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Environmentally Sustainable Transport for Asian Cities: A Sourcebook

April 2007Author: Lloyd Wright, Executive Director of VivaFront cover (Kunming, China) and back cover (Kyoto, Japan) photos by Lloyd Wright.

Mission statement of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN/DESA)

The Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat is a vital interfacebetween global policies in the economic, social and environmental spheres and national action. TheDepartment works in three main interlinked areas: (a) it compiles, generates and analyses a wide rangeof economic, social and environmental data and information on which Member States of the UnitedNations draw to review common problems and to take stock of policy options; (b) it facilitates the nego-tiations of Member States in many intergovernmental bodies on joint courses of action to address ongo-ing or emerging global challenges; and (c) it advises interested Governments on the ways and means oftranslating policy frameworks development in United Nations conferences and summits into pro-grammes at the country level and, through technical assistance, helps build national capacities.

United Nations Centre for Regional Development 2007c

Preface

Effective access and mobility is a basis for makingsustainable human development a reality. In Asiatoday, though, as the streets become increasinglycongested and contaminated, the strides beingmade in economic development are at risk. Theuncontrolled growth of cars and motorcycles hasundermined human health, urban environmentalquality, economic productivity, and social equity.

This Sourcebook on Environmentally SustainableTransport for Asian Cities seeks to offer an alter-native to the current mobility form of urban cen-tres that are increasingly chaotic, dangerous,unhealthy, and environmentally damaging.Measures and practices such as efficient publictransport, quality public space and cycleways, andprudent restrictions on private motorised vehicleshave proven effective in not only reducing thenegative impacts of unsustainable transport butalso in providing a means to improve the basicquality of human life.

This document highlights the best practice inEnvironmentally Sustainable Transport as evi-denced by the efforts of leading cities in Asia suchas Hong Kong, Seoul, Singapore, and Tokyo.Additionally, this document builds upon the bodyof knowledge and leadership shown in examplesglobally, including Amsterdam, Bogotá, Brisbane,Copenhagen, Curitiba, Guayaquil, Rouen, andZurich.

Beginning in 2004 with the development of the“Manila Policy Dialogue on Environment and

Transport in the Asian Region”, UNCRD, in collabo-ration with the Ministry of Environment of Japan,has sought to help create a new paradigm intransport practices for the region. With the assis-tance of world-leading sustainable transportexperts and governmental partners, UNCRD devel-oped the “Aichi Statement” in 2005. This state-ment outlined specific actions that cities can takeacross 12 major areas of EnvironmentallySustainable Transport (EST). Additionally, theAichi Statement marked the launch of theRegional EST Forum which brings together allmajor regional stakeholders in addressing theurgent problems facing Asia’s urban transport sector.

This Sourcebook has been prepared in advance ofthe “Asian Mayors Dialogue on EnvironmentallySustainable Transport” being held in April 2007 inKyoto. This event marks another milestone in set-ting a new standard of environmental excellencefor sustainable transport practices in Asian cities.By sharing knowledge amongst Mayors in theregion and by offering support to those citieswishing to pursue a more sustainable path, UNCRDhopes that catalytic new examples will emerge.

The Sourcebook has been produced at a criticaljuncture in the development of Asian cities. Thisyear has already given us the news from the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) inwhich the dangers and spectre of global climatechange are ever more worrying. The transportsector is already recognised as the fastest-growingsource of greenhouse gas emissions, and Asia is atthe front edge of this wave towards increasingmotorisation and increasing emissions.

As populations continue to intensify in urbanareas, the provision of sustainable transportbecomes even more pressing in environmental,economic, and social terms. Once an automobileculture becomes entrenched in the rapidly-grow-ing economies of Asia, there will be few opportu-nities to reverse the consequences. Thus, now isthe time to act to move towards a more sustain-able path before irreparable damage is done to thequality of our life today as well as that for futuregenerations. We only require the will to do it.

Kazunobu OnogawaDirector, UNCRD

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Acknowledgements

The Sourcebook for Environmentally SustainableTransport has been made possible by the excep-tional efforts of a wide group of governmentalofficials, partner organisations, internationalexperts, and UNCRD staff. Only by drawing uponsuch a wide-range of experiences can a truly com-prehensive set of best practices be compiled.

Much credit must be extended to the members ofthe Regional Forum on EnvironmentallySustainable Transport (EST). This group, whichwas formed out of the development of the AichiStatement, has contributed greatly to articulatingthe specific components of EST and in helping todisseminate that message.

The Regional EST Forum particularly depends onthe sincere involvement and efforts of the partici-pating countries. Thus, special appreciation isgiven to the participating countries of: BruneiDarussalam, Cambodia, P. R. China, Indonesia,Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar,Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore,Thailand, and Viet Nam.

Additionally, the Regional EST Experts Forum hasprovided much of the technical knowledge thathas supported the EST Project. The members ofthis forum include: Christopher Weaver (EF&EE),

Narayan Iyer (SAFE / SIAM), Masahiko Hori (JARI),Manfred Breithaupt (GTZ SUTP), Katsutoshi Ohta(Toyo University), Karl Fjellstrom (ITDP), CharlesMelhuish (ADB), Nozomu Mori (JACIC), TohruSuzuki (JHPC), William H. K. Lam (Hong KongPolytechnic University), Lloyd Wright (Viva),Fumihiko Nakamura (Yokohama NationalUniversity), A.T.M. Nurul Amin (AIT), YoshitsuguHayashi (Nagoya University), William Barron (CivicExchange), Hisashi Ogawa (WHO), Cornie Huizenga(CAI-Asia), and Marie Thynell (GöteborgUniversity).

