United States v. Gallaher: The Ninth Circuit’s Disingenuous Deference to Native American Sovereignty

8/12/2019 United States v. Gallaher: The Ninth Circuits Disingenuous Deference to Native American Sovereignty

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United States v. Gallaher: The Ninth

Circuits Disingenuous Deference to Native

American Sovereignty

Erin E. Odell

I. INTRODUCTION

In April 1991, James H. Gallaher, Jr. shared a home wih he moher o!

his in!an da"#her, Jenni!er Clar$, and a !riend, Edwin %ooler.1One da&%ooler arri'ed a he shared home dr"n$ and "rinaed on he !loor,splashin# "rine ono Clar$(s da"#her.) Clar$ old Gallaher a*o" hesee'ens and Gallaher !o"nd %ooler a a near*& *ar where he wo menen#a#ed in a heaed ar#"men.+%ooler e'en"all& le! he *ar o re"rn o

he ho"se, and shorl& herea!er Gallaher old one o! %ooler(s !riends hahe was also re"rnin# o he ho"se o a$e -are o! he pro*lem. /Gallaherarri'ed *a-$ a he shared ho"se and ordered Clar$ o".0hen she re"rned

a shor ime laer, she saw ha Gallaher had %ooler in a ne-$ hold andhere was *lood aro"nd %ooler(s mo"h.2 Gallaher old Clar$ o lea'ea#ain.34aer, Gallaher !o"nd Clar$ a a nei#h*orin# home and demandedo *orrow her -ar.5hile he was here, Gallaher old %ooler(s !riend, whohad winessed he earlier -on!ronaion a he *ar, ha he had *ro$en%ooler(s ne-$ and $illed him.9Gallaher also old he !riend ha he had ohelp #e rid o! %ooler(s *od& or he(d *e ne6. 17The& le! he *od& in hewoods and laer Gallaher re"rned alone se'eral imes o mo'e he *od&. 11

In De-em*er )770, nearl& !i!een &ears laer, Gallaher was indi-ed on !or

he m"rder o! Edwin %ooler(s.

1)

Gallaher mo'ed !or dismissal o! he indi-men d"e o he e6piraion o!

1 . Unied 8aes '. Gallaher, 2)/ .+d 9+/, 9+3 :9h Cir. )717;.) . Id.+ . Id./ . Id.0 . Id.2 . Id.3 . Id.5 . Id.9 . Id.17 . Id.

11 . Id.1) . Id.

+0


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+2 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91he sa"e o! limiaions.1+%"rs"an o !ederal law, a !i'e?&ear sa"e o!limiaions applies o an o!!ense ha is no -apial,1/while an "nlimiedsa"e o! limiaions applies o an o!!ense ha is p"nisha*le *& deah.10

Gallaher ar#"ed ha he !i'e?&ear sa"e o! limiaions applied o hisindi-men *e-a"se his -rime was no -apial.12Two !a-s were -enral ohis ar#"men> :1; Gallaher is Nai'e Ameri-an, 13 and :); he e'ens o!April 1991 oo$ pla-e on he Col'ille Indian Reser'aion in easern

ashin#on 8ae.15 In s"ppor o! his ar#"men, Gallaher poined o heederal Deah %enal& A-, whi-h a*olished he deah penal& !orindi'id"als s"*@e- o he -riminal @"risdi-ion o! a Nai'e Ameri-an ri*al#o'ernmen !or -erain -rimes -ommied in Indian -o"nr&,19a sa"or&erm o! ar de!ined o in-l"de Indian reser'aions. )7 The ederal Deah%enal& A- -onained an op in pro'ision ha permied a ri*e(s#o'ernin# *od& o ele- o ha'e he deah penal& applied o is land andpeople "nder is -riminal @"risdi-ion.)1Howe'er, he Con!ederaed Tri*es

o! he Col'ille Reser'aion had no oped in o ma$e -apial p"nishmena'aila*le !or -rimes -ommied on is land.)) There!ore, Gallaher ar#"ed

ha he #o'ernmen was no eniled o he *ene!i o! an "nlimied sa"eo! limiaions *e-a"se he -rime he alle#edl& -ommied was no,e-hni-all& spea$in#, p"nisha*le *& deah.)+

The Unied 8aes Disri- Co"r !or he Easern Disri- o! ashin#on

denied Gallaher(s moion !or dismissal and he appealed o he NinhCir-"i.)/In is opinion, he Ninh Cir-"i wen o #rea len#hs o dis-"sshe de!eren-e d"e o Nai'e Ameri-an ri*es in he #o'ernan-e o! heirlands and people,)0*" hen swi!l& a!!irmed he disri- -o"r(s de-ision,!indin# ha an "nlimied sa"e o! limiaions was appli-a*le o he -har#es*ro"#h a#ains Gallaher.)2

This Commen ar#"es ha here was no need !or he Ninh Cir-"i o pa&lip ser'i-e o, and hen "limael& disre#ard, Nai'e Ameri-an so'erei#n&

when ma$in# is de-ision in United States v. Gallaher. Raher, he -o"r

1+ . Id.1/ . 15 U.8.C. +)5):a; :)772;.10 . +)51.12 . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9+3.13 . Dependin# "pon he -one6, he erms Indian and Nai'e Ameri-an

will *e "sed iner-han#ea*l& hro"#ho" his Commen.15 . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9+3.19 . 15 U.8.C. +095.)7 . 1101.)1 . +095.)) . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9+9.

