia was essential to the security of the Soviet bloc
August 28 1968 the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia because they were concerned that if the Prague Spring were allowed to continue other members of the Soviet bloc would attempt similar reforms and they would lose control and thus become less secure > Gustav Husak replaced Dubcek
1968 Brezhnev Doctrine introduced which proclaimed the right of the USSR to determine when intervention might be necessary in order to preserve socialism and protect against counter-revolution within the Eastern bloc
END OF THE
COLD WAR
Détente 1963-1979
Détente 1963-1979
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détente (relaxation of tension) refers to the improved relations between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. during a period of the Cold War that lead to several significant agreements between the two nations mostly on nuclear weapons
Major Developments of Detente
1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty
after the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 the U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed on the Partial Test Ban Treaty which limited nuclear testing in the atmosphere, under water, and in outer space but the superpowers continued to stock pile their nuclear arsenals throughout the 1960s
1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
1968 U.S., U.S.S.R., and Britain signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty which limited the spread of nuclear weapons and technology and was the first significant achievement of détente > by March 1970 97 countries signed with the exception of France, Egypt, Japan, Israel and South Africa
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1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)
by 1969 the Soviets had tripled its stock of ICBMs and increased its supply of submarine-launched ballistic missiles which ended U.S. superiority
the U.S. changed its goal as a result of the end of its superiority and in the early 1970s rather than increasing the numbers of the same weapons the Americans embarked on a program designed to develop innovation and nuclear technology
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a new anti-ballistic missile program was created and also the Multiple Independent Targeted Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) was developed which would give the ICBM three to ten separately targeted nuclear warheads
to check this dangerous and expensive arms race the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. began to discuss the possibility of limiting the number of strategic weapons in the late1960s
May 26 1972 the U.S. and U.S.S.R. signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement (SALT I) which limited both sides to 200 ABMs (anti-ballistic missile) each and 2 defensive systems
ABM was designed to intercept and destroy incoming missiles before they reached their targets and equality in ABMs would preserve strategic balance of power and limit the possibility of either side gambling on a first strike
limits were also placed on offensive weapons as the American ICBMs were frozen at 1054 while the U.S.S.R. was allowed to expand its arsenal to 1618
although the U.S.S.R. retained superiority in total numbers of weaponry the U.S. had superiority in weapons not covered by treaty limitations (e.g. MIRVs)
SALT I was a historic agreement in the limitation of strategic weaponry but because many types of weapons were left unregulated it did not stop the arms race as the U.S.S.R. was anxious to develop the MIRV and the U.S. developed the Trident submarine, the MX and cruise missiles
Helsinki Accords 1975
August 1 1975 the U.S., U.S.S.R., Britain and France and 31 other nations signed the Helsinki Accords
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Terms of the Helsinki Accords European frontiers or borders were recognized and accepted which was a
victory for the U.S.S.R. and eased tension regarding Eastern Europe promote international cooperation in economics, science, and technology respect human rights and permit freedom of movement and allow freedom of
choice in private and professional associations > aimed at Soviets and to provide hope to people of Eastern Europe and the U.S.S.R.
