UNIVERSITY OF GUAYAQUIL FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, …repositorio.ug.edu.ec/bitstream/redug/38135/1/Garcia - Villon.pdf · insufficient reading comprehension of the English language in

UNIVERSITY OF GUAYAQUIL

FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, LETTERS AND EDUCATION SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS

EDUCATIONAL PROJECT

IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR OBTAINING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS DEGREE

TOPIC:

INFLUENCE OF THE USE OF CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS TO

IMPROVE READING COMPREHENSION ACCOMPLISHMENT

PROPOSAL:

DESIGN OF A CRITICAL THINKING SKILL BOOKLET FOR THE

STRENGTHENING OF THE READING COMPREHENSION IN THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

AUTHORS:

GARCÍA TENEMPAGUAY LOURDES VERÓNICA

VILLÓN MEZA ODALY DEL ROCÍO

ADVISOR

Msc. Heidi Marriott Toledo

GUAYAQUIL – ECUADOR

2018

ii




BOARD OF DIRECTORS

_________________________ ________________________

MSc. Silvia Moy-Sang Castro MSc. Wilson Romero Dávila

DEAN SUB- DEAN

__________________________ _________________________

MSc. Alfonso Sánchez Ávila Ab. Sebastián Cadena Alvarado

DIRECTOR OF THE CAREER GENERAL SECRETARY

iii

FACULTAD FILOSOFÍA, LETRAS Y CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN ESCUELA DE LENGUAS Y LINGÜÍSTICA

UNIDAD DE TITULACIÓN

Guayaquil, 29 de Junio del 2018

MSc. ALFONSO SANCHÉZ ÁVILA DIRECTOR (A) DE CARRERA FACULTAD FILOSOFÍA, LETRAS Y CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN UNIVERSIDAD DE GUAYAQUIL Ciudad.-

De mis consideraciones:

Envío a Ud. el Informe correspondiente a la tutoría realizada al Trabajo de TITULACIÓN INFLUENCE OF THE USE OF CRITICAL THINKING SKILL TO IMPROVE THE READING COMPREHENSION ACCOMPLISHMENT. DESIGN OF A CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS BOOKLET FOR THE STRENGTHENING OF READING COMPREHENSION IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE de los estudiantes GARCÍA TENEMPAGUAY LOURDES VERÓNICA-VILLÓN MEZA ODALY DEL ROCÍO, indicando han cumplido con todos los parámetros establecidos en la normativa vigente:

El trabajo es el resultado de una investigación.

El estudiante demuestra conocimiento profesional integral.

El trabajo presenta una propuesta en el área de conocimiento.

El nivel de argumentación es coherente con el campo de conocimiento.

Adicionalmente, se adjunta el certificado de porcentaje de similitud y la valoración del trabajo de titulación con la respectiva calificación.

Dando por concluida esta tutoría de trabajo de titulación, CERTIFICO, para los fines pertinentes, que los estudiantes están aptos para continuar con el proceso de revisión final.

Atentamente,

v




PROJECT

TOPIC: INFLUENCE OF THE USE OF CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS TO

IMPROVE READING COMPREHENSION ACCOMPLISHMENT.

PROPOSAL: DESIGN OF A CRITICAL THINKING SKILL BOOKLET FOR

THE STRENGTHENING OF THE READING COMPREHENSION IN THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

APPROVED

……………………………

Tribunal No 1

…..…………………… ….………………………

Tribunal No 2 Tribunal No 3

Lourdes Verónica García Tenempaguay Odaly del Rocío Villón Meza

C.I. 0924973274 C.I.0923237424

vi

EL TRIBUNAL EXAMINADOR OTORGA AL PRESENTE TRABAJO

LA CALIFICACIÓN DE: ______________

EQUIVALENTE A: ______________

TRIBUNAL

______________ _____________

______________

vii

DEDICATION

All this effort is dedicated to God for allowing me to continue with my

studies, which with great effort and dedication I have been able to

successfully complete.

This work was also dedicated to my husband Jefferson Vélez Zambrano,

for his continuous support. To my mother because her sound advice,

values, motivation, and blessings have helped me succeed in my studies.