)+ . Id.a 9+3.)/ . Id.)0 . Id.a 9+3?+9.)2 . Id.a 9/).


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)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE +3sho"ld ha'e relied "pon a simple disin-ion *eween -ases in'ol'in# heappli-aion o! pari-"lar sa"es a!er he deah penal& has *een de-lared"n-onsi"ional and he appli-aion o! pari-"lar sa"es a!er Con#ress haseliminaed he deah penal& as an a'aila*le p"nishmen. %ar II e6amineshe hisor& o! he !ederal #o'ernmen(s @"risdi-ion in Nai'e Ameri-anerrior&. %ar III -rii-all& e6amines he Ninh Cir-"i(s @"si!i-aions !or isde-ision. And !inall&, %ar I= s"##ess ha he disin-ion *eween hose

-ases where he deah penal& has *een de-lared "n-onsi"ional and hose-ases where Con#ress has eliminaed he deah penal& wo"ld ha'epermied he Ninh Cir-"i o -orre-l& -on-l"de ha he !i'e?&ear sa"eo! limiaions applied o Gallaher(s indi-men.

II. THEHI8TOROTHEEDERA4GO=ERNENT(8JURI8DICTIONINNATI=EAERICANTERRITOR

A. Earl& Treaies

The newl& !ormed Unied 8aes #o'ernmen "i-$l& *e#an ne#oiain#

reaies wih Nai'e Ameri-an ri*es, he !irs o! whi-h was enered inowih he Delaware Naion on 8epem*er 13, 1335.)3E'en his !irs rea&dire-l& addressed he iss"e o! -rimes -ommied *& he -iiFens o! eihernaion, pro'idin# ha neiher wo"ld p"nish he oher(s -iiFens "nil a !air

and imparial rial


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+5 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91he !ederal #o'ernmen o prose-"e Nai'e Ameri-ans i! he& -ommied-erain -rimes a#ains non?Nai'e Ameri-ans.+1or e6ample, he Trea&wih he Chero$ees enered ino on J"l& ), 1391 saed>

I! an& Chero$ee Indian or Indians, or person residin# amon# hem, or

who shall a$e re!"#e in heir naion, shall seal a horse !rom, or -ommiro**er& or m"rder, or oher -apial -rime, on an& -iiFens or inha*ians

o! he Unied 8aes, he Chero$ee naion shall *e *o"nd o deli'er him

or hem "p, o *e p"nished a--ordin# o he laws o! he Unied 8aes.+)

This lan#"a#e was ar#"a*l& inended o appl& onl& o -rimes ha were-ommied *& Nai'e Ameri-ans a#ains non?Nai'e Ameri-ans o"side o!

Nai'e Ameri-an errior&, e'en i! i did no e6pressl& sae so.++Howe'er,some reaies did -onain e6pli-i lan#"a#e *&passin# Nai'e Ameri-anso'erei#n& in !a'or o! !ederal @"risdi-ion !or e6ample, he Jan"ar& 9,1359 rea& wih iando, Delaware, Oawa, Chippewa, %aawaima, and8a- naions limied he ri*es( a*ili& o r& and p"nish non?Nai'eAmeri-ans who -ommied -rimes in Nai'e Ameri-an errior&.+/Ari-le =

o! he rea& pro'ided>I is a#reed ha i! an& Indian or Indians o! he naions *e!ore

menioned, shall -ommi a m"rder or ro**er& on an& o! he -iiFens o!

he Unied 8aes, he naion or ri*e o whi-h he o!!ender *elon#s, on

-omplain *ein# made, shall deli'er "p he person or persons

-omplained o!, a he neares pos o! he Unied 8aes o he end, ha

he or he& ma& *e ried, and i! !o"nd #"il&, p"nished a--ordin# o he

laws esa*lished in ha errior& o! he Unied 8aes norh?wes o! he

ri'er Ohio, !or he p"nishmen o! s"-h o!!en-es, i! he same shall ha'e

*een -ommied wihin he said errior& or a--ordin# o he laws o! he

8ae where he o!!en-e ma& ha'e *een -ommied, i! he same has

happened in an& o! he Unied 8aes. In li$e manner, i! an& s"*@e- or

-iiFen o! he Unied 8aes shall -ommi m"rder or ro**er& on an&Indian or Indians o! he said naions, "pon -omplain *ein# made

hereo!, he or he& shall *e arresed, ried and p"nished a#reea*le o he

laws o! he sae or o! he errior& wherein he o!!ense was -ommied

ha nohin# ma& inerr"p he pea-e and harmon& now esa*lished

*eween he Unied 8aes and said naions.+0

+1 . Clinon,s%!ranoe )3, a 90/see) e.*., Trea& wih he Chero$ees, ar.