Helsinki Accords was a significant accomplishment of détente as the acceptance of boundaries seemed to indicate the beginning of a peaceful era
arms control agreements in the 1970s did not prevent the development of a world with two superpowers determined to maintain first-strike capability and a situation of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) was maintained as both sides raced to develop new nuclear and conventional weapons
1979 Strategic Arms Limitations Talk (SALT II)
after SALT I was signed the U.S.S.R. and U.S. began talks on SALT II which would control weapons technology and intended to achieve nuclear parity
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the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. would be allowed 2400 strategic missiles (1320 could be equipped with MIRVs), the U.S. would be allowed 525 strategic bombers and the Soviets 160 > instead of a freeze on nuclear weapons the agreement placed limits on the number of weapons both sides could build
1974 President Gerald Ford and Brezhnev agreed in principle to limit strategic missiles and the agreement would come into effect in 1979
SALT II was criticized by the U.S. Senate and following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 President Jimmy Carter asked Congress to delay approval of SALT II > despite the failure to ratify the agreement the U.S. and U.S.S.R. maintained the spirit of the agreement until 1985
Other Examples of Détente
1970s Ostpolitik (new Eastern policy) improved relations between West and East Germany (American and Soviet allies)
October 1971 China replaces Taiwan in the UN Security Council 1972 U.S. recognition of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) Feb 1972 President Nixon visits China March 1972 Nixon visits Soviet Union May 1973 Premier Brezhnev visits U.S. January 1973 ceasefire agreement and American withdrawal from Vietnam
End of Détente
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ended détente and a with the election of President Ronald Reagan in 1980 the development of nuclear weapons escalated and ushered in a new era of the arms race during the 1980s
Détente 1963-1979
1963 Partial TestBan Treaty
U.S., U.S.S.R., Britain agreed to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere, under water and,
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space
1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
U.S., U.S.S.R., Britain agreed to limit spread of nuclear weapons
1972 Strategic ArmsLimitation Talks (SALT I)
U.S. and USSR agreed to limit ABMs (anti-ballistic missile) to 200 each and 2 defensive systems
it maintains the balance of power and limits possibility of a first strike
1975 Helsinki Accord Western nations accept and recognize Eastern European borders
promote international cooperation in economics, science, technology
USSR to respect human rights and permit freedom of movement
1979 Strategic ArmsLimitation Talks (SALT II)
U.S. and USSR agreed to place limits (not a freeze) on weapons both sides could build
U.S. and U.S.S.R. 2400 strategic missiles, U.S. allowed 525 bombers and U.S.S.R. 160 bombers
Other Examples 1970s Ostpolitik improved relations between West and East Germany
October 1971 China replaces Taiwan in the UN Security Council
1972 U.S. recognition of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
Feb 1972 President Nixon visits China March 1972 Nixon visits Soviet Union May 1973 Premier Brezhnev visits U.S. January 1973 ceasefire agreement and
American withdrawal from Vietnam
Détente 1985-1989
The Nuclear Arms Race in the 1980s
United States
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after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 NATO asked U.S. to deploy cruise and Pershing missiles in Western Europe to counter Soviet SS-20s (cruise missile) in Eastern Europe > cruise missiles are guided by computers, launched by mobile launchers, fly below radar and therefore difficult to defend against
1981 Reagan claimed Soviets had military superiority and put all arms control negotiations on hold and focused on a nuclear defensive strategy
1983 Reagan announced the U.S. plan to develop the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) which would provide a defensive shield and protect the U.S. from incoming Soviet missiles > SDI was contrary to the terms of the ABM treaty which was part of SALT I (still in effect) and renewed the arms race
the U.S.S.R. was concerned about SDI and it was a point of contention in attempts to hold arms negotiations
USSR
1971-1984 Soviets increased defense spending 5% per year and during the 1980s the quality, sophistication, and capability of Soviet aircraft, subs, warships and missiles improved significantly but by 1985 the spending of defence was causing serious problems in the economy
Attempts at Arms Control Negotiations
1979-1985 U.S. and U.S.S.R. were unable to agree on arms control because they could not agree on issues such as the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and NATO's nuclear policy so the arms race continued to escalate
1981 Reagan proposed the zero option in which the U.S. would not deploy missiles in Europe if the Soviets dismantled their SS-20s but the Soviets refused fearing French and British missiles would remain giving NATO an advantage
November 1981 Reagan proposed the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) in place of SALT in an effort to reduce the number of ballistic missiles as well as nuclear warheads but no limits were placed on cruise missiles or bombers areas which the U.S. maintained superiority
no progress on arms control made until Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985 Détente Renewed and Arms Control Agreements 1985-1989