UNCRD’s own EST staff has applied much effort toensuring this document and all the related ESTevents are co-ordinated and delivered in an effec-tive and professional manner. Members of theUNCRD EST team include: Kazunobu Onogawa,Choudhury Rudra Charan Mohanty, Ken Shimizu,Tadahiro Shibata, Yoshiro Kaburagi, SayakoKimura, and Sayaka Iizuka.

UNCRD is not alone in its efforts to promoteEnvironmentally Sustainable Transport in Asiannations. The collaborating agencies in this effortinclude: Asian Development Bank (ADB), ASEANWorking Group on Environmentally SustainableCities (AWGESC), Clean Air Initiative for AsianCities (CAI-Asia), Institute for GlobalEnvironmental Strategies (IGES), OverseasEnvironmental Cooperation Center (OECC),German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ),Swedish International Development Agency (Sida),Seoul Development Institute (SDI), World HealthOrganization (WHO), and Japanese InternationalCooperation Agency (JICA).

UNCRD would also like to express gratitude to theMinistry of the Environment of the Government ofJapan for providing the financial support to thecritical issue of Environmentally SustainableTransport in Asia. The ministry’s expertise andinvestment has already made a positive differencein cities across the region.

Finally, UNCRD would like to express appreciationto the Mayors and other officials who have cometogether for the Mayors Dialogue in Kyoto.Without the political will and seriousness shownby this group of leaders, EnvironmentallySustainable Transport would not be growing inawareness and reality in cities of Asia.

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Introduction to EnvironmentallySustainable Transport

“Efforts to promote environmentally sustainabletransport will result not only in the improve-ment of human health through the reduction ofurban air pollution but will also have importantcomplimentary benefits, including the reductionof greenhouse gas (GHG) missions, the reductionof deaths and injuries from road accidents, thereduction of harmful noise levels, and thereduction of traffic congestion levels.”

Aichi Statement, 2005

Asian cities are at a crossroads. Along the currentpath, growing numbers of cars and motorcycleswill overwhelm streets and neighbourhoods.Pollution, congestion, and accidents will becomeAsia’s defining features. The cities will be less aplace for human interaction than for storing andoperating metal machines.

Yet, there is another path. EnvironmentallySustainable Transport (EST) offers an alternative touncontrolled motorisation and its related problems.Instead, a complementary package of public trans-port, quality footpaths and cycleways, vehicle-restriction measures, clean fuels, safety pro-grammes, and high standards will create a newparadigm for urban mobility and access.

Many cities in the region, such as Seoul andSingapore, have already adapted many of theseelements as part of a comprehensive policytowards a more human urban environment. ThisEST Sourcebook sets forth the elements of a com-plete EST strategy for Asian cities.

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Figure 1. Asian cities todayface a transport and environ-mental crisis. Photo courtesyof Swisscontact.

Urban transport and sustainabledevelopment

The ability to access jobs, education, and publicservices is a fundamental part of human develop-ment. An efficient and cost-effective transportsystem essentially connects people to daily life.For many Asian cities, though, effective transporthas been forgone, leaving mobility needs exclu-sively in the hands of private vehicles and uncoor-dinated paratransit operators.

Transport services affect all aspects of sustainabil-ity. First, the ability to move goods and people isinextricably linked to economic development. A

city locked in congestion is a city losing a signifi-cant portion of its economic productivity. Second,the ability to safely and cost-effectively accessjobs and public services carries direct implicationsfor social sustainability. Providing quality publictransport services and non-motorised options is anessential part of achieving greater social equityfor all, and especially for transport-sensitivegroups including the poor, women, children, theelderly, and the physically disabled. Finally,mobility and the quality of the urban environmentcannot be separated. Existing transport systemsand the resulting impacts on air quality are closelyassociated with questions of environmental sus-tainability.

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Figure 2. The many impacts of unsustainable transport

Current conditions

Current trends in Asia show that cars and motorcy-cles are increasingly becoming dominant in nearlyevery city of the region. By the year 2045, therewill be more motorised vehicles in Asia than therewill be in Europe and North America combined. Itis questionable whether Asian cities and the globalenvironment could support such an outcome.

The impact of this trend on quality of life cannotbe underestimated. As cities become saturatedwith vehicle traffic, then community interactionsand social bonds will become permanently severed.

Few cities can afford to build themselves out oftraffic congestion. Asphalting over Asian citieswill in the end only destroy the urban fabric with-out really changing congestion levels. The endlessconstruction of flyovers and elevated roadways inmany Asian cities has absorbed large sums of capi-tal but has not kept pace with the growingdemand for cars and motorcycles.

While investment in motorways has expanded, alltoo often more critical elements of transportinfrastructure have been forgotten. Footpaths,cycleways, and public transport services in muchof the region are in poor condition. Merelyattempting to walk in many Asian cities can bequite challenging.

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Figure 3. Motorised vehicle growth

Figure 5. The myriad of flyovers and ele-vated roadways that dominate the land-scapes of Bangkok, Delhi, Jakarta, andShanghai has done little to relieve trafficpressures. Photo by Karl Fjellstrom.

Source: International Energy Agency, 2004

Figure 4. The race to motorisation is fully moving ahead in Asia. Photo by Karl Fjellstrom.

Environmentally SustainableTransport (EST)

As this document will assert, there is another way.The principles of Environmentally SustainableTransport (EST) offer a cost-effective way forwardthat affords high levels of mobility and access butwithout the intrinsic problems associated with car-dominated streets.

