Unit Two Part Three

18th Century Society and CultureChapters 10 and 11

Traditional CultureSocial Class

• Men and Women saw themselves as part of their “class” it defined them in society. Not completely static, but pretty well set. As politics and economics change, social change will come as well.

• Social structure had developed during Middle Ages, During Age of Absolutism (17 c) it will remain rigid, in 18 c it will begin to shift, huge changes will come in 19 c

• 4 basic groups

Aristocrats• 1-5% of population (depending on Country) Had

wealth, as well as political and social power. Nobility only people other than royalty that might generally have a voice in gov’t.

• Ownership of land key to $$. Primogeniture still common (in Eng younger sons go into business, in other areas become members of clergy or gov’t officials)

• Labor (even business) often considered “beneath” them- expected to live lives of grandeur and idleness. Often exempt from Taxes

Peasants

• In western Europe free, but in East still often serfs. Seldom moved far from where they were born

• Some in West has small plots of land, but most had become tenant farmers through enclosure movement. (had to pay at least 1/3 of crop to land lord) Also, had to pay fees to use mills, ovens, presses owned by landlord.

• Strong resentment of nobles

Towns and cities

• Very much a minority group before 1700s (except in Netherlands and Italy)

• Had greater access to education, culture, and trade. Wealthy townspeople might be as rich as nobility (merchants etc…generally richest)

• Middle classes were developing a distinct lifestyle

• Lower urban classes would be journeymen, apprentices, servants and laborers

Clergy• No longer a distinct social class- instead it

reflected other levels in society.• In Catholic countries: Village priests little better

than peasants, Bishops were younger sons of aristocrats (and also strongly resented)

• Protestant religious leaders tended to come from middle classes- more integrated into society (had families etc…)

• Still important parts of life- marriages, baptisms and burials. Major source of Charity- major network of Education

Marriage and FamilyNorthwestern Europe Eastern Europe• Nuclear family typical

(not extended) Men did not marry until adult, independent and established (27 average age)

• Households of ordinary people fairly small, 204 kids, children live @ home until early teens, then enter work force. Needed legal permission from parents to marry.

• Married much earlier- often before 20, tended to have larger families.

• More likely to live in extended family situations, in part because of serfdom, in part b/c of different social structure. (communal work)

Prior to 1750 After 1750• Typical wife would give

birth to 6+ kids (there would be even more NOT born) about ½ survive.

• In west- if you couldn’t marry until you could afford your own home, might have to wait until dad died to inherit land/business.

• 40-60% of women never married.

• Out of wedlock birthrate low

• Cottage industry increased marriage for love (didn’t have to wait as long for financial independence)

• Increasing illegitimacy (high as 33%) result of rebellion against marriage restrictions, and increased mobility of workers as IR took off

Women and Family• Most women confined to

family life. Could be independent- but that was rare. Kept her parent’s house, then kept her own.

• Like boys- often “worked out” as a teen- accumulating $$ for dowry. Classes differed in types of work, but lower classes expected to contribute

• Domestic service most common occupation for girls (even girls of middle class could become governesses etc…)

• Greatest risk at work was becoming a sexual victim, if caught, or unpleasant, could be dismissed- with little other choice but prostitution or thievery.

Children

• People got married- and had kids. Multiple pregnancies typical- and even for wealthy infant mortality was high.

• If lived in cities (and could afford it) Children sent away to the country to be raised in “healthier” atmosphere.

• Poor women typically breast fed for 3 years for nutrition and birth control.

• Upper class women didn’t breast feed their babies, hired a “wet-nurse”

Child Rearing• High mortality rate made parents reluctant to

bond with children until they were nearly grown. Upper/middle classes would “see” children once a day (after supper, before bedtime) other than that- mostly raised by servants

• “Spare the rod- Spoil the Child”. Children treated as short adults with strict physical discipline to “break” their will

• Reformation and Enlightenment begin to refocus family attitude- but notion of “childhood” as a happy time won’t come about until Victorian age

Infanticide• If you had an unwanted

pregnancy (either illegitimate or just too poor) there was little that could be done before child was born.

• Statistics are unreliable, but many children died from “Accidents” like overlaying (parents rolled on them in bed)

• Others abandoned in Foundling Hospitals

• Hospitals in major cities like Paris/London took in up to 500 babies a year- at least ½ of whom died. (up to 90% in some areas) Legalized infanticide

Education• Formal education (actual

school) not part of life of the masses- at least ½ still illiterate- but literacy increasing

• Elementary schools began to develop- with specialized curriculum for different levels of students.