Finally, to the teachers who marked each stage of my university path, and

who helped me overcome difficulties and doubts presented in the

preparation of my thesis.

Villón Meza Odaly del Rocío

I am proud to dedicate this project to my main guide, God, for giving me a

life full of health, love and faith, for guiding my steps and for always

staying on the right path. To my family that was an important pillar for me.

And above all to my beloved children Paulette and Yoel.

García Tenempaguay Lourdes Verónica

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank First of all God who created the universe. To my

mother, for giving me the necessary strength in the difficult moments of my

life.

I am also grateful to my thesis supervisor MSc. Heidi Marriott Toledo, for

giving me the opportunity to draw on her scientific knowledge and ability,

and for her patience in guiding me throughout the development of the

thesis.

Villón Meza Odaly del Rocío

I would like to thank my MSc thesis consultant. Heidi Marriot, who was a

great support for me. Your patience and effort makes me perseverant.

Thanks to her experience, motivation and kindness.

I also thank all the teachers who made my learning process possible over

time, which made my knowledge grow.

García Tenempaguay Lourdes Verónica

ix

GENERAL INDEX

PRELIMINARY PAGES

COVER PAGE .............................................................................................i

BOARD OF DIRECTORS ...........................................................................ii

DOCUMENTS……………………………………………….…………...…......iii

LETTER OF APPROVAL............................................................................iv

INTELLECTUAL POPERTY RIGHTS..........................................................v

TRIBUNAL’S GRADE .............................................................................. vi

DEDICATION.............................................................................................vii

ACKNOWLEDGENT.................................................................................viii

GENERAL INDEX......................................................................................ix

CHAPTERS…………………………………………………….…….…...........x

INDEX OF TABLES ................................................................................xiii

INDEX OF GRAPHIC..............................................................................xiv

REPOSITORIO NACIONAL EN CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGÍA..................xvi

NATIONAL REPOSITORY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.................xvii

RESUMEN............................................................................................ xviii

ABSTRACT............................................................................................ xix

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................1

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH............................................................. 3

RESEARCH PROBLEM ..........................................................................3

CONFLICT SITUATION........................................................................... 3

x

SCIENTIFIC FACT .................................................................................. 4

CAUSES................................................................................................... 5

PROBLEM FORMULATION..................................................................... 5

OBJECTIVES OF THE INVESTIGATION................................................ 6

GENERAL OBJECTIVE........................................................................... 6

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES..........................................................................6

RESEARCH QUESTION..........................................................................6

JUSTIFICATION.......................................................................................6

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAME

BACKGROUND.........................................................................................9

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................9

PEDAGOGICAL FOUNDATION............................................................. 25

DIDACTIC FOUNDATION……………………………………….……....….29

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION ........................................................32

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION.............................................................33

LEGAL FOUNDATION ...........................................................................35

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY, PROCESS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE

RESULTS

METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN ............................................................. 38

TYPES OF INVESTIGATION ............................................................... 38

OPERATIONALIZATION OF THE VARIABLES CHART...................... 39

POPULATION....................................................................................... 40

SAMPLE................................................................................................ 40

INVESTIGATION METHODS................................................................ 41

xi

TECHNIQUES AND RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS................................ 42

TECHNIQUES OF THE INVESTIGATION............................................. 42

INSTRUMENTS OF THE INVESTIGATION........................................... 43

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULT OF THE

INSTRUMENTS OF INVESTIGATION................................................... 44

ANALYSIS OF THE OBSERVATION RESULT .....................................44

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF THE SURVEY TO THE STUDENT... .... 45

ANALYSIS OF RESULT OF THE TEACHER INTERVIEW ...................61

CHI SQUARE TEST ..............................................................................62

CHAPTER IV

THE PROPOSAL

JUSTIFICATION.....................................................................................64

OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................65

GENERAL OBJECTIVE......................................................................... 65

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES....................................................................... 65