EST represents a collection of best practice meas-ures that can help to transform transport and thevery urban structure of cities towards a more sus-tainable model. Through the development of“environment and people friendly urban transportinfrastructures”, cities can reap the benefits of amore liveable and more productive urban space.

EST is also about prevention. It will clearly be lesscostly to prevent negative consequences of motori-sation rather than to try to retroactively mitigatethe problems. The leadership shown in cities such asBogotá, Curitiba, and Seoul indicate thatEnvironmentally Sustainable Transport is possible ina variety of circumstances and local conditions.

The remainder of this Sourcebook will outline asynergistic package of EST measures that any citycan implement within a period of a few years.The structure of this Sourcebook is based on the12 thematic areas of the UNCRD EST Project.

Figures 6 and 7. As these images from Dhaka (left photo) andKuala Lumpur (right photo) indicate, simply walking in Asiancities can be a risk to health, safety, and comfort. Left photoby Karl Fjellstrom. Right photo by Lloyd Wright.

Figure 8. A car-free commu-nity in Oyumino (Chiba City,Japan) shows that environ-ment and people friendlyinfrastructure can greatlyenhance quality of life.Photo by Lloyd Wright.

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1. Public health

“Because we don’t think about future genera-tions, they will never forget us.”

Henrik Tikkanen, author and artist, 1924 - 1984

World air quality rankings show that Asian citiesare by far the most polluted across a full range ofcontaminants, including particulate matter, nitro-gen oxides, and carbon monoxide. A recentWHO/ADB study shows that the transport sector isthe largest contributor of urban air pollution, with50 to 80 percent of Metro Manila’s pollution beingfrom vehicles.

Air pollutants from transport are linked to severalillnesses, most notably respiratory and cardiovas-cular illnesses. Epidemiological studies havedirectly linked transport-related contaminants toasthma, bronchitis, heart attacks, and strokes. Asurvey of studies shows that the number of deathsfrom outdoor air pollution ranges from 200 000 to570 000 annual deaths globally (WRI, 1998).

In addition to premature mortality, there are alsoother economic costs resulting from pollutant-induced illness. Hospital admissions, lost workdays, discomfort, and stress are just a few ofthese impacts. Air pollution also harms tourismand degrades the built environment.

The most vulnerable groups are those with weakerimmune systems, which include “infants, the eld-erly, and those suffering from chronic respiratoryconditions including asthma, bronchitis, or emphy-sema” (WHO, 2000). In developing-nation cities

air pollution causes an estimated 50 million casesof chronic coughing in children under the age of14 years (WRI, 1998). Sadly, leaded fuels, whichimpair the mental development of children, arestill in use in some nations.

Obesity has become another outgrowth of soci-eties dependent less on walking and more on pri-vate vehicles. In a survey of Beijing residents, theBeijing Centre for Disease Control and Preventionuncovered the following troubling results:

• 32 percent of Beijing residents suffer from coro-nary heart disease, hypertension, or obesity

• 47 percent of the population rarely or neverundertook exercise

• 18 percent of all secondary students qualify asobese.

The best mechanism to combat such health effectsis to reduce private vehicle use. Through theapplication of Environmentally Sustainable Transport(EST) measures, such as public transport, cleanfuels, and non-motorised options, emissions can beeliminated before they cause harm.

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Figures 9. Respiratory and cardiovascular ill-nesses are the most common health issuesrelated to vehicle emissions. Photo courtesy ofSwisscontact.

Figure 10. Vehicle emissions can have a seriousimpact on child development. Photo courtesy ofSwisscontact.

2. Road safety and maintenance

“Not everything that counts can be counted,and not everything can be counted counts.”

Albert Einstein, physicist, 1879 - 1955

Globally, approximately 1.2 million lives are lostthrough roadway accidents each year (WHO,2003). More deaths occur due to road accidentsthan through many other high-profile causes,including malaria, measles, and breast cancer.More disturbingly, almost half of these deaths arenot to the motorists themselves but rather pedes-trians and cyclists.

In Asia, injuries and deaths from road accidentshave reached near epidemic proportions. Nationsin Asia have traffic fatality rates some 80 timeshigher than European nations. In ASEAN countriesalone, an estimated 75,000 persons die each yearon the roads and another 4.7 million are injured.All together, the ADB estimates that the economiclosses from such tragedies are US$ 15.1 billion peryear, or approximately 2.2 of the regional GrossDomestic Product.

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Figure 11. Accidents have pro-duced near epidemic propor-tions of death and injury onAsian roadways. Photo cour-tesy of iStockphoto.

To combat this alarming problem, ADB haslaunched several initiatives as well as has provid-ed technical manuals on road safety. Propermaintenance programmes for both roadways andvehicles are also a principal means to reduce thedeath and injury rates. Sweden’s “ZeroTolerance” programme in which the nation has setits aims upon zero road traffic deaths has becomea world-wide model, one which many Asiannations and cities may wish to investigate.

3. Traffic noise management

“The system of nature, of which man is a part,tends to be self-balancing, self-adjusting, self-cleansing. Not so with technology.” (Small isBeautiful)

E.F. Schumacher, economist, 1911 - 1977

Noise is also a growing concern from both the per-spectives of health and economic productivity.Noise from vehicle operation, horns, and caralarms can all bring negative health conse-quences. The World Health Organization (WHO)has documented the most common problems asso-ciated with sustained and/or excessive noise lev-els (WHO, 2005):

• Pain and hearing fatigue• Hearing impairment including tinnitus• Annoyance• Precipitation of anti-social behaviour (aggressive-

ness, protest and helplessness)• Interference with speech communication• Sleep disturbance and all its consequences on a

long and short term basis• Cardiovascular effects• Stress and its possible consequences on human

metabolism (nutrition) and the immune system• Negative impacts on work and school performance.