• Prussia 1st country with universal elementary initiative 1717

• Jump in literacy in 1700s inspired by Reformation (read bible) in 1600s.

• By 1800 90% of Scots, Dutch and Swiss literate (Calvinists took bible reading seriously)70% of French, 50% of English, but less than 20% of Eastern Europeans

Work Away from Home

• In lower classes, all family members expected to contribute- at home or outside it.

• From age 7-14 boys were apprenticed- wages (if any) went to parents

Health and Hygiene

• Both rich and poor susceptible to tainted water/food sources. (worst in city, most people drank wine or beer, considered healthier than water)

• Late 18 c efforts made to improve sanitation- drain swamps etc… but healthcare overall limited by lack of knowledge.

• Bloodletting still a common treatment- bathing considered dangerous. (powder and clean linen)

Smallpox

• Most important medical breakthrough of early modern age was innoculation for smallpox

• 25% of deaths every year (around 400,000 a year, 60 million during 1700s in Europe as a whole) came from Smallpox.

• Lady Mary Montague introduced the Turkish practice of inoculation (criticized) Edward Jenner developed a reliable vaccination for smallpox 1778

Elite vs. Popular Culture

• Aristocrats and peasants had different values, beliefs, customs (middle class had $$, but weren’t always welcome, which they resented)

• Elites created a “republic of letters” and international (French speaking) sophisticated civilization. Needed education, wit and charm to participate

The Grand Tour

• As culmination of education- a tradition of travel to major cities – especially to see the ruins of antiquity (Greece and Rome)

• 1st modern “tourism” industry- cities built “attractions” (plaza, gardens, theaters, opera houses etc…)

• Streetlights and public transportation systems created. Coffeehouses provided places to mingle

• Typical to be gone 6-12 months. Men went in pairs or small groups- Girls escorted by chaperones

Salons

• Drawing rooms of wealthy women became setting for gatherings of thinkers to discuss ideas and enjoy artistic performances. Birthplace of new ideas

• Most famous were in Paris, but London, Vienna, Berlin all had as well

• Madame Geoffrin’s and Madame de Stael’s the most famous

• Intellect is fashionable- interesting that these gatherings of men discussing ideas were held in homes of wealthy women

Masonic Lodges

• Another venue for cultural sharing. Fraternal organizations dedicated to Human values (reason, progress, toleration, reform)- but as secret societies.

• Began in Eng- spread to continent. Members came from a variety of social classes (that was the trick) to discuss mutual self- improvement

• Freemasons aroused suspicion- plenty of conspiracy theories

Learned Academies

• Originally for nobles interested in learning- the first were “literary institutes”, but soon shifted to science, politics and other matters.

• “Commoners” began to be admitted in 1770s

• Often began with king’s patronage (“royal academy of….”) came to be centers of new thought- amateur interest in science, anthropology, archeology etc…. Again- showing importance of intellect in this age

Journalism

• Periodicals (magazines) began in Eng and became popular quickly (1700, 25 published- 1780, 158)

• Daily newspapers also began in England- London Chronicle the 1st.

• More censored in absolutist countries (like France, Austria)

• Grew out of reformation- people had used them to follow religious arguments

• Often built around a particular subject- politics, science etc..

Art

• France replaced Italy as the cultural leader of Europe.

• Baroque style came to be seen as too showy (moving out of age of kings- developed Neoclassicism: an emphasis on clarity, balance, and harmony in design

• Popular in late 1700s- early 1800s. Another reflection of ideals of Greece and Rome- a bit more elaborate than they had been during Renaissance.

• Used in public buildings and private residences

Rococo

• Another option….began in 1730s- even more highly and frivolously decorated (the word means “shellwork”- took inspiration from nature- like seashells and flowers)

• Smaller and subtler than Baroque, emphasized grace, motion, asymmetry and curvature. Pastoral rather than heroic

• Strongly identified with court of Louis XV and XVI (particularly Marie Antoinette) Wanted to create more intimate settings and playful scenes

• Fragonard most famous Rococo painter

Music

• Shift from Italy (music for church) to France and Austria (music for kings) Baroque music dense and heavy- Bach

• 18th cen a great age for music- the “classical” age. Perfected art of symphony, music concerts became popular- musicians play in Salons

• George Handel, Franz Hayden, Wolfgang Mozart, Frederick Chopin

Literature

• Novels became popular (Characters in a realistic social context) often mirroring everyday problems. Poetry gaining popularity as well

• Especially popular in France- 300 published between 1700-1730 (often sold as serials in periodicals)

• Samuel Richardson: “Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded” 1740

• Henry Fielding “Tom Jones” 1749• Daniel Defoe “Robinson Crusoe” 1719, “Moll

Flanders” 1722

Romanticism

• The next movement- beginning at the turn of the 19th century

• Celebrating emotion and passion.