THEORETICAL ASPECTS.................................................................... 54

EPISTEMOLOGICAL FOUNDATION ………………………….…......…..65

PEDAGOGICAL FOUNDATION………………………………………...…65

FEASIBILITY OF ITS APPLICATION ....................................................66

FINANCIAL.............................................................................................66

LEGAL........................................................................................ ............66

HUMAN RESOURCES...........................................................................66

POLICIES...............................................................................................66

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSAL……………………………………66

THE PROPOSAL

COVER PAGE......................................................................................69

GENERAL INDEX OF THE PROPOSAL ……………..………........…..70

xii

INTRODUCTION OF THE PROPOSAL……………………….………....72

CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................127

RECOMENDACIONES……………………………………………….…...127

REFERENCES ....................................................................................128

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................129

ANNEXES

ANNEX 1……………………………………………………..……..….…..130

ANNEX 2 ………………………………………………………....…..……136

ANNEX 3…………………………………………………………….…..….139

ANNEX4………………………………………………………..….....….…143

xiii

INDEX OF TABLES

TABLE 1: OPERATIONALIZATION OF THE VARIABLES………..……..39

TABLE 2: POPULATION & SAMPLE…………………….……….…………40

TABLE 3. ANALYSIS OF THE OBSERVATION RESULT………………..44

TABLE 4: ITEM 1. READING ACTIVITIS……………………………….…..45

TABLE 5: ITEM 2. ENJOYING READING………………………………….46

TABLE 6: ITEM 3. GROUP WORK………………………………….……...47

TABLE 7: ITEM 4. MODELING EXAMPLES……………………………...48

TABLE 8: ITEM 5. CHALLEGING EXERCISES…………………..………49

TABLE 9: ITEM 6. READING…………………………………………….…50

TABLE 10: ITEM 7. READING TOPICS…………………………….…...…51

TABLE 11: ITEM 8. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS……………………..….....52

TABLE 12: ITEM 9. WARM–UP READING ACTIVITIES………..……....53

TABLE 13 : ITEM 10. READING MOTIVATION…………………..…….…54

TABLE 14: ITEM 11. THINKING DEEPLY…………………………..…….55

TABLE 15: ITEM 12. ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONS……………………..…56

TABLE 16: ITEM 13. READING INSTRUCTIONS……………………….57

TABLE 17: ITEM 14. READING STRATEGIES……………………...….58

TABLE 18: ITEM15. PARTICIPATION IN CLASS……………….……...59

TABLE 19: ITEM 16. SURVEY…………………………………………....60

TABLE 20: ITEM 17. CHIP SQUARE RESULT……………………...….62

xiv

INDEX OF GRAPHIC

GRAPHIC 1: ITEM 1 READING CTIVITIES….……………………….…..45

GRAPHIC 2: ITEM 2 ENJOYING ACTIVITIES…………………..…….….46

GRAPHIC 3: ITEM 3 GROUP WORK……………………...……………...47

GRAPHIC 4: ITEM 4 MODELING EXAMPLES………………...….......…48

GRAPHIC 5: ITEM 5 CHALLENGING EXERCISES…………….....….…49

GRAPHIC 6: ITEM 6 READING……………………………. ..…. ……... ..50

GRAPHIC 7: ITEM 7 READING TOPICS ……………………………….…51

GRAPHIC 8: ITEM 8 GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS……..……………….…..52

GRAPHIC 9: ITEM 9 WARM-UP READING ACTIVITIES……….………53

GRAPHIC 1O: ITEM 10 READING ACTIVITIES…………….….………..54

GRAPHIC 11: ITEM 11THINKING DEEPLY……………….………….…55

GRAPHIC 12: ITEM 12 ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONS……….……………56

GRAPHIC 13: ITEM 13 READING INSTRUCTIONS…….……….……..57

GRAPHIC 14: ITEM 14 READING STRATEGIES…….………………….58

GRAPHIC 15: ITEM 15 PARTICIPATION IN CLASS………………….…59

GRAPHIC 16: ITEM 16 CHIP SQUARE RESULT………………………..62

xv

FACULTAD FILOSOFÍA, LETRAS Y CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN

ESCUELA DE LENGUAS Y LINGÜÍSTICA


LICENCIA GRATUITA INTRANSFERIBLE Y NO EXCLUSIVA PARA EL

USO NO COMERCIAL DE LA OBRA CON FINES NO ACADÉMICOS

Yo, García Tenempaguay Lourdes Verónica con C.I. No. 0924973274 y

Villón Meza Odaly Del Rocío con C.I. No. 0923237424, certifico que los

contenidos desarrollados en este trabajo de titulación, cuyo título es:

“ Influence of the use of critical thinking skill to improve the reading

comprehension accomplishment. Design of a critical thinking skills booklet

for the strengthening of reading comprehension in the English language ”

son de nuestra absoluta propiedad y responsabilidad Y SEGÚN EL Art.

114 del CÓDIGO ORGÁNICO DE LA ECONOMÍA SOCIAL DE LOS

CONOCIMIENTOS, CREATIVIDAD E INNOVACIÓN*, autorizo el uso de

una licencia gratuita intransferible y no exclusiva para el uso no comercial

de la presente obra con fines no académicos, en favor de la Universidad

de Guayaquil, para que haga uso del mismo, como fuera pertinente

García Tenempaguay Lourdes Verónica Villón Meza Odaly Del Rocío

C.I. No. 0924973274 C.I No. 0923237424

C.I. No. 0924973274-C.I No. 0923237424

*CÓDIGO ORGÁNICO DE LA ECONOMÍA SOCIAL DE LOS CONOCIMIENTOS, CREATIVIDAD E INNOVACIÓN (Registro

Oficial n. 899 - Dic./2016) Artículo 114.- De los titulares de derechos de obras creadas en las instituciones de

educación superior y centros educativos.- En el caso de las obras creadas en centros educativos, universidades,

escuelas politécnicas, institutos superiores técnicos, tecnológicos, pedagógicos, de artes y los conservatorios

superiores, e institutos públicos de investigación como resultado de su actividad académica o de investigación

tales como trabajos de titulación, proyectos de investigación o innovación, artículos académicos, u otros

análogos, sin perjuicio de que pueda existir relación de dependencia, la titularidad de los derechos patrimoniales

corresponderá a los autores. Sin embargo, el establecimiento tendrá una licencia gratuita, intransferible y no

exclusiva para el uso no comercial de la obra con fines académicos.

xvi




REPOSITORIO NACIONAL EN CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGÍA

FICHA DE REGISTRO DE TESIS/TRABAJO DE GRADUACIÓN

TÍTULO Y SUBTÍTULO: Influence of the use of critical thinking skill to improve the reading comprehension accomplishment. Design of a critical thinking skills booklet for the strengthening of reading comprehension in the English Language.

AUTOR(ES) (apellidos/nombres):

García Tenempaguay Lourdes Verónica - Villón Meza Odaly Del Rocío

REVISOR(ES)/TUTOR(ES) (apellidos/nombres):

MSc. Heidi Marriott Toledo

INSTITUCIÓN: Universidad De Guayaquil

UNIDAD/FACULTAD: Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación

MAESTRÍA/ESPECIALIDAD: Lenguas y Lingüística

GRADO OBTENIDO: Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Educación, mención en Lengua Inglesa y Lingüística

FECHA DE PUBLICACIÓN: No. DE PÁGINAS: DE CLASIFICACIÓN

ÁREAS TEMÁTICAS: Lengua Inglesa

PALABRAS CLAVES/ KEYWORDS:

Reading, reading comprehension, thinking skills, reading strategies.

RESUMEN/ABSTRACT : This document is the result of an investigation at the Francisco Huerta Rendon high school related to the insufficient reading comprehension of the English language in the 8th grade students of General Basic Education. This research work was carried out to determine the influence of critical thinking skills in the development of reading comprehension. Since reading is a metacognitive process, there is a strong link with thinking skills. This research work has been carried out through theoretical, empirical and statistical methods following a mixed, qualitative and quantitative methodological approach and the application of different data collection instruments; as, an observation guide, surveys and interviews and after a thorough analysis.