Reasons for Détente
1985-1989 a new era of détente emerged as a result of several factors:
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Reagan was concerned about his historical legacy and wanted to erase the unpopular anti-communist stance he developed in his first term
Gorbachev inherited a backward economy and USSR spent significant amount of money on the military at the expense of consumer goods and he wanted to implement domestic reforms > glasnost and perestroika
Détente: 1985-1989 Arms Control Agreements
Summit Meeting Results/AgreementNovember 1985Geneva
Reagan and Gorbachev agreed that a nuclear war could never be won and must not be risked
no agreement was reached but the meeting established a friendly relationship between the two nations that laid the groundwork for future negotiations
October 1986 Reykjavik
Gorbachev proposed a 50% reduction of strategic missiles and limit testing of the SDI to the lab but Reagan rejected the proposal because he did not want to abandon the SDI
December 1987 Washington
December 8 1987 Reagan and Gorbachev signed the Intermediate-range Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty which was the first Soviet-American disarmament treaty
it required the destruction of 1600 Soviet and 400 U.S. missiles and was viewed as a positive beginning to a new era of American-Soviet friendliness
May 1988Moscow
the main topic of discussion at the meeting was human rights and no concrete agreement was reached on START
December 1988New York
in a speech to the UN Gorbachev pledged to reduce Soviet armed forces by 10%, withdraw 50,000 troops from Eastern Europe, and reduce Soviet tanks in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary by 50%
he also reiterated his commitment to restructure the Soviet economy in an atmosphere of openness which he called glasnost
Bush and Gorbachev - Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) 1991
July 31, 1991Moscow
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
U.S. and the USSR agreed not to deploy more than 6,000 nuclear warheads atop a total of 1,600 ICBMs, submarine-launched ballistic missiles, and bombers
START negotiated the largest arms control treaty in history, and its final implementation in late 2001 resulted in the removal of about 80% of all strategic nuclear weapons then in existence
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Gorbachev's Reforms 1985-1989
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Gorbachev’s Reforms: Perestroika and Glasnost
March 11 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party
Gorbachev replaced aging and unimaginative members of the Politburo (executive committee that controls policy) with younger people who had technical expertise and created a Politburo that supported his policies
radical left and conservative right of the party attacked Gorbachev’s reforms
Perestroika and Glasnost
the cornerstones of Gorbachev’s reform program were glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) which were to be enhanced by uskorenie (acceleration) and demokratizatsiya (democratization)
perestroika was the most significant because it involved the restructuring of both the political and economic systems
perestroika had to be supported by policies of democratization and openness (glasnost) to counteract the bureaucratic inertia (lack of progress) that had resulted in economic stagnation while acceleration meant the country had to get moving again and set production targets that encourage an increase in the quality of manufactured good
Agriculture RAPO maintained collectivization Gorbachev was criticized for not decollectivizing agriculture which was done in
China and resulted in increased production
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Gosagroprom (agricultural ministry) unable to increase agricultural production effectively and as a result 1989-1990 winter it was often impossible for people to obtain butter, meat, or fresh fruit and vegetables
Private Enterprise one of the key elements of Gorbachev’s economic reform was the encouragement
of private enterprise as represented in the Enterprise Law introduced June 1987 the Enterprise Law established the independence of small business operations
from the state ministries and Gosplan (planning committee) but the state could order as much as 50-70% of the enterprises output and
ministries began to demand more and more of the enterprises production and left little or nothing for private sale and as a result neutralized one of the key elements of economic reform
cooperative ventures also faced challenges as there was hostility towards those who achieved higher incomes by their own efforts and the Ministry of Finance stifled incentive by imposing high taxes
one of the primary problems of Gorbachev’s attempt to adopt some characteristics of a market system is the absence of a history of private enterprise as Soviet citizens had little experience with individual responsibility for their own economic well-being
Challenges to Gorbachev's Leadership from the Left and Right
it became apparent that without significant political changes economic progress was not possible
Gorbachev’s changes in personnel in his first year were not sufficient to pave the way for his reform movement and structural change in the system was necessary if economic progress was to be achieved but once middle managers realized the impact of reorganization on them they resisted
the first serious challenge to Gorbachev’s leadership occurred at the 1987 plenum (assembly) of the Central Committee from Boris Yeltsin the leader of the Party in Moscow who supported radical reform