• William Wordsworth• Samuel Taylor Coleridge,

Johan Von Goethe, (Sturm and Drang) Faust

• Emotion over reason (rejection of reason of science and enlightenment)

• Age of poetry, gothic novels and pre-Raphaelite painting. Full of tragic heroes misunderstood by society and allegories to tales of middle ages (king Arthur)

Popular Culture

• For ordinary people “culture” meant recreation- done in groups, & in public.

• Festivals begun in middle ages- often religious- times of release from a hard life. Carnival (primarily in Mediterranean countries)

• Taverns- men gather to share news, play games, and do business. Gin/Beer (Eng) Vodka (Russia)

• Booklets, Almanacs• Storytelling, folktales, fairy tales (don’t need to be highly

literate, could be read aloud)• Songs- often Bawdy

Religion/Churches

• Europe is still vast majority Christian- but by this point even protestant churches seemed involved in maintaining status quo.

• New movements grew as ideas shifted- focusing on change and helping fellow man

Pietism

• German movement- emphasized emotional content in Christian faith.

• Reassertion of “Priesthood of all Believers”• Bible study- beginning of “born again”

movement (like Anabaptists, can’t join until adult)

Quakers

• Society of Friends- founded by George Fox (1624-1691) emphasized personal, inner religious experience

• Services spontaneous, no leaders, gathering houses- pacifist

Methodists

• Founded by John Wesley (1703-1791) an Anglican minister who had a “transformative” experience – convincing him others could be saved by “experiencing” God.

• Inner conversion- found support in lower classes as industrialization took off

• Concerned about complacency in religion and skepticism of Enlightenment

• Rejected Predestination- God will save anyone who wants to be saved- strong on concept of Free Will. Positive, full of hope and joy (loved music)

Suppression of Jesuits

• Created during Counter- Reformation, had been an important part of RC policy for 200 years. But annoyed absolute rulers when they interfered in politics etc…

• Kings complained and order suppressed by Pope in 1773 (reorganized, limited to teaching, and reauthorized 1814)

Toleration of Minorities

• Growing acceptance of idea of multiple Christian faiths- but not always (ex. Louis xiv revoking Edict of Nantes) Last execution for Heresy- 1781, but didn’t mean everyone likes each other….

• Jews are main religious minority in Europe- most (approx 3,000,000) live in Eastern Europe (esp. Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine) 150,000 in Austria, 100,000 in Ger. States, 40,000 in France, 10,000 in England

• Generally kept separate from society with combo of cultural choice and law (ghettos) Pogroms- outbursts of persecution

Chapter 11: The Age of Enlightenment

What is it?

• The Enlightenment advocated applying principles of the Scientific Revolution to understanding all life.

• Thinkers believed their role was to bring progress to the world through the use of reason. Wanted ideas to reach the public- and have ordinary people apply critical thinking to their own lives (don’t just accept- think)

Popularization of Science

• Believed that science can not only unravel the mysteries of the universe, but everyday problems as well

• Translate “discoveries” into layman’s terms- make scientists household names

• Heading towards a new world view: Reason, NOT Revelation, is the key to the world.

• Secularization of society

Isaac Newton

• Incorporated astronomy/physics of Galileo into one extraordinary theory that explained the order and design of the universe. Reconciled seemingly conflicting discoveries with ideas like gravity.

• Principa Mathematica 1687- all motion can be measured with the same formulas

• Because the “laws” of the universe are constant- no divine power is required to run the natural world (foundation of deism- got made the world and let it go)

• Also invented Calculus (gee, thanks Isaac)

Newtonian Synthesis

• Everything is the universe is governed by the same set of laws – and the entire universe is united by gravity (all bodies are attracting all other bodies constantly) into one majestic system.