Sustained exposure to noise has been associatedwith reduced cognitive development and classroomperformance of children (Evans and Maxwell, 1997).Even seemingly harmless background noise has beenindicted for its impact on the ability to concentrate.In turn, these lapses in concentration carry withthem implications for worker productivity and childdevelopment.

The best measure against noise pollution is to sim-ply prevent it from happening in the first place.Promoting silent, non-motorised options (such aswalking and cycling) is the most effective policydirection. Likewise, shifts from private to publicmodes can lead to substantial noise reductions. Insome cases, mitigation measures such as sound bar-riers and porous road surfacing may be necessary,although such infrastructure can often be far moreexpensive than noise prevention.

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Figures 12 and 13. TheADB has developed a rangeof safety programmes andguidances.

Figure 14. The cacophony of noisegenerated from chaotic transportsystems harms human health andundermines city-wide productivity.Photo by Karl Fjellstrom.

Figure 15. Mitigationmeasures such as noisebarriers can be an expen-sive alternative to simplypreventing noise throughsustainable transportalternatives. Photo cour-tesy of UNCRD.

4.Social equity and gender perspectives

“Any town that doesn’t have sidewalks doesn’tlove its children.”

Margaret Mead, anthropologist, 1901-1978

The transport inequities experienced in Asiancities are most acutely experienced by groups thatare least able to cope with the difficulties.Gender and age inequities create mobility chal-lenges for large parts of the population. Womenface specific restrictions on movement due to thenature of their activities in many cities. Activitiessuch as child-care, household management, andinformal sector employment “require women tomake more and shorter trips than men, more tripsat off-peak hours and off the main routes, andengage in more complicated multi-leg trips, all ofwhich tend to make their movements relativelyexpensive to provide for by public transport, andhence highly priced or poorly supplied” (WorldBank, 2001). When 700,000 squatters resettled on

the periphery of Delhi, female employment fell by27 percent due to the limited transport optionsavailable.

The provision of public transport with regularservices throughout the day and with good physi-cal and fare integration can do much to helpwomen travellers. Likewise, provisions forpatrons carrying children as well as amenities suchas baby changing areas should be considered in alldesign efforts.

Figure 16. As shown with thesteep access to this pedestrianbridge in Bangkok, infrastruc-ture sometimes fails to accountfor more vulnerable users.Photo by Lloyd Wright.

Figure 17. Child- and bicycle-friendly infrastructure can domuch to ease transport bur-dens on women. Photo byLloyd Wright.

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Women may also be more susceptible to insecurityrelated to travelling alone or by way of publictransport, which may force women to dependupon more expensive alternatives or to forgoimportant trips. Thus, the presence of securitystaff, security cameras, and good-quality lightingcan do much to give women more confidence withpublic transport and public space.

5.Public transport planning andtransportation demand management (TDM)

“The technologies which have had the most pro-found effects on human life are usually simple.”

Freeman Dyson, physicist, 1923 -

For much of Asia, public transport is a necessaryevil that must be endured rather than appreciat-ed. For many individuals and families, the ulti-mate goal is to one day afford individualmotorised transport, either in the form of amotorcycle or automobile. The state of publictransport implies discomfort, long waits, risk topersonal safety, and restrictions on movement.Customer satisfaction with the myriad of informaland formal vans, mini-buses, and full-sized busesthat ply Asian streets is typically quite low.

However, high-quality public transport is possiblymore affordable than many cities are aware. Theadvent of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) has done muchto enable virtually any city to achieve a world-class public transport system. BRT is a high-quali-ty bus-based transit system that delivers fast,comfortable, and cost-effective urban mobilitythrough the provision of segregated right-of-wayinfrastructure, rapid and frequent operations, andexcellence in marketing and customer service.BRT essentially emulates the performance andamenity characteristics of a modern rail-basedtransit system but at a fraction of the cost. A BRTsystem will typically cost 4 to 20 times less than alight rail transit (LRT) system and 10 to 100 timesless than a metro system (Wright and Hook, 2007).

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Figures 18 and 19. The presenceof security personnel and goodlighting can do much to givewomen confidence in public trans-port and public space. Left photoby Lloyd Wright. Right photocourtesy of TransMilenio SA.

The Latin American cities of Bogotá and Curitibahave done much to demonstrate the effectivenessof BRT systems. However, several Asian citieshave now also developed systems of their own,including Beijing, Hangzhou, Jakarta, Nagoya,Pune, Seoul, and Taipei. New projects are cur-rently underway in several cities, includingAhmedabad, Bangalore, Bangkok, Chiang Mai,Delhi, Guangzhou, Hanoi, and Xi’an.

To make a truly car-competitive public transportsystem, cities must focus on some key customer-service oriented attributes, including:

• Existence of an integrated “network” of routesand corridors

• Enhanced stations that are convenient, comfort-able, secure, and weather-protected

• Stations provide level access between the plat-form and vehicle floor

• Special stations and terminals to facilitate easyphysical integration between trunk routes, feed-er services, and other mass transit systems

• Pre-board fare collection and fare verification• Distinctive marketing identity for system.

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Figure 20. The TransMilenioBRT in Bogotá. Photo courtesyof Volvo Bus Corporation.

Figure 21. The Seoul BRT system.Photo courtesy of the City of Seoul.

Figure 22. The Jakarta BRT sys-tem. Photo courtesy of ITDP.