, J"l& ), 1391, 3 8a. /7 Trea& wih he Cree$s, ar. =III, A"#. 3, 1397, 3 8a. +3 Trea&

wih he Chi-$asaws, ar. =, Jan. 17, 1352, 3 8a. )0 Trea& wih he Cho-aws, ar. =, Jan.

+, 1352, 3 8a. )) Trea& wih he Chero$ees, ar. =I, No'. )5, 1350, 3 8a. 19 Trea&

wih he &andos, Delawares, Chippawas, and Oawas, ar. I, Jan. )1, 1350, 3 8a. 13.+) . Trea& wih he Chero$ees, ar. , J"l& ), 1391, 3 8a. /7.++ . Clinon,s%!ranoe )3, a 90/.+/ . Trea& wih he iando, Delaware, Oawa, Chippewa, %aawaima,

and 8a-, ar. =, Jan. 5, 1359, 3 8a. )5 Clinon,s%!ranoe )3, a 90/.+0 . Trea& wih he iando, Delaware, Oawa, Chippewa, %aawaima,

and 8a-,s%!ra noe +/.


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)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE +9K. E+ (arte Crow Do#

In he mids o! his lon# period o! re-o#niion o! he Nai'e Ameri-anso'erei#n& wih respe- o -riminal @"risdi-ion, he -ase o!E+ (arte Cr,D* -ame *e!ore he Unied 8aes 8"preme Co"r in 155+.+2 The

de!endan was a Kr"le 8io"6 Nai'e Ameri-an a--"sed o! m"rderin#anoher mem*er o! his ri*e in Nai'e Ameri-an errior&. +3Crow Do# wasried, -on'i-ed, and senen-ed o deah in he !ederal -o"rs.+5 Hes"*se"enl& !iled a wri o! ha*eas -orp"s alle#in# ha his imprisonmenwas ille#al *e-a"se he !ederal #o'ernmen did no ha'e @"risdi-ion o r&him.+9The Co"r a#reed, and in !indin# ha he !ederal -o"rs did no ha'e@"risdi-ion o'er Crow Do#, poined o he !ederal #o'ernmen(s lon#hisor& o! Nai'e Ameri-an @"risdi-ion o'er inra?Nai'e Ameri-an-rimes./7 In !"rher s"ppor o! is de-ision, he Co"r noed ha i! he

!ederal #o'ernmen were permied o e6er-ise @"risdi-ion o'er inra?Nai'e Ameri-an -rimes, i wo"ld r& Nai'e Ameri-ans>


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/7 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91!ederal sa"e, he General Crimes A-, whi-h allows !or !ederalprose-"ion o! non?ma@or -rimes -ommied *& Indians a#ains non?Indiansin Indian -o"nr&./3

D. ederal J"risdi-ion in Oher Areas o! Nai'e Ameri-an 4aw

hile he !ederal #o'ernmen(s in!rin#emen on Nai'e Ameri-anso'erei#n& has pro#ressi'el& #rown more per'asi'e in he area o! -riminal@"risdi-ion, in oher areas o! law he !ederal #o'ernmen has *e-ome

in-reasin#l& willin# o re-o#niFe he ri*es( so'erei#n&./5

In Jan"ar& 1930, Con#ress ena-ed he Indian 8el!?Deerminaion andEd"-aion Assisan-e A- :The 8el!?Deerminaion A-;./9 The 8el!?Deerminaion A- pa'ed he wa& !or ri*al poli-e deparmens o pla& anin-reased role in poli-in# heir reser'aions despie he !ederal#o'ernmen(s @"risdi-ion o'er he mos serio"s -rimes p"rs"an o he

a@or Crimes A-.07

In hite M%ntain A!a&he Tri/e v. 0ra&1er, he U.8. 8"preme Co"r

-onsidered he appli-aion o! sae a6es o lo##in# a-i'iies -ond"-ede6-l"si'el& wihin he reser'aion and ha"lin# ha o--"rred on K"rea" o!Indian A!!airs and ri*al roads.01In is de-ision, he Co"r re-o#niFed he

dan#ers inheren in aempin# o rea ri*al reser'aions li$e saes *e-a"seo! *oh he na"re and !orm o! heir so'erei#n&. 0)Kased on he !ederal#o'ernmen(s -ommimen o promoin# he ri*es( sel!?s"!!i-ien-& ande-onomi- de'elopmen, he Co"r !o"nd ha am*i#"iies in !ederal lawsho"ld *e -onsr"ed #enero"sl& in order o -ompor wih hese radiionalnoions o! so'erei#n& and wih he !ederal poli-& o! en-o"ra#in# ri*alindependen-e.0+

The Ninh Cir-"i isel! had o--asion o -onsider he relaionship

/3 . 15 U.8.C. 110)./5 . Gallaher, 2)/ .+d a 9+5./9 . Indian 8el!?Deerminaion and Ed"-aion Assisan-e A- o! 1930, )0

U.8.C. /07?/05***?) :)772;.07 . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9+5 :-iin# 8TEART AE4ING ET A4, NAT(4

IN8T. OJU8TICE, %O4ICINGONAERICANINDIANRE8ER=ATION83, 9, 11 :)771;;.01 . hie o"nain Apa-he Tri*e '. Kra-$er, //5 U.8. 1+2, 1+9?/7 :1957;.0) . See id.a 1/+.