• Revolutionary b/c even other scientists had considers heavens and earth two separate things- Newton brought them together

Impact of Science on Enlightenment

• Single biggest factor in creating the worldview which would inspire the enlightenment

• Characterized by….

• Spirit of experimentation also led to agricultural improvements and improvements in sanitation etc…

• Sci/Rel still not in “conflict”- scientists believed they were studying God’s creation

Reason

• Application of methods of Science to other parts of life

• Accept nothing on faith- everything must be examined (even Faith itself)

Social Science

• Laws of science apply to human society, discover the forces that govern human nature (like gravity does for the universe)

Progress

• Once you figure out how things work- you can USE that info to create better societies and better people. Progress can be made, social problems solved

Spreading ideas and achievements

• Scientific writing can be dull- other thinkers “popularized” the ideas of scientists by putting their work in ordinary terms

• Bernard de Fontenelle “The Plurality of the World” 1686- about Newton’s ideas

• Math and Science became fashionable “hobbies”- with lectures and meetings for amateurs. Result- increasing skepticism towards “accepted” (but unproven) viewpoints

What is the Enlightenment?

• Emergence of a secular world view for 1st time since ancient Greece- autonomy of intellect (completely separate from Religion) and you USE this knowlegde/reason to make the world a better place

• The Universe is governed by natural law- not a supernatural being (though they believed in a creator- deism)

Early Thinkers

They set the stage…….

Thomas Hobbes

• Leviathan 1651. Written just after Eng. Civil War and execution of Charles I.

• 1st to define the idea of the Social Contract. We give up our freedom to the gov’t and in return- gov’t keeps us safe. Humans are naturally violent and selfish- and gov’t needs to be strong to protect us from our own nature. Agreed with absolutism, but thought king had obligation to use powers for good of subjects

John Locke

• “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” 1690. Explained human psychology in terms of their experience. – Tabula Rosa: we are

born “blank slates”- and experience (not nature) determines who we are- so human nature can be modified

• We are not born condemned by original sin (or automatically sinful in nature)- but are masters of our fate

• Talks about the importance of our environment- therefore education in the key to progress.

Natural Rights

• Second Treatise on Government 1690. Talked about the role of gov’t in an individual’s life. In the “state of nature” people are free and equal, but through civilization we have created inequality and chaos.

• We are born with natural rights (Life, Liberty and Property) We give up freedom to the gov’t – (per Hobbes) but do NOT abdicate those rights. Gov’t is only legal if it rules with the consent of the governed.

• People have the right to overthrow a gov’t that does not protect their rights

Why France?

• First thinkers were English- but the soul of the Enlightenment will be in France- the center of a “Republic of Letters” which transcended national boundaries

• What made France the Center?

International Language

• Most educated people (even in other countries) spoke French.

• Cultural center of Europe- richest and largest population

Government

• Louis XIV may have been the “poster child” for absolutism- but didn’t really use his power to interfere with subject’s lives (as was common in Eastern Euro)

• And because they WERE absolutist (had no voice) thinkers were interested in rights etc… in a way they might not have been if it was a constitutional gov’t

Support for Reform

• Looking for REAL change- wanted to understand how society worked so they could make it better. Wanted recognition for individual freedoms and political rights

Salons

• This is where the conversations were happening- bringing together writers, philosophers, artists, scientists etc… all the people with new ideas.

• People anxious to debate- affirming the idea that talent/intellect were more important than noble heritage

The Philosophes

• French word for enlightenment thinkers. Not “philosophers” (who sought truth) but “lovers of wisdom” – wanted to reform thought, society, and government to promote liberty. Spoke at Salons, wrote pamphlets, newspapers, novels etc..

• Not generally professional thinkers (like Locke, or Newton) this was their passion.

• Generally really optimistic (perhaps overly)- and in favor of radical change

Voltaire: Francois Marie Arouet• 1694-1778• Began as a playwright. Used a

careful balance between creativity and flaunting authority (would get him exiled from France and Prussia in the end) Admired English- found their society open and free.

• Candide- famous satire on noble priv.

• Probably least optimistic- warned change would take tremendous struggle

• Very sarcastic- ridiculed those who disagreed with him (which would earn him powerful enemies)

• Challenged RC theology- called for toleration for ALL faiths

• Advocated “Enlightened Despotism” in government.