Rail-based services can also be quite appropriatein the right circumstances, especially on corridorswith very high customer demand and when citieshave sufficient resources to finance a higher-costoption. Technologies such as LRT, commuter rail,elevated rail, monorails, and underground metroscan all have applicability under the right condi-tions. In Asia, cities such as Hong Kong, Osaka,Singapore, and Tokyo have achieved much successwith rail-based systems.

A high-quality public transport system, though, isjust one side of the equation. Combining publictransport with transportation demand manage-ment (TDM) measures that discourage car andmotorcycle use is the most effective package totransform the transport sector.

Congestion charging was originally popularisedwith its application in Singapore and now hasgained fame elsewhere, including in the cities ofLondon and Stockholm. Congestion chargingplaces a monetary value on using the road spaceduring certain hours of the day. Motorists whowish to enter a congestion zone must pay a fee togain legal access to the use of the road.

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Figure 25. The Hong Kong MTRsystem. Photo courtesy of theMTR Corpoation.

Figures 23 and 24. Smart card technology and a publictransport control centre are some of the features thatimprove overall efficiency in high-quality public transportsystems. Left photo courtesy of Volvo Bus Corporation.Right photo by Lloyd Wright.

Bangalore Metropolitan TransportCorporation (BMTC) has adopted awell-structured, constructive man-agement polices and maintainedthe tradition of putting constantefforts for safe, affordable andcommuter-friendly services. By focusing on safe-ty, reliability and efficiency, the Corporation hasbeen able to improve public transport systemswhile at the same time able to achieve a recordsurplus of 1,148.80 million rupees in 2005-06 andis anticipating a surplus over 2,000 million rupeesduring 2006-07.(Source: BMTC, India through personal communication, 6 April2007)

From 1975 until 1998, Singapore operated a manu-ally-controlled road pricing scheme. The schemerequires motorists to pay for entry into a centralRestricted Zone. Technological advances enabledthe city to implement an Electronic Road Pricing(ERP) scheme in 1998.

Singapore has also successfully curbed vehicleownership and usage through a clever applicationof fees and a Certificate of Entitlement (COE) pro-gramme. The city essentially fixes the market forthe number of vehicles that can use city streets.

Parking fees, restrictions, and enforcement canalso be highly effective TDM measures. Simplycharging the appropriate fee for use of a privateor public parking space can help to ensure vehi-cles pay for the resources consumed. Parkingspace levies as applied in Australia both discour-age private car use and raise revenues for public

transport development. Sydney charges a levy ofA$ 800 (US$ 615) per year on each central areaparking space, whether the space is used or not.The parking levy is currently returning approxi-mately A$ 40 million (US$ 31 million) per year tothe city.

Bogotá utilises a fairly simple license tag restric-tion in which 40 percent of the private cars areprohibited from the city streets each day duringthe morning and afternoon peak.

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Figure 26. The Electronic RoadPricing gantry in Singapore.Photo by Manfred Breithaupt.

Figure 27. Eachweek day in Bogotá,40 percent of theprivate cars arebanned from operat-ing during peakhours based on thevehicle’s tag number.

6.Non-motorised transport

“At first it may appear that pedestrian space isa frivolous issue in a developing country; but theprivations of low income people are not reallyfelt during working hours - it is during leisurehours that the differences are felt. While higherincome people have cars, clubs, country houses,theatres, restaurants and vacations, for thepoor, public space is the only alternative to tele-vision. Parks, plazas, pedestrian streets andsidewalks are essential for social justice. Highquality sidewalks are the most basic element ofrespect for human dignity, and of considerationfor society’s vulnerable members such as thepoor, the elderly and children.”

Enrique Peñalosa, former Mayor of Bogotá

The simplest and most environmentally-sustain-able transport options are unfortunately also someof the most neglected. Footpaths in Asian citiesare often of poor quality, and create an assort-ment of barriers for residents:

• Unpaved and/or uneven footpaths• No physical separation from high levels of traffic

and from high-speed traffic • Lack of infrastructure to permit crossing of street • Obstructed pavements due to car parking, ven-

dors, etc.• No protection from harsh climatic conditions

(e.g. no shading or rain protection)• Lack of street lighting• Pedestrian overcrowding due to narrow or

below-capacity pavements • High levels of robbery, assault and other crime

befalling pedestrians

Simply improving the quality of local footpath net-works can be one of the most cost-effective ESTmeasures. In some cases, it may be possible toentirely pedestrianise streets to create a verysocial and human-friendly environment.Pedestrianisation schemes have also been thebasis for economic regeneration efforts, as shopssales often improve dramatically. Waterfrontregeneration efforts, such as Singapore’s BoatQuay and Osaka’s Dotomburi have been successfullyinstigated through pedestrianisation. Nanjing Roadin Shanghai is the world’s busiest pedestrian mall.

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Figure 28. Nanjing Road inShanghai is the world’s mostsuccessful pedestrian mall,proving such schemes do indeedadd much economic and socialvalue to the city. Photo cour-tesy of ITDP.

Car-free days have become increasingly popular asa mechanism to curb car and motorcycle use as wellas encourage citizens to experience their city in apersonal manner. Each year, World Car Free Day isheld on 22 September. In 2007, China has commit-ted to participating on a nation-wide scale. In somecities, such as Bogotá and Tokyo, sections of thecities are closed to cars each Sunday in order toallow families to stroll at ease in the city.

Bicycles have historically played a vital role inAsian transport. Ironically, even as environmentalconcerns become ever more important in theregion, many cities have actively discouraged bicy-cle use. The restoration and expansion of cycle-ways and the promotion of a bicycle lifestyle shouldbe a priority within any EST strategy. The provisionof secure bicycle parking at public transport stationscan be an effective cornerstone of making cycling aformal part of the transport system.