Yeltsin was impatient with the pace of change and the power of the conservatives and criticized the Politburo for moving too slowly on reform and how it should be implemented
Gorbachev fired Yeltsin and believed Yeltsin wanted to revolutionize rather than restructure the Soviet system
the conservatives were encouraged by Yeltsin's dismissal and became even more vocal in their resistance to reform
March 1988 conservative criticism of Gorbachev’s reforms culminated in the publication of a letter that suggested Gorbachev's de-Stalinization program and liberalization had destabilized society
Central Committee secretary Yegor Ligachev praised the letter publicly and hoped to discourage reform and promote the election of anti-reform delegates at the upcoming Nineteenth Party Congress
April Gorbachev counterattacked at a Politburo meeting and confronted Ligachev and his supporters and demanded an explanation for their attack on perestroika
Pravda newspaper attacked Ligachev and supported Gorbachev and stated perestroika was essential for the renewal of Soviet society
Glasnost (openness)
Gorbachev’s glasnost permitted greater freedom of expression and of the press but there were still limits
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despite its limitations glasnost allowed a view of Soviet society not possible before Gorbachev as crime, alcoholism, and prostitution were regular topics in the Soviet media and it was possible to criticize medical care, government construction projects and the government’s involvement in Afghanistan
glasnost also promoted a discussion of ethnic concerns and historical disputes that led to instability in a number of areas such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Soviet southwest
under Stalin local ethnic identities were discouraged and Russian culture and language promoted to bind the diverse nation together
after Stalin’s death the nationalities issue emerged as an undercurrent of destabilization as non-Russians viewed Russification as a threat and began to express grievances about language, religion, and immigration
Gorbachev inherited this nationalistic discontent when he came to power in 1985
Structural Changes
June 28 1988 the Nineteenth Party Congress met and Gorbachev used the conference as a platform to promote his program of radical reform and to institutionalize the concepts of democratization and glasnost as it became evident that economic reform required political reform
Gorbachev proposed a major restructuring of the Soviet political system as the party apparatus would be cut by 50% which would result in a substantial reduction in personnel, elimination of departments that duplicated government services, and removal of party functionaries from local economic problems
the reforms Gorbachev planned to implement in the U.S.S.R. promised to radically change both the political and economic structure of the Soviet Union
however by late 1988 national unrest spurred on by glasnost and democratization threatened the stability of the Soviet Union and along with the lack of improvement in access to consumer goods the rising unrest signaled serious dangers to Gorbachev’s program of reform
Poland and Solidarity 1980-1981
Propaganda stamp for perestroika, "Be Bold, Comrade! Openness: Our
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Poland and Solidarity
July 1980 Polish government imposed substantial price increases that provoked strikes throughout the country
August 14 strikes were held in the shipyards in Gdnask led by Lech Walesa the workers refused wage increases and wanted recognition as a trade union August 17 the Gdnask strikers received symbolic support from the Church when a
mass was conducted outside the shipyards August 31 Walesa achieved the Gdansk Accord which granted the workers' right
to establish independent unions, right to strike, better working conditions, radio broadcasts of mass, relaxed censorship and easing of political control > by September these terms were extended to all unions
September 22 1980 unions throughout Poland united and formed Solidarity to establish greater bargaining power
Soviets did not intervene because Polish nationalism was strong and intervention would be met with fierce resistance; they were also preoccupied with Afghanistan
autumn 1981 as the economic crises continued the government wanted concessions from the workers but Solidarity wanted a say in the management of the country in return > price of food and tobacco increased
October 1981 General Jaruzelski became general secretary and by the end of November it was obvious Jaruzelski was not going to allow Solidarity any real power and talks between the government and Solidarity reached an impasse and strikes staged throughout the country since autumn escalated
December 12 some national leaders of Solidarity proposed a national day of protest to be followed by a national vote on the Communist leadership, free elections, and the military relationship between Poland and the Soviet Union
December 13 1982 Jaruzelski imposed martial law as this was a direct challenge to the government’s authority > strikes were outlawed and Solidarity leaders arrested
U.S. imposed economic sanctions to force the government to make reforms August 1984 political prisoners were released and U.S. lifted many of the
sanctions Poland continued to suffer economic difficulties and its debt increased to $30
billion in 1986 contributing to the already great difficulties the Poles experienced
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1989 Eastern Europe Revolutions
Factors in the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe 1989
1989 liberation movements in Eastern Europe signaled the end of the Cold War and the collapse of communism in the U.S.S.R.