The "ni"e hisori-al ori#ins o! ri*al so'erei#n& ma$e i #enerall& "nhelp!"l o

appl& o !ederal ena-mens re#"lain# Indian ri*es hose sandards o! pre?

empion ha ha'e emer#ed in oher areas o! he law. Tri*al reser'aions are no

8aes, and he di!!eren-es in he !orm and na"re o! heir so'erei#n& ma$e i

rea-hero"s o impor o one noions o! pre?empion ha are properl& applied o

he oher. The radiion o! Indian so'erei#n& o'er he reser'aion and ri*al

mem*ers m"s in!orm he deerminaion wheher he e6er-ise o! sae a"hori&has *een pre?emped *& operaion o! !ederal law.

Id.0+ . Id.a 1/+?//.


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)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /1*eween !ederal -riminal @"risdi-ion and he ri*es( so'erei#n& in UnitedStates v. Errl D.) $r..0/There, he -o"r was -alled "pon o -onsider heappli-aion o! he a@or Crimes A- o a @"'enile(s he! !rom a K"rea" o!Indian A!!airs *"ildin#.00In !indin# ha he !ederal disri- -o"r la-$ed he@"risdi-ion o r& he &o"n# man, he -o"r held ha alho"#h Con#ress(inr"sion on he ri*es( so'erei#n& *& wa& o! he a@or Crimes A- mi#h*e warraned *& is #"ardianship powers, an& pro'isions o! he a@or

Crimes A- ha are am*i#"o"s m"s *e inerpreed in !a'or o! heri*es.02

III. THENINTHCIRCUIT(8JU8TIICATION8ORIT8DECI8ION

ollowin# is relai'el& len#h& dis-"ssion o! he hisor& o! he !ederal#o'ernmen(s @"risdi-ion in Nai'e Ameri-an errior& and he de!eren-ed"e o he ri*es in he #o'ernan-e o! heir lands and people, 03 he NinhCir-"i pro-eeded o e6plain he reasonin# in s"ppor o! is de-ision ha an"nlimied sa"e o! limiaions was appli-a*le o he -har#es *ro"#ha#ains Gallaher.05 Ineresin#l&, he Ninh Cir-"i(s reasonin# *ore lile

relaion o is e6posiion on Nai'e Ameri-an law.09Insead, he -o"r reliedon pre-eden -on-ernin# he eliminaion o! -apial p"nishmen27 and heinerpreaion o! am*i#"iies in !ederal laws.21 In addiion, he -o"rassered ha he ederal Deah %enal& A- isel!, whi-h was mean o pla-ehe ri*es on e"al !ooin# wih he saes, s"ppored is de-ision.2)inall&,he -o"r deermined ha he r"le o! leni& was no appli-a*le o he-har#es *ro"#h a#ains Gallaher.2+

A. TheF%r"anCases

The Ninh Cir-"i(s opinion in Gallaher poins o he F%r"an v.

Ger*ia2/line o! -ases as pre-eden !or he !ederal #o'ernmen eliminain#-apial p"nishmen wiho" amendin# he sa"es ha de!ine and p"nishindi'id"al -rimes.20 In he landmar$ -ase o! F%r"an v. Ger*ia, he8"preme Co"r was -alled "pon o de-ide wheher he saes( "se o! hedeah penal& -onsi"ed -r"el and "n"s"al p"nishmen in 'iolaion o! he

0/ . Unied 8aes '. Errol D., Jr., )9) .+d 1109, 112) :9h Cir. )77);.00 . Id.a 1121.02 . Id.a 112/.03 . Gallaher, 2)/ .+d a 9+3?+9.05 . Id.a 9+9?/).09 . See id.27 . Id.a 9+9?/1.21 . Id.a 9/1?/).

2) . Id.a 9+9?/1.2+ . Id.a 9/1.2/ . "rman '. Geor#ia, /75 U.8. )+5 :193);.20 . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9+9?/7.


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/) CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91Ei#hh and o"reenh Amendmens.22 The Co"r !o"nd ha in he -asesin'ol'ed, he deah penal& did in !a- -onsi"e -r"el and "n"s"alp"nishmen,23and he Co"r(s de-ision s"*se"enl& res"led in a de !a-omoraori"m on e6e-"ions.25

In he wa$e o! F%r"an and d"rin# he res"lin# moraori"m one6e-"ions, he Ninh Cir-"i de-ided United States v. -enned2, in whi-hhe -o"r -onsidered he e!!e- o!F%r"an v. Ger*iaon a sa"e #o'ernin#he #ran o! *ail in -ases where he de!endan was -har#ed wih an o!!ensep"nisha*le *& deah.29The Ninh Cir-"i deermined ha sa"es s"-h ashe one a iss"e were *ased on he na"re o! he -rimes ha were p"nisha*le*& deah and no he !a- ha he a'aila*le p"nishmen !or he -rime wasdeah.37The -o"r wen on o hold ha,