ADJUNTO PDF: SI NO

CONTACTO CON AUTOR/ES: Teléfono: 0989904863 0987155141

E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

CONTACTO CON LA INSTITUCIÓN:

Nombre: : Secretaría de la Escuela de Lenguas y Lingüística

Teléfono: (04)2294888 Ext. 123

E-mail: [email protected]

x

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]

xvii




REPOSITORIO NACIONAL EN CIENCIA Y

TECNOLOGÍA

FICHA DE REGISTRO DE TESIS/TRABAJO DE GRADUACIÓN

TÍTULO Y SUBTÍTULO: Influencia del uso de la capacidad de pensamiento crítico para mejorar el logro de la comprensión lectora. Diseño de un folleto de habilidades de pensamiento crítico para el fortalecimiento de la comprensión lectora en el idioma inglés.

AUTOR(ES) (apellidos/nombres):

García Tenempaguay Lourdes Verónica- Villón Meza Odaly Del Rocío

REVISOR(ES)/TUTOR(ES) (apellidos/nombres):

MSc. Heidi Marriott Toledo

INSTITUCIÓN: Universidad De Guayaquil

UNIDAD/FACULTAD: Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación

MAESTRÍA/ESPECIALIDAD: Lenguas y Lingüística

GRADO OBTENIDO: Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Educación, mención en Lengua Inglesa y Lingüística

FECHA DE PUBLICACIÓN: No. DE PÁGINAS: DE CLASIFICACIÓN

ÁREAS TEMÁTICAS: Lengua Inglesa

PALABRAS CLAVES/ KEYWORDS:

Lectura, comprensión de lectura, habilidades de pensamiento, estrategias de lectura.

RESUMEN/ABSTRACT : Este documento es el resultado de una investigación en la escuela secundaria Francisco Huerta Rendón relacionada con la insuficiente comprensión lectora del idioma inglés en los estudiantes de 8 ° grado de Educación Básica General. Este trabajo de investigación se llevó a cabo para determinar la influencia de las habilidades de pensamiento crítico en el desarrollo de la comprensión lectora. Dado que la lectura es un proceso metacognitivo, existe un fuerte vínculo con las habilidades de pensamiento. Este trabajo de investigación se ha llevado a cabo a través de métodos teóricos, empíricos y estadísticos siguiendo un enfoque metodológico mixto, cualitativo y cuantitativo y la aplicación de diferentes instrumentos de recopilación de datos; como, una guía de observación, encuestas y entrevistas y después de un análisis exhaustivo.

ADJUNTO PDF: SI NO

CONTACTO CON AUTOR/ES:

Teléfono:0989904863, 0987155141

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

CONTACTO CON LA INSTITUCIÓN:

Nombre: : Secretaría de la Escuela de Lenguas y Lingüística

Teléfono: (04)2294888 Ext. 123

E-mail: [email protected]

x

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]

xviii



"Influencia del uso de la capacidad de pensamiento crítico para mejorar el logro

de la comprensión lectora. Diseño de un folleto de habilidades de pensamiento

crítico para el fortalecimiento de la comprensión lectora en el idioma inglés".

Autor: García Tenempaguay Lourdes

Villón Meza Odaly Del Rocío

Tutor: : MSc. Heidi Marriott Toledo

Resumen

Este documento es el resultado de una investigación en la escuela secundaria

Francisco Huerta Rendón relacionada con la insuficiente comprensión lectora del

idioma inglés en los estudiantes de 8 ° grado de Educación Básica General. Este

trabajo de investigación se llevó a cabo para determinar la influencia de las

habilidades de pensamiento crítico en el desarrollo de la comprensión lectora.

Dado que la lectura es un proceso metacognitivo, existe un fuerte vínculo con las

habilidades de pensamiento. Este trabajo de investigación se ha llevado a cabo a

través de métodos teóricos, empíricos y estadísticos siguiendo un enfoque

metodológico mixto, cualitativo y cuantitativo y la aplicación de diferentes

instrumentos de recopilación de datos; como, una guía de observación,

encuestas y entrevistas y después de un análisis exhaustivo.