Solidarity/Poland Solidarity movement in Poland had massive support and paved the way for the
liberation of Eastern Europe from Soviet domination and Communism
Economic failure of communism Eastern European nations experienced the same economic problems as the
U.S.S.R. which was economic stagnation and an economy unable to meet the needs of the people in consumer goods
Communication technology developments in communications made it difficult for authoritarian regimes to
censor information and communications networks accessed by people fax, radio, tv, internet provided information about West raising people’s
expectations
Mikhail Gorbachev the political and economic reforms referred to as glasnost (openness) and
perestroika (restructuring) initiated by Gorbachev after 1985 had a significant impact on the events in Eastern Europe in 1989
Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost (openness) encouraged freedom of movement in Eastern Europe
Gorbachev renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine and was unwilling to use force to crush reform movements as was the case by previous Soviet leaders in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968
Nationalism nationalism was a strong force in Eastern Europe and in nations like Poland and
Czechoslovakia it contributed to the liberation of these countries from Soviet domination > anti-Russian sentiment
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1989 Revolutions in Eastern Europe
during 1989 Gorbachev passively watched Eastern European nation one after another break away from communist and Soviet domination
the domino effect that the West feared was occurring in reverse as the well planned movements against communism in Poland and Hungary were followed by spontaneous movements against communism in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania
the changes occurred with no interference from Moscow and little or no resistance from the communist governments of the Eastern European nations and except in Romania the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe was not violent
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Poland
April 5 1989 Solidarity leaders signed an accord with the government that provided for the restoration of its legal status and free and open elections
June 4 election was a major defeat for the Communist party as Solidarity won 99 of 100 seats in the upper house and all 161 seats in the lower house
the election results contributed to the resignation of President Wojciech Jaruzelski as leader of the Communist party July 29 1989
August 19 1989 President Jaruzelski designated a Solidarity leader Tadeusz Mazowiecki as prime minister
December 1990 Lech Walesa became President
Hungary
by 1985 Party leader Janos Kadar began to democratize Hungary but the Communist party was divided on the issue of reforms and when the liberals gained control of the Party in May 1988 Kadar was replaced by Karoly Grosz
the Communist party's control began to erode when it announced that non-communist parties would be tolerated in early 1989
May 2 1989 Hungary began to cut the barbed wire of the Iron Curtain that sealed off its border with Austria in a symbolic move
the Communist party's popularity began to decrease as a variety of liberal parties emerged > Alliance of Free Democrats, Democratic Front
October 7 1989 the Communist party formally disbanded and reconstituted itself as the Hungarian Socialist party which vowed to follow democratic procedures and reform its programs to meet the needs of the people
March 1990 election Democratic Forum won and Jozsef Natal became PM
East Germany
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as the barbed wire between Hungary and Austria came down many East Germans sought permission from the Hungarian embassy to make their way through Hungary to Austria and then to West Germany
during the summer of 1989 6000 East Germans arrived in Vienna via Budapest but as the number of East Germans attempting to flee to West Germany via Hungary increased the East German government tightened restrictions to cut the flow of refugees in September; East Germans responded by going to the embassy in Prague
by October 1 trains were transporting young East Germans to Prague to gain sanctuary at the West German embassy before going to West Germany
as the number of refugees increased demands grew for the lifting of travel restrictions and for democratic reforms and demonstrations occurred in several East German cities and under pressure from its own people and the Hungarian government the government allowed 30,000 people to emigrate
October 18 the Communist party replaced hard liner Erich Honecker with Egon Krenz as leader but the change in leadership and easing of travel restrictions did not stem the flow of refugees which was the largest migration of East Germans since the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961
November 4 1989 500 000 people demonstrated in East Berlin demanding democratic reform and on November 7 the East German cabinet resigned
November 9 the government opened the Berlin Wall
German Reunification
U.S.S.R. did not want a reunited Germany to be part of NATO and France was concerned about German strength
West German Chancellor Kohl met with Gorbachev in February and July 1990 to discuss German reunification and negotiations resulted in Gorbachev's approval to German reunification as a sovereign state with membership in NATO in return Kohl pledged financial support in reconstruction of East Germany and aid to the U.S.S.R.