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Figure 30. Tokyo’s Ginza dis-trict becomes a pedestrianparadise each weekend. Photoby Lloyd Wright.

Figure 29. Each Sunday,Bogotá gives 120 kilometres ofroad space over to cyclists,skaters, joggers, and families.Photo by Lloyd Wright.

Figure 31. Bicycle parking infront of a rail station nearTokyo. Photo by Lloyd Wright.

Bicycle taxis or pedicabs have likewise beenunfortunately banned in many parts of Asia (e.g.Bangkok, Delhi, and Jakarta). However, a revolu-tion in pedicab design has helped to rejuvenatethe viability and market for these services. Aspedicabs and cycle rickshaws are being banned inparts of Asia, their usage in Europe and NorthAmerica is expanding at a rapid rate.

Through a collaboration between ITDP and severallocal partners, a modernised cycle rickshaw hasbeen developed for the Indian market. The proj-ect produced a modern, light weight vehicle at amodest cost. Today, over 100,000 modernisedpedicabs are plying the streets of Indian cities.Likewise, Manila has long had a history of pedi-cabs as a useful community transport service.

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Figures 32 and 33. Modernised pedicabs have helped lead arenaissance in the use of this sustainable mode. Photos byLloyd Wright.

7. Environment and people friendly urban transport infrastructures

“The Cheonggyecheon stream, which had beencovered with roads and concrete overpasses fora long time, glistened in the bright sunlight asthe clear, clean water flowed. The sight of thestream flowing again after so long has specialsignificance beyond merely environmental andcultural restoration. It seemed to open thehearts of Seoul citizens, washing away the dark-ness and sufferings of the hectic economic devel-opment period of the modern history of Seoul.”

Lee Myung-Bak, former Mayor of Seoul

Unlike car-based infrastructure such as roadwaysand flyovers, EST infrastructure is based more onthe human scale. And thus, such infrastructure is

orders of magnitude less costly. “Environment andpeople friendly urban transport infrastructures”imply the customer is placed at the centre of thedesign process.

Perhaps the most renowned infrastructure projectof the past decade in Asia was the Cheonggyecheonrestoration project in Seoul. The Cheonggyecheonstream was historically a defining part of Seoul’senvironment, and in fact was the reason why Seoulwas selected as the capital of the Joseon Dynastyin 1394. Unfortunately, in the face of modernisa-tion, the waterway was covered in 1961 to providebetter access for private cars. By 1968 an elevatedexpressway provided another layer of concreteerasing the memory of the waterway.

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Figures 34 and 35. As these dramatic “before” and “after”images indicate, the Cheonggyecheon project has changed theface of Seoul for the better. Images courtesy of the SeoulDevelopment Institute.

Upon his election in 2002, Seoul Mayor Lee Myung-Bak decided it was time to bring back theCheonggyecheon stream from its years of hidingunder concrete. The Cheonggyecheon project hasmeant the restoration of 5.8 kilometres of water-way and historical pedestrian bridges, the cre-ation of extensive green space, and the promotionpublic art installations. Based upon a study by theSeoul Development Institute (2003), theCheonggyecheon restoration project will produceeconomic benefits of between 8 trillion and 23trillion won (US$ 8 billion to US$ 23 billion) and

create many new jobs. Over 40 million visitorsexperienced the Cheonggyecheon stream duringits first year after restoration.

People-friendly infrastructure also refers todesigning for society’s most disadvantaged. Bybuilding public transport systems and footpathsthat cater to the physically disabled and the eld-erly, the infrastructure is friendly to everyone.Design should be undertaken from the perspectiveof the most vulnerable users.

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Figure 36. Over 40 million visi-tors have made their way tosee the Cheonggyecheonrestoration. Photo courtesy ofthe City of Seoul.

Figure 37. Level, even surfacesacross the transport system cando much to make the cityaccessible to everyone. Photocourtesy of QueenslandTransport.

8. Cleaner fuel

“We must learn to provide affluence withouteffluence...by consuming less from the environ-ment, not more. We can use less, and havemore. Consume less, and be more. The inter-ests of business, and the interests of environ-ment, are not incompatible.”

Tachi Kiuchi, former CEO of Mitsubishi

Technology alone will not win back Asian cities. Asole focus on tailpipe technologies and fuelsmeans little against the growing tide of motorisa-tion. However, cleaner fuels and propulsion tech-nologies are one component of a complete sus-tainable transport package. Some of the fueloptions available may include:

• Clean diesel• Compressed natural gas (CNG)• Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)• Electric• Bio-diesel• Ethanol• Hybrid-electric (diesel-electric and CNG-electric)• Hydrogen (fuel cell technology)

The choice of fuel and propulsion technology willhave a profound impact on operating costs, main-tenance costs, supporting infrastructure, as wellas emission levels. Local circumstances play acentral role in fuel choice as the availability of afuel and experience in maintaining a particularvehicle technology are key factors. There is noone right solution to fuel technology.

The adoption of compressed natural gas (CNG)public transport vehicles in Delhi has done muchto improve air quality. CNG was chosen in orderto overcome the problem of diesel fuel beingadulterated with kerosene.

In the future, advanced technologies such ashybrid-electric vehicles, biofuels (ethanol and bio-diesel), and fuel cells may play a bigger role,especially as economies of scale are achieved andcosts are reduced. Cities can help make the tran-sition to cleaner fuels a reality by converting cityvehicle fleets to alternative fuels. Local govern-ment leadership can help to establish new mar-kets for these fuels as well as provide the pre-req-uisite re-fuelling infrastructure.