• Believed in equality before the law

Denis Diderot

• 1713-1784• Editor and author of

Encyclopedia: a Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, and Arts and the Crafts (took 25 years to compile) an attempt to classify all knowledge (disliked by church because it questioned doctrine)

• Central idea: knowledge is rational- it follows the laws of nature, it can be understood

• Compendium of views- some conflicting- helped popularize the ideas of the philosophes- teach people to think critically and objectively

Caesar Beccaria

• “On Crimes and Punishment” 1764• Sought to humanize criminal law. Punishment

for crime should relate to amount of damage done- not sin. Said it should be more about rehabilitation (what made person commit crime in first place)

• Opposed use of death penalty and torture.

Baron de Montesquieu

• 1689-1755• A noble, but against absolutism and noble

privilege. “Persian Letters”- 2 despots come to France, and ridicule it as backwards.

• “Spirit of the Laws” 1748- applied scientific principles to gov’t, advocated separation of powers and checks and balances.

• Shaped evolution of liberal democracy

Immanuel Kant

• 1724-1804• Greatest German philosophe. Said science and

morality are separate- science can only describe nature, not evaluate it as right/wrong.

• Believe in a Moral Imperative- that is something is wrong it is ALWAYS wrong, no gray areas

Jean Jacques Rousseau• 1712-1778.• A reluctant philosophe- he said

they were part of the problem.• His big issue was freedom (said

society was destructive to the individual) said people should return to simpler times- characterized by exercise, self reliance and independent thought. (state of nature)

• “Emilie”- education to allow free expression- create a “Noble Savage”

• General Will: (from the “social contract” 1762)- the consensus of the majority should rule the nation. (Democracy- like ancient Athens, but even then all Athenians couldn’t vote)

• Actually closer to ideas of Romanticism (founding father of it) than Enlightenment

Adam Smith

• Scottish. Wrote about economic rather than social issues (this was another type of enlightenment thinker- called Physiocrat)

• 1776 published The Wealth of Nations- in which he defined free market capitalism- where “Invisible Hand” manages supply/demand. “Laissez Faire”- gov’t control interferes with natural laws of the marketplace.

• Assumes econ is cyclical- will regulate its own ups and downs

Francois Quesnay

• French Physiocrat- wanted to reform agrarian system with Laissez Faire policy (end tariffs and price supports) Said gov’t/noble ownership of land was bad- peasants work it, they know it best, but can’t produce in own best interest.

Enlightenment And…

Religion

• Many philosophes were against est. religious doctrine- saying it hampered scientific discovery

• David Hume: said faith is based in superstition rather than reason

• Philosophes discounted the concept of original sin (which said humans were born evil) argued that organized religion not necessary for a good society

Deism

• Combination of religion and reason (Voltaire a big fan)

• God created the world- and let it go- it operates through natural laws rather than divine intervention

• Existence of God rationalized- accepted that there still WERE some things beyond human understanding

• God a divine clockmaker (the highest tech of the day)

Toleration

• Pierre Bayle: Critical and Historical Dictionary 1697 Condemned Christian church for persecution and fanaticism- trying to force all people into thinking the same way. Advocated complete tolerance (echoed by Voltaire)

• Edict of Toleration: Austria 1781. Issued by Joseph II- 1st time gov’t recognized rights of non-christians. (although only RC allowed to worship publically)

Women

• Women’s role in society also debated for the first time- but most philosophes did not advocate equal rights. Said the “natural, biological” differences made them inferior- both physically and intellectually.

Salons

• Irony is that women hosted the Salons where all these ideas were being discussed…. (though the hostess herself might be the only woman there)

• Madame de Geoffrin• Madame de Stael All famous Salons• Louise de Warens

Mary Wollstonecraft

• Often viewed as founder of feminism. Wrote Vindication of Rights of Women in 1792 (takeoff on Declaration of the Rights of Man 1791)

• Two main points– If kings are not to be automatically obeyed- why

must men?– If all men are born free- why are all women born

slaves?

Politics: Liberalism

• Enlightenment inspired movements for political action. Liberty of Individual and Equality before law (most not so interested in democracy- yet)

• Natural rights and the social contract key features in American and French Revolutions

• The idea is that people are interested in change (that is what Liberalism is)- try an new idea rather than stick with tradition (which is what Conservatism is)

Impact of the Enlightenment

• Dominance of Secular world view (which has been growing since Renaissance)

• The reform- actual change- in this period was modest: some religious toleration, streamlining of legal code, access to education, reduction of torture

• But the ideas here will all come to fulfillment- it just takes time to get there.