July 1 1990 East and West Germany were united economically October 2 1990 East and West Germany were reunited politically December 2 Kohl was elected Chancellor of the reunited Germany Germany's task then became the reconstruction of the eastern region where
decades of central planning had resulted in a stagnant economy
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Bulgaria
Bulgarian dissidents began to voice concern about environmental pollution opening the door to other criticisms of the government
November 10 1989 partly because of economic problems Communist party leader Todor Zhivkov resigned
December 10 the Union of Democratic Forces led a demonstration in Sofia and as a result forced the new leader Petar Mladenov to promise free elections in the spring and to relinquish absolute power
Czechoslovakia
October 28 1989 10 000 people demonstrated in Prague and were met by armed police and temporary order was imposed by Party leader Milos Jakes
November 20 more than 200 000 people demonstrated in Prague demanding free elections and calling for a general strike
November 25 the Communist party leadership resigned their positions November 27 the Czechoslovakian work force participated in a general strike demonstrations continued and a group called Civic Forum was established and
was determined to create political opposition to the Communist party December 7 Ladislav Adamec resigned as PM and replaced by Marian Calfa December 10 negotiations between Civic Forum and the Communist party
resulted in the resignation of Gustav Husak as president December 29 election Vaclav Havel became the new president and demanded
free parliamentary elections be held in the new year and the new parliament would select the president > Alexander Dubcek became premier
1992 the Czechs and Slovaks separated creating the new nations of the Czech Republic and Slovakia
Romania
Nicolae Ceausescu was the brutal and repressive leader of Romania December 17 demonstrations occurred in Timisoara to protest the arrest of the
Reverend Toekes and the army met the demonstrators with tanks and shot thousands of unarmed men, women and children > a mass grave was discovered after the incident and tensions increased
December 22 demonstrations were held again but this time the soldiers refused orders to shoot the protesters
December 25 Ceausescu and his wife were arrested in a coup and executed May 20 election Ion Iliescu became the new president
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Collapse of the USSR 1990-1991
Economic, Nationalist and Political Problems
economic, nationalist, and political difficulties threatened throughout the winter of 1990-1991 to tear the Soviet Union apart
economic reforms under perestroika failed to revive the centrally planned system inefficiencies in harvest, transportation and distribution systems created a food
shortage and resulted in food rationing Gorbachev refused to allow private property or conversion to the free market October 1990 a Five Hundred Day Plan to convert the economy to capitalism over
a 500-day period was rejected and instead a currency reform aimed at removing excess rubles from the system and reducing inflation was implemented but this further eroded the confidence in the banking system and wreaked havoc with the private sector of business
separatist movements resulting from nationalist forces threatened the existence of the Soviet Union as all 15 republics declared their sovereignty
January 1991 Gorbachev ordered the Red Army to stop the independence movement in Lithuania as he was determined to retain control and as a result 13 people were killed by the Red Army
Gorbachev claimed no knowledge of the action and as a result lost credibility February 1991 Lithuanians voted 90% in favour of establishing an independent
state despite intimidation from Moscow political challenges faced Gorbachev as well as nationalist challenges Gorbachev consolidated his power during 1990 to give him more control than any
other Soviet leader since Stalin Yeltsin, leader of the Russian Republic, posed a serious challenge > he advocated
private property and conversion to a free market system Foreign Minister Eduard Schevardnadze resigned because he believed that a
dictatorship was being developed
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Attempted Coup August 1991
July 1991 Gorbachev was invited to the G-7 conference which he hoped to be able to obtain financial assistance to stabilize the Soviet economy but he was not able to secure a loan > Yeltsin ridiculed Gorbachev for his failure
Gorbachev proposed the Union Treaty between the republics and the central government that would give the republics more autonomy and set August 20 as the implementation date
the conservatives opposed the treaty and published a letter opposing Gorbachev’s plans using extreme language and their obvious defiance of the state was a precursor to the coup attempt
August 19 while Gorbachev was on vacation in the Crimea eight senior party officials (refer to GF p.306) staged a coup d’etat and seized control of the government in Moscow and Gorbachev was placed under house arrest