Palabras claves: Lectura, comprensión de lectura, habilidades de

pensamiento, estrategias de lectura.

xix



“Influence of the use of critical thinking skill to improve the

reading comprehension accomplishment. Design of a critical

thinking skills booklet for the strengthening of reading

comprehension in the English language”

Autor: García Tenempaguay Lourdes

Villón Meza Odaly Del Rocío

Tutor: MSc. Heidi Marriott Toledo

Abstract

This document is the result of an investigation at the Francisco Huerta

Rendon high school related to the insufficient reading comprehension of

the English language in the 8th grade students of General Basic

Education. This research work was carried out to determine the influence

of critical thinking skills in the development of reading comprehension.

Since reading is a metacognitive process, there is a strong link with

thinking skills. This research work has been carried out through

theoretical, empirical and statistical methods following a mixed, qualitative

and quantitative methodological approach and the application of different

data collection instruments; as, an observation guide, surveys and

interviews and after a thorough analysis.

Keyword: Reading, reading comprehension, thinking skills, reading

strategies

1

INTRODUCTION

Reading process and improve the skills of critical thinking as inference,

interpretation and reading is a vital component in each of the educational

spaces and requires adequate reflection for its execution. The present

research work seeks the design, constructions and subsequent

elaboration of reading comprehension workshops as an innovative tool

and facilitator of the critical reading process.

It has as population the students of Eighth grade of General Basic

Education at Francisco Huerta Rendón High School, located in Guayaquil-

Ecuador, in this population it is evident the need to strengthen the

evaluation through critical reading of short stories and that what is done in

the classroom can transcend beyond the classroom, since the students

recognize that the reading process is fundamental in all the ambits

CHAPTER I - THE PROBLEM: Describes the problem in context, scientific

facts and principal causes, objectives and questions of this research.

CHAPTER II - THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: which consists of

background information study, that is, relevant topics similar to the

research topic that is being carried out, consists of theoretical bases that

are based on the application of thinking skills, the process of teaching -

learning with their respective definitions, they are shown also the

foundations of the present investigative work, which are: philosophical,

pedagogical, psychological, sociological, etc. In addition, the contextual

frame and the legal basis, the same that mentions the main laws in which

this project is based on.

CHAPTER III - ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS: The

discussion of results; that is the methodology of the research, this chapter

includes the types of research, population and shows, the

2

operationalization of the study variables, used in the investigative process,

describes the research methods, the techniques and instruments.

CHAPTER IV - THE PROPOSAL: Offers the proposal, its justification, the

objectives and the practicable application as well as its description and

conclusions.

3

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

This research work aims to solve the problem in reading

comprehension development found in students of Eighth grade of General

Basic Education (BGE) at Francisco Huerta Rendón high school. This is a

mid-level educational institution created in May of 1971; attached to the

Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Guayaquil.

Conflict situation

During the initial observations performed during five English

teaching practice periods with students of Eighth grade of BGE at

Francisco Huerta Rendón High School, the researchers noticed that most

of the students were getting low grades in reading comprehension class

activities and lessons.

After having revised, the materials and the strategies used by the

English teacher, as concrete evidence; authors have realized that the

origin of this problematic might be related to:

Students not following instructions; they have difficulty at reading

instructions, despite the teacher explanations and modeling. As a

result, they make many mistakes.

Students usually fail at doing exercises that require deeper level of

reasoning or abstract thinking like in comparing, describing, inferring,

justifying, or giving opinions.

Students were not able, most of the time, to accomplish some

exercises such as answering questions, and other tasks that involve

the use of higher order thinking skills like in analysis, synthesis and

evaluation into the reading process.

4

Additionally, authors have realized, during this research work, that

the students were not used to apply strategies for reading comprehension;

in fact they are not trained. It was also observed that many of the reading

activities performed did not follow the appropriate curricular

recommendations for the development of this receptive skill.

Furthermore, it was evident that teachers did not put the necessary

emphasis in the development and improvement of reading comprehension

skills in general. On the other hand, the students did not receive

appropriate feedback when performing activities.