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Figure 38. A newlow-floor CNGvehicle beingdeveloped for theIndian market.Photo courtesy ofTata Motors.

Figure 39. A hybrid-electricvehicle being tested in LatinAmerica. Photo courtesy ofVolvo Bus Corporation.

9. Strengthening road side airquality monitoring and assess-ment

“Plan for what is difficult while it is easy, dowhat is great while it is small. The difficultthings in this world must be done while they areeasy, the greatest things in the world must bedone while they are still small.” (The Art of War)

Sun Tzu, Chinese General, 400 BC

Asia’s fast-growing economies have left behind atrail of smog and toxic-laden air in many of itslargest cities. Vehicle emissions are one of the prin-cipal contributors to poor air quality. Establishingan air quality monitoring regime can help decisionmakers understand the severity of the problem.

Ideally, an air quality monitoring system willalready be in place. However, in many Asiancities, there may be an insufficient number of airquality monitoring stations or such stations maynot exist at all. Discussions with both the nationalenvironmental agency as well as internationalorganisations, such as the Clean Air Initiative, theWorld Bank, and the Asian Development Bank,should be undertaken to find a way of establishingan air quality monitoring network.

Air quality monitoring actually can encompass sev-eral different levels of measurement. Ambientmonitors will capture the general background airquality levels of the city. These ambient measure-ments provide the basis for comparing to theestablished norms of the World HealthOrganisation (WHO). However, there can also bereason to measure air quality levels at a muchmore localised level.

In many cases, the person walking along the streetmay experience contaminant levels well in excessof those experienced at the ambient level.Further, some vulnerable groups may be moreexposed to contaminants than others. For exam-ple, the height of children means that they areactually more in the direct line of exhausttailpipes. Low-income persons often work frominformal stalls quite near the roadway, and mayspend as much as 10 to 14 hours per day in anenvironment of intense emissions. Likewise, traf-fic police may spend long hours in direct contactwith traffic and contaminants. For these specialgroups, spot monitoring of localised effects shouldbe undertaken on a regular basis.

Figure 41. Airintake openingfor monitoringof ambient airquality. Photocourtesy ofUNCRD.

Figure 42. Spot monitoring of localised contaminant levels canbe especially important for some key groups, such as informalvendors and traffic police, as evidenced with this image fromBangkok. Photo by Carlos Pardo.

Figure 40. Air quality inShanghai on a normal day.Photo by Manfred Breithaupt.

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10.Vehicle emission control, standards, and inspectionand maintenance (I/M)

“For a successful technology, reality must takeprecedence over public relations, for naturecannot be fooled.”

Richard P. Feynman, physicist, 1918 - 1988

Vehicle emissions testing should be a formal partof the regulatory code, both for new and oldervehicles. Semi-annual or annual testing should bea base requirement to obtain an operating licensefor any vehicle. Many Asian nations have alreadyadapted Euro II standards, and in cases such asHong Kong and Thailand, Euro III standards arebeing applied. Setting strict standards for all newvehicles is one of the most effective mechanismsto renovate the overall fleet. At the same time,testing requirements should also apply to theexisting, older vehicle.

In addition, spot monitoring on the roadway canalso be appropriate. In some cases, drivers mayspecially fix their vehicles to pass a known, one-off annual test. However, once the test is finished,the owner may remove filters and other emissionreduction devices. Random street tests thus servethe purpose of ensuring the actual vehicle perform-ance meets the regulatory standards.

11. Land-use planning

“A good city is like a good party, people don’twant to leave early.”

Jan Gehl, Copenhagen planner and architect

“Land use” refers to the geographic distribution ofactivities and destinations within a city. A closerelationship exists between a city’s land-use pat-terns and its transport system. Land use is some-times defined by the 3 “Ds”: 1. Density; 2.Diversity; and, 3. Design.

Urban density refers to the number of inhabitantsper hectare. The denser the city, the closer jobsand services are to the population. Areas withmedium- and high-density populations provide acritical mass of inhabitants to support shops andpublic services without requiring access bymotorised vehicles. By contrast, a highly sprawledcity will force car dependency since it is difficultto operate public transport in low density areas.While Asian cities have historically enjoyed effec-tive density levels, the current trend is towardsnew development in suburban areas.

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Figure 43.Random, on-street spotmonitoring ofvehicles canbe an effec-tive way ofensuring regu-latory normsare met inpractice.Photo courtesyof UNCRD.

Figure 44. Asian cities have historically achieved good densitylevels, but there are now signs of sprawl development in manyparts of the region. Graphic courtesy of Newman andKenworthy (1989).

Diversity refers to creating a mix of uses within alocal area. By combining residential and commer-cial uses into a single area, the number of tripsand the length of travel are both reduced. Peopleare able to meet most of their daily needs bywalking, cycling, or public transport.

Design refers to the planning of housing, shops,and public transport in a manner that supports areduced dependence on private motorised vehi-cles. Transit-oriented development (TOD) hasemerged as one of the principal mechanisms tomake this happen. By increasing the portion ofdestinations (homes, worksites, shops, schools,public services, etc.) located near public transportstations, both the residents and the public trans-port system gain advantages.

Despite the close relationship between land useand transport, the two areas are frequentlyplanned separately, meaning an opportunity is lostto optimise both. Singapore’s Land TransportAuthority represents a single agency combining both responsibilities. The success of Singapore’stransport system is clearly in part due to its effec-tive institutional structures.