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)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /+Ninh Cir-"i "i-$l& dismissed an& -on-erns a*o" is de-ision(sin-onsisen-& wih ha prin-iple *& -iin# Ne*nstt v. Sa"%els.32

Ne*nsttheld ha he re"iremen ha he -o"rs inerpre am*i#"iies in!ederal laws in !a'or o! he ri*es onl& re"ires ha he am*i#"iies *einerpreed in !a'or o! he ri*al #o'ernmen, and does no re"ire ha heam*i#"iies *e inerpreed in !a'or o! indi'id"al ri*al mem*ers.33 The-o"r did no dis-"ss how is holdin# in Gallaher:ha an "nlimied sa"e

o! limiaions is appli-a*le o -rimes ha are no in !a- p"nisha*le *&deah; *ene!is he ri*al #o'ernmen as opposed o indi'id"al ri*almem*ers.35

C. The E"al ooin# Ar#"men

In !"rher s"ppor o! is de-ision, he Ninh Cir-"i assered, Theederal Deah %enal& A- pla-es Nai'e Ameri-an ri*es on an e"al!ooin# wih saes> he& ma& de-ide wheher or no ordinar& !irs de#reem"rder -ommied wihin heir @"risdi-ion is p"nisha*le *& deah, e'en i!!irs de#ree m"rders in Indian -o"nr& are prose-"ed in !ederal -o"r. 39

Howe'er, i is -lear ha he ederal Deah %enal& A- does no pla-e heri*es on e"al !ooin# wih he saes in is appli-aion.57 8"-h anar#"men had si#ni!i-an wea$nesses e'en a he ime ha 15 U.8.C. +095 was *ein# de*aed *& Con#ress.51The proponens o! he le#islaionar#"ed ha wiho" he *ene!i o! his le#islaion, i! a Nai'e Ameri-an$illed a Nai'e Ameri-an in Nai'e Ameri-an errior&, hen he -o"ld !a-ehe deah penal& e'en i! he sae in whi-h he reser'aion was lo-aed didno ha'e he deah penal&, while a m"rder -ommied in ha same saeo"side he reser'aion wo"ld no *e eli#i*le !or he deah penal&.5)

Howe'er, his line o! reasonin# also i#nored he !a- ha here were hir&?

hese radiional noions o! so'erei#n& and wih he !ederal poli-& o! en-o"ra#in# ri*al

independen-e;; Indian 8el!?Deerminaion and Ed"-aion Assisan-e A- o! 1930, )0U.8.C. /07?/05d :)772; :permiin# dis*"rsemen o! !"nds o allow ri*es o pla& an

in-reased role in poli-in# heir reser'aions; Errl D.) $r., )9) .+d a 112/ :sain#

pro'isions o! he a@or Crimes A- ha are am*i#"o"s m"s *e inerpreed in !a'or o! he

ri*es.;.32 . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9/1 :-iin# Ne#onso '. 8am"els, 073 U.8. 99,

117 :199+;;.33 . Ne*nstt, 073 U.8. a 117.35 . SeeGallaher, 2)/ .+d a 9+/.39 . Id.a 9+9 :-iin# 1+3 CONG. REC. 85/55?7+, 85/91 :dail& ed. J"ne )/,

1991; :saemen o! 8en. Domeni-i;. C"!areash. Re'. Code 17.90.7+7:); :)77);

:pro'idin# !or imposiion o! he deah penal& in some -ases o! a##ra'aed !irs de#ree

m"rder;, ,ithICH. CON8T. ar. /, /2 :No law shall *e ena-ed pro'idin# !or he penal&

o! deah.;;.57 . 1+3 CONG. REC. 85/39, 85/9) :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :saemen o!8en. Th"rmond;.51 . Id.5) . Id.


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// CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91si6 saes a ha ime whi-h a"horiFed he deah penal&.5+This le#islaionwo"ld permi a Nai'e Ameri-an, who m"rdered anoher Nai'e Ameri-anin Nai'e Ameri-an errior&, o es-ape he imposiion o! he deah penal&e'en ho"#h he deah penal& wo"ld ha'e applied o s"-h a m"rder-ommied o"side o! he reser'aion.5/This presened he ri*es wih anill"sor& -hoi-e a*o" wheher o op in o he deah penal&. In reali&,here was no -hoi-e.

D. R"le o! 4eni&

Gallaher ar#"ed ha he r"le o! leni& re"ired he -o"r o !ind ha he!i'e?&ear sa"e o! limiaions !or -rimes no -apial applied o hisindi-men, raher han he "nlimied sa"e o! limiaions !or -rimesp"nisha*le *& deah.50The Ninh Cir-"i repeaed he wo raionales !orhe r"le o! leni& as dis-"ssed *& he Unied 8aes 8"preme Co"r>

irs, a !air warnin# sho"ld *e #i'en o he world in lan#"a#e ha he

-ommon world will "ndersand, o! wha he law inends o do i! a

-erain line is passed. To ma$e he warnin# !air, so !ar as possi*le heline sho"ld *e -lear. 8e-ond, *e-a"se o! he serio"sness o! -riminal

penalies, and *e-a"se -riminal p"nishmen "s"all& represens he moral

-ondemnaion o! he -omm"ni&, le#isla"res and no he -o"rs sho"ld

de!ine -riminal a-i'i&.52

The Ninh Cir-"i held ha he noi-e raionale did no appl& o Gallaher(s-ase *e-a"se Edwin %ooler was m"rdered *e!ore he ederal Deah %enal&