the turning point occurred when Yeltsin climbed on a tank and rallied the crowd in front of the Russian Parliament and denounced the Committee
Yeltsin's supporters set up barricades around the building forcing the coup leaders to use the army against its own people
the coup leaders were divided over using violence and announced it had given up on August 22 and Gorbachev returned to Moscow on the same day
Yeltsin and Gorbachev worked out a power sharing agreement but it was clear Yeltsin had emerged from the power struggle as the stronger leader
the coup failed because communications lines were not cut, potential enemies of the revolution were not arrested, and troops were not strategically placed
the coup attempt had a number of significant consequences: Yeltsin emerged from the coup attempt stronger than Gorbachev and
enhanced his stature as his actions were viewed by many Russians as having saved the day while Gorbachev was unable to do anything because he was under house arrest and consequently became a “lame duck” leader
the Red Army was politically discredited and lost most of its influence the independence movements in the republics gained momentum ultimately the coup signaled the end of the Soviet Union as Moscow was
unable to control the republics and the Soviet Union began to fall apart
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The Commonwealth of Independent States
December 1 1991 Ukraine voted in favour of independence which led to the other republics to leave the Soviet Union
December 8 Yeltsin of Russia, Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine, Stanislav Shushkevich of Belarus met in Minsk, Belarus and agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union > Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Belorussia) were the original three republics of the USSR that was created in 1922
the Soviet Union was replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States a loose federation of sovereign (independent) states designed to empower these areas while at the same time link them economically
December 21 meeting in Alama Ata, Kazakhstan the Commonwealth of Independent States was declared the successor of the Soviet Union and now included eleven of the former Soviet republics > Georgia joined in 1994
December 25 1991 Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union bringing to an end the Soviet Union
Factors in the Fall of Communism and Collapse of the USSR
Political Stagnation
Communist Party officials lived a privileged life and wanted to maintain itand did nothing to encourage reform of the political system
the party’s leadership was unwilling to abandon communist ideology in order to bring about necessary changes
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Military Spending/Arms Race
military spending varied from 15%-25% of the Gross National Product (GNP) (U.S. spent 5%-7%) which placed a heavy burden on the Soviet economy
the USSR was forced to spend a large portion of its national wealth in the arms race with the U.S. which they could not afford
Nationalism
about 50% of the population of the USSR was not ethnically Russian USSR repressed ethnic/nationalist desires and imposed policy of Russification
which non-Russians resented glasnost unintentionally unleashed ethnic nationalist forces in the republics
Afghanistan
the war undermined the strength of the economy
opposition to the war developed following the introduction of glasnost
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Mikhail Gorbachev
Gorbachev’s economic and politic reforms - perestroika and glasnost - lead to demands for greater economic and political freedoms
Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost unleashed ethnic nationalism and led to demands for independence by the republics
Failure of Perestroika/Economy
1985-1990 many basic consumer items rationed and Soviets had to endure line-ups for consumer goods
perestroika did not improve the economy
Eastern European Revolutions 1989
the demand for change and opposition to the Communist Party in Eastern Europe that liberated them from Soviet control influenced the people in the republics of the USSR (i.e. domino effect)
GlasnostPerestroika
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Boris Yeltsin
as President of the Russian Republic Yeltsin undermined Gorbachev’s power Yeltsin lead Russia’s move to independence Yeltsin was instrumental in opposing the coup in August 1991 which earned him
popularity and credibility at the expense of Gorbachev
Left and Right Opposition
left/radical reformers (Yeltsin) supported reforms but felt that Gorbachev did not go far enough
right/conservatives (Ligachev) opposed reforms and felt Gorbachev had gone too far
the left/right opposition divided the party
Flag of Russian Republic
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August 19-22 1991 Coup Attempt
the failed coup attempt by right wing hardliners in the Communist Party undermined Gorbachev’s power
the coup gave independence movements in the republics momentum and signaled the end of the Soviet Union
Boris Yelstin Yegor Ligachev
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