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Figure 45. Many Japanese cities have successfully combinedsmall commercial areas with residential areas to facilitateboth sustainable transport and a vibrant local economy. Photoby Lloyd Wright.

Figure 46. The Hong Kong MTR system features shops withinthe system, bringing much convenience to the public transportuser. Photo of the Hong Kong MTR Corporation.

City leaders wishing to make a commitment toEnvironmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) willnot be alone in this effort. A full range of region-al and international organisations exist to helpAsian cities make this transformation.

As has been noted, the Asian Development Bank(ADB) provides information and guidance on arange of topics, including safety and vehicle main-tenance. Likewise, lenders such as the ADB andthe World Bank stand ready to extend financialresources for high-quality projects.

The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia)is a multi-sector network seeking to improve airquality in Asia. CAI-Asia hosts a variety of capaci-ty-building events, including the bi-annual BetterAir Quality (BAQ) conference. Additionally, CAI-Asia has been active in developing transport andair quality indicators for Asian cities, so that deci-sion makers have the appropriate tools and infor-mation to make positive investments. More infor-mation on these topics can be found on the CAI-Asia website, www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia.

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Figure 47. Participants at aManila BRT workshop, spon-sored jointly by UNCRD, CAI-Asia, and GTZ SUTP.

12.Strengthening knowledge base, awarenessand public participation

“The newly motorising countries can see what a mess the North hasmade and how inefficient are its very large investments in a trans-port system that fails to deliver health, social equity and regionalequity. It is possible for a newly motorising country to leapfrog thelast 40 years of European and the last 70 years of North Americantransport development and move directly into a sustainable strate-gy that genuinely conserves resources, reduces pollution and paysgreat attention to the poorest when disbursing scarce cash.”

John Whitelegg, educator and transport planner

The Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP) ofthe German Agency for Technical Co-operation(GTZ) has developed a full array of Sourcebookson EST topics. Additionally, SUTP offers trainingworkshops to cities on topics such as Bus RapidTransit, car-free days, and sustainable transportmarketing and awareness. To download the GTZSUTP Sourcebook or to contact GTZ regardinginterest in holding a training workshop, the website is www.sutp.org.

With an objective to achieve greater harmonybetween environment and transport, the Ministryof the Environment (MoE), Government of Japan,has been promoting various initiatives to facilitatethe exchange of information, best practices,tools, and technologies among Asian countries onEST. In line with the outcome of the First Meetingof the Regional EST Forum, 1-2 August 2005,Nagoya (Japan) and recommendations made in theAichi Statement, MoE-Japan is committed to fur-ther promote efforts to attain the environmentallysustainable transport in Asian countries. Moreinformation on MOE’s initiatives can be found atwww.env.go.jp/en/air/.

Other key organisations working in the regioninclude the Institute for Transportation &Development Policy (www.itdp.org) and the Embarqprogramme of the World Resources Institute(http://embarq.wri.org).

Finally, UNCRD’s EST project stands ready to assistcities seeking to move towards a more sustainableform. The EST project provides information, hostsworkshops, and supports policy formation in citiesacross Asia. More information on the EST projectcan be found at www.uncrd.or.jp/env/est. The AichiStatement can be downloaded from this website.

Partnering with cities and officials who have beenthrough the EST experience can ensure that thelessons learned from existing projects are sharedwith all.

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Figure 48. The GTZ SUTP Sourcebook has numerous moduleson a variety of sustainable transport topics.

Figure 49. The EST website,www.uncrd.or.jp/env/est, provides up-to-dateinformation on news, training opportuni-ties, and upcoming events.

Making it happen through political will

“Any city, whether small or large, can be anagent of change.”

Jaime Lerner, former Mayor of Curitiba

As stressed throughout this EST Sourcebook, mostaspects of Environmentally Sustainable Transportdo not require significant financial investments.Most aspects of EST are not technologically diffi-cult to achieve. The principal barrier to imple-menting EST is the political will to do so.Overcoming entrenched practices and an acceptanceof the status quo is the greatest challenge to creat-ing an EST city, a city where people are put first.

For the officials who have made the decision totransform their cities, the rewards can be great.A healthier city, in which the residents can easilyaccess jobs, services, and leisure without costlyand polluting transport, awaits those who chooseto accept this challenge. EnvironmentallySustainable Transport is a cost-effective solutionfor today and for the future.

“We must be the change we wish to see.”

Mahatma Gandhi, 1869 - 1948

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Figures 50 and 51. Strong political leadership towards EST, asshown by former Seoul Mayor Lee Myung-Bak and JakartaGovernor Sutiyoso, can make all the difference. Left photo byEric Möller. Right photo by Michael Replogle.

About the EST Project

The promotion of Environmentally SustainableTransport (EST) represents a major priority for theUnited Nations Centre on Regional Development(UNCRD). By working with national Ministries,such as those related to Environment, Transport,Health, and Public Works, the EST Project seeks toachieve real change in terms of facilitating bestpractice efforts throughout the region.

To date, the adoption of the Manila Statement(January 2004) and the Aichi Statement (August2005) and the establishment of the Regional ESTForum has already raised the issue of EST tostakeholders across Asia. Some of the on-goingand future activities of the EST Project, include:

• Establish a Knowledge Base on EST in Asia• Formulate national Strategy and Action Plans on

EST for selected countries involving all keystakeholders

• Increase awareness and capacity on EST throughtraining workshops

• Facilitate partnerships between the Asian coun-tries and possible EST donors.

The EST Project focuses upon 12 different themat-ic areas related to Environmentally SustainableTransport, as shown in the graphic below.

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