A- was ena-ed.53

In United States v. (rven3an, he Unied 8aes Disri- Co"r !or he8o"hern Disri- o! New or$ -onsidered he e!!e- o! Con#ress( remo'alo! !ederal $idnappin# !rom he lis o! -rimes eli#i*le !or he deahpenal&.55hen he $idnappin# oo$ pla-e, i was a deah penal& -rime. 59

5+ . A he ime 15 U.8.C. +095 was *ein# de*aed *& Con#ress, he

!ollowin# saes allowed he deah penal&> Ala*ama, AriFona, Ar$ansas, Cali!ornia,

Colorado, Conne-i-", Delaware, lorida, Geor#ia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, en"-$&,

4o"isiana, ar&land, ississippi, isso"ri, onana, Ne*ras$a, Ne'ada, New Hampshire,

New Jerse&, New e6i-o, Norh Carolina, Ohio, O$lahoma, Ore#on, %enns&l'ania, 8o"h

Carolina, 8o"h Da$oa, Tennessee, Te6as, Uah, =ir#inia, ashin#on, and &omin#.

DEATH %ENA4T INO. CTR., State /2 State Data/ase,

hp>LLwww.deahpenal&in!o.or#LsaeM*&Msae :)711;

see als 1+3 Con#. Re-. 85/39, 85/9) :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :saemen o! 8en.

Th"rmond;.5/ . 1+3 CONG. REC. 85/39, 85/9) :dail& ed. J"ne )/, 1991; :saemen o!

8en. Th"rmond;.50 . Gallaher , 2)/ .+d a 9/1.

52 . Id.:"oin# Unied 8aes '. Kass, /7/ U.8. ++2, +/5 :1931;;.53 . Id.55 . Unied 8aes '. %ro'enFano, /)+ . 8"pp. 22) :8.D.N.. 1932;.59 . Id.a 22/.


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)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /0Howe'er, ele'en &ears laer ha desi#naion was remo'ed and hema6im"m p"nishmen !or he -rime was li!e in prison.97The disri- -o"r!o"nd ha *e-a"se Con#ress did no a$e an& seps o amend he oherpro'isions o! Tile 15, he ederal R"les o! Criminal %ro-ed"re, or hesa"e o! limiaions o demonsrae ha he& were sill appli-a*le o henew sa"e, Con#ress had -learl& remo'ed $idnappin# !rom he-lassi!i-aion o! -apial o!!ense.(91

I=. 8UGGE8TED4INEOREA8ONING

A. De-laraions ha he Deah %enal& is Un-onsi"ional =ers"she Eliminaion o! he Deah %enal& as an A'aila*le %"nishmen

Raher han p"rs"in# a line o! reasonin# ha p"rpored o pa& de!eren-eo Nai'e Ameri-an so'erei#n&, he Ninh Cir-"i had a m"-h simplermeans o dispose o! he -asehe simple disin-ion *eween de-laraionsha he deah penal& is "n-onsi"ional and he eliminaion o! he deahpenal& as an a'aila*le p"nishmen.9)Gallaher !ell s"arel& ino he laer

-ae#or&. The -o"r was -alled "pon o inerpre he appli-aion o! -erainsa"es a!er Con#ress eliminaed he deah penal& as an a'aila*lep"nishmen !or a -erain -lass o! indi'id"als.9+

In United States v. Mannin*, he Ninh Cir-"i -onsidered hede!endan(s -laim ha he !i'e?&ear sa"e o! limiaions sho"ld ha'e *eenapplied o -har#es *ro"#h a#ains him "nder 15 U.8.C. 1312 !oralle#edl& sendin# a mail *om* ha $illed he inended re-ipien(sse-rear&.9/The de!endan ar#"ed ha, *e-a"se he Ninh Cir-"i had !o"ndhe deah penal& "n-onsi"ional !or -rimes -ommied in 'iolaion o! 15

U.8.C. 1312, he !i'e?&ear sa"e o! limiaions !or non-apial -rimessho"ld ha'e *een applied.90 The -o"r -on-l"ded ha, *e-a"se he"nlimied sa"e o! limiaions -onained in 15 U.8.C. +)51 and he !i'e?

&ear sa"e o! limiaions -onained in 15 U.8.C. +)5) are lin$ed o hena"re o! he o!!ense -ommied raher han he poenial se'eri& o! hep"nishmen, he #o'ernmen was eniled o he *ene!i o! an "nlimiedsa"e o! limiaions.92The -o"r(s reasonin# inMannin* was *ased on ispre'io"s de-ision in United States v. -enned2, whi-h relied on he o"rh

97 . Id.a 222.91 . Id.a 222?23.9) . Gallaher(s -o"nsel s"##esed s"-h a disin-ion, whi-h is more

horo"#hl& e6plored herein, ho"#h he Ninh Cir-"i -"rio"sl& disre#arded i. Openin#

Krie! o! De!endan?Appellan a 9, Unied 8aes '. Gallaher, 2)/ .+d 9+/ :9h Cir. )717;

:No. 79?+719+;, )779 4 +309920.

9+ . See *enerall2Gallaher, 2)/ .+d 9+/.9/ . Unied 8aes '. annin#, 02 .+d 1155, 1190 :9h Cir. 1990;.90 . Id.92 . Id.a 1192.


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/2 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91Cir-"i(s reasonin# in United States v. atsn.93

In atsn, he o"rh Cir-"i de-ided a -ase in'ol'in# he de!endan(sre"es !or wo aorne&s o represen him when he was -har#ed wih !irs?

de#ree m"rder.95The -ase was de-ided in he wa$e o!F%r"an, so he -o"rwas !a-ed wih a sa"e ha allowed a de!endan -har#ed wih a -apial-rime o *e eniled o wo aorne&s, *" here was a moraori"m one6e-"ions sin-e he 8"preme Co"r had !o"nd he deah penal&"n-onsi"ional.99In de-idin# ha he de!endan was indeed eniled o woaorne&s !or his de!ense,177he -o"r saed, In a 'er& lieral sense, heo!!ense de!ined in 1111 is sill a -apial -rime( he stat%te silla"horiFes he imposiion o! he deah penal& and Con#ress has norepealed i.171 This saemen *& he o"rh Cir-"i se he sa#e !or a

disin-ion *eween a -rime ha is lierall& p"nisha*le *& deah, andhere!ore a -apial -rime, and hose -rimes !or whi-h Con#ress has repealedhe deah penal&. Gallaher -learl& !alls ino he -ae#or& o! -rimes !orwhi-h Con#ress has repealed he deah penal& 17)*& he e6press erms o!he ederal Deah %enal& A-, Con#ress repealed he deah penal& !or

-rimes -ommied in Indian -o"nr& *& people who are s"*@e- o he-riminal @"risdi-ion o! a ri*al #o'ernmen.17+

In United States v. Massin*ale, he de!endans were -har#ed wih$idnappin# !or whi-h he deah penal& had *een eliminaed as an a'aila*lep"nishmen.17/ The de!endans re"esed wen& perempor& -hallen#esha are a'aila*le o de!endans -har#ed wih a -apial -rime. 170hen he&were denied he "se o! wen& perempor& -hallen#es, he& appealed o heo"rh Cir-"i.172The -o"r s"mmaril& de-ided ha he de!endans wereno eniled o wen& perempor& -hallen#es sain#>

I! his -ase presened nohin# more han he de-laraion o! he

"n-onsi"ionali& o! he deah penal& pro'ision o! se-ion 1)71 *& he

Co"r in United States v. $a&1sn we wo"ld *e !a-ed wih he dilemma

whi-h has -on!roned he -o"rs in he wa$e o! F%r"an v. Ger*ia . . ..

Howe'er, he 193) amendmen o! 8e-ion 1)71 *& he Con#ress, whi-h

eliminaed he deah penal&, remo'ed $idnappin# !rom he

-lassi!i-aion o! a -apial o!!ense and, a--ordin#l&, he de!endans were

93 . Id. Unied 8aes '. enned&, 215 .)d 003 :9h Cir. 1957; :-iin#

Unied 8aes '. ason, /92 .)d 11)0 :/h Cir. 193+;.95 . atsn, /92 .)d a 11)0.99 . Id.a 11)2.177 . Id.a 11)0.171 . Id. a 11)3.17) . See *enerall2 Gallaher , 2)/ .+d 9+/.17+ . 15 U.8.C. +095.17/ . Unied 8aes '. assin#ale, 077 .)d 1))/, 1))/ :/h Cir. 193/; :per-"riam;.170 . Id.172 . Id.


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)71)B NINTH CIRCUITS DISINGENOUS DEFERENCE /3no eniled o he *ene!i o! eiher he r"le or sa"or& se-ion "pon

whi-h heir moion was *ased.173

These -ases ma$e a -lear disin-ion *eween he inerpreaion -o"rs

sho"ld appl& when he deah penal& has *een de-lared "n-onsi"ional

and he inerpreaion -o"rs sho"ld appl& when Con#ress has eliminaedhe deah penal&. hen he proper inerpreaion is applied o -ases whereCon#ress has eliminaed he deah penal& !or a pari-"lar -rime, he"nlimied sa"e o! limiaions !or ha -rime is also eliminaed. 175 Thisinerpreaion was "iliFed *& he Unied 8aes Disri- Co"r !or he8o"hern Disri- o! New or$ in he -ase o! United States v. (rven3an.The(rven3an -o"r -on-l"ded ha *e-a"se he deah penal& pro'ision

o! he !ederal $idnappin# sa"e had *een eliminaed *& Con#ress,Con#ress e!!e-i'el& remo'ed $idnappin# !rom he -lassi!i-aion o!-apial o!!enses and here!ore he !i'e?&ear sa"e o! limiaions appliedo he prose-"ion p"rs"an o 15 U.8.C. +)5).179 The -o"r saed,here Con#ress has no a-ed o re-onsider relaed sa"es, we ma& noin!er an inen o do so.117The reasonin# o! (rven3anwas -ied wihappro'al as re-enl& as )775 *& he i!h Cir-"i.111

K. The 8a"e o! 4imiaions as a R"le, No a 8andard

There are some "n!a'ora*le -onse"en-es o! "iliFin# a line o!reasonin# ha disin#"ishes *eween -ases where he deah penal& has

*een de-lared "n-onsi"ional and -ases where Con#ress has eliminaedhe deah penal& as an a'aila*le p"nishmen !or a pari-"lar -rime or !or apari-"lar -lass o! indi'id"als. %rimar& amon# hose "n!a'ora*le-onse"en-es is he possi*ili& ha dan#ero"s -riminals, perhaps some whoha'e e'en admied o he -rimes he& are a--"sed o!, will wal$ !ree d"e owha some mi#h -lassi!& as a mere e-hni-ali&. Howe'er, his reasonalone is no s"!!i-ien o @"si!& he a*andonmen o! well?esa*lishedpre-eden in he appli-aion o! sa"es o! limiaions.

8a"es o! limiaions represen r"les, no sandards.11) R"les andsandards -an *e ho"#h o! as e6isin# on a -onin""m o! dis-reion. 11+Ar"le *inds a de-isionma$er o respond in a deerminae wa& o hepresen-e o! delimied ri##erin# !a-s.11/ I en-ompasses he *a-$#ro"ndpoli-& o! he s"*@e- maer i re#"laes, so is appli-aion ma& res"l in

173 . Id.:-iaions omied;.175 . See (rven3an, /)+ . 8"pp. a 222?23.179 . Id.117 . Id.a 223.111 . See Unied 8aes '. 8eale, 0/) .+d 17++, 17+9 :0h Cir. )775;.11) . See ahleen . 8"lli'an, Fre,rd' The $%sti&es # R%les andStandards, 172 HAR=. 4. RE=. )), 03?09 :199);.11+ . Id.a 03.11/ . Id.a 05.


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/5 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT )91o'er? or "nder?in-l"si'eness.110K" he de-isionma$er m"s !ollow a r"lee'en when a di!!eren res"l wo"ld o--"r i! he *a-$#ro"nd poli-& weredire-l& applied o he si"aion.1128andards, on he oher hand, -ollapsede-isionma$in# *a-$ ino he dire- appli-aion o! he *a-$#ro"nd prin-ipleor poli-& o a !a- si"aion.113A sandard allows he de-isionma$er oa$e all o! he rele'an !a-ors ino a--o"n, *" res"ls in less "ni!ormi&!rom de-ision o de-ision.115The appli-aion o! he sa"e o! limiaions

m"s remain in he !orm o! a r"le, @"s as i has !or he pas se'eral-en"ries. O"r -riminal @"si-e s&sem wo"ld *e -rippled i! @"d#es werepro'ided wih he dis-reion o rea a sa"e o! limiaions as a sandardraher han a r"le. Alho"#h he appli-aion o! a r"le mi#h prod"-e"n!a'ora*le res"ls a imes, i presens a *eer sol"ion han a sandard hares"ls in lile predi-a*ili&.

=. CONC4U8ION

In 199/, Con#ress -ondiionall& eliminaed he deah penal& !or -rimes-ommied *& indi'id"als who are s"*@e- o he -riminal @"risdi-ion o! a

Nai'e Ameri-an ri*al #o'ernmen. In Gallaher, he Ninh Cir-"i was-on!roned wih he "esion o! wheher he !irs?de#ree m"rder -har#es*ro"#h a#ains he de!endan were s"*@e- o he !i'e?&ear sa"e o!limiaions appli-a*le o non-apial -rimes, or he "nlimied sa"e o!limiaions appli-a*le o -rimes p"nisha*le *& deah. In -on-l"din# ha he"nlimied sa"e o! limiaions was appli-a*le, he Ninh Cir-"i p"rs"ed aline o! reasonin# ha paid lip ser'i-e o o"r #o'ernmen(s lon#?esa*lishedre-o#niion o! ri*al so'erei#n&, *" s"mmaril& disre#arded ha hisor& inma$in# is de-ision. Raher han #i'in# disin#en"o"s de!eren-e o he ri*es

and heir so'erei#n&, and "limael& rea-hin# he wron# de-ision, he -o"r-o"ld ha'e relied on a simple disin-ion *eween -ases where he deahpenal& is de-lared "n-onsi"ional and -ases where Con#ress has

eliminaed he deah penal& as an a'aila*le p"nishmen. Had he -o"rre-o#niFed ha he -ase *e!ore i !ell s"arel& ino he laer -ae#or& o!-ases, i -o"ld ha'e rea-hed he -orre- -on-l"sionha he !i'e?&earsa"e o! limiaions was appli-a*le o he -har#es *ro"#h a#ains hede!endan.

110 . Id.112 . Id.113 . Id.a 03.115 . Id.a 05?09.

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