Therefore, the authors conclude that the conflict situation needs to

be addressed to restore a correct situation. Hence, it is urgent the

implementation of exercises and strategies to develop and strengthen the

critical thinking skills at the learners in order to improve their reading

comprehension in the English language.

Scientific fact

When asking comprehension questions, the students frequently

answer repeating the same words as in the readings. In consequence,

they did not make any type of reasoning processing that allowed further

understanding.

In addition to this, the students got confused to find the main and

the secondary ideas. They have difficulty at summarizing events and

drawing conclusions.

Overall, the authors noticed an insufficient level of reading

comprehension accomplishment in students of Eighth grade of BGE at

Francisco Huerta Rendón high school.

5

Causes

After a conscientious analysis, authors conclude that the principal

causes of this problematic situation are the following:

Absence of an updated methodology for teaching reading

comprehension.

Scarcity of critical thinking exercises.

Inadequate types of reading activities.

Uninteresting reading topics for learners.

Problem formulation

What is the influence of the use of critical thinking skills to improve

reading comprehension accomplishment in students of Eighth Grade of

Basic General Education at Francisco Huerta Rendón High School located

at Guayaquil-Ecuador, school year 2016-2017?

6

Research objectives

General Objective

To analyze the influence of the use of critical thinking skills to improve

the reading comprehension accomplishment through a literature review, field

study, and statistical analysis; in order to design a critical thinking skills booklet

for the strengthening of reading comprehension in the English language.

Specific Objectives

To determine the relevance of critical thinking skills in the reading process

through a literature review, field study, and statistical analysis.

To categorize reading comprehension accomplishment through a literature

review, field study, and statistical analysis.

To assess the aspects that should be considered for the design of a critical

thinking skills booklet for the strengthening of reading skills through the

application of a literature review, field study, and statistical analysis.

Research questions

1. What are the skills needed to strengthen reading comprehension?

2. What is involved in the critical thinking?

3. What is the relation between reading comprehension and critical thinking

skills?

4. What are the common critical thinking exercises?

5. What are the barriers to implement thinking skills into the reading process?

6. What are the approaches that enhance the critical thinking?

Justification

This research work is convenient because it will be helpful to determine

the actual causes the students usually have low grades and poor performance

to do reading comprehension activities and to evaluate the effectiveness of

including critical thinking skills into the reading process.

7

This is also relevant because the direct beneficiaries will be the students

of Eighth grade of BGE at Francisco Huerta Rendón high school who will be

able to overcome their actual reading comprehension difficulties. Furthermore,

the investigation is valuable to prevent future scholar problems in English

language or other subjects.

Moreover, this research work is according to the policies and objectives

set by the Ecuadorian Constitution, in the section 5, and the Plan toda la Vida in

the objective 4.

Our research is also supported by the National Curriculum Guidelines for

the teaching of English as a foreign language that is based on the Common

European Framework of Reference for languages. Our country has decided to

modify the parameters according with our reality in the General Basic

Education. Therefore, the A-1.1 level for the Eighth grade corresponded to

Basic Users.

Finally, this research work will help to upgrade the students’ English

reading proficiency simultaneously with thinking abilities. At the end, students

will become in better readers and better thinkers.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAME

Background

According to Paul & Elder (2006) the human ‘thinking is biased and

distorted’, partial, or prejudiced and they conclude that the quality of our lives is

highly related to the quality of our thoughts. Therefore, human beings should

cultivate high quality in their thoughts. For this reason, teachers should

encourage students to develop their thinking skills during classes.

Likewise, reading comprehension is a mental and metacognitive process.

According to the researchers’ experience, the common difficulties in successful

reading comprehension are due to the scarcity of training in higher order

thinking skills. They also consider critical thinking gathers a series of skills and

sub skills that can and must be developed along the educational system as,

critical thinkers are rational problem solvers.

Many authors support that thinking skills must be developed in learners

even in the lower levels, and particularly in the teaching-learning of the reading

process. Consequently, the authors have focused this research in the students

of Eighth grade of General Basic Education (BGE) at Francisco Huerta Rendón

high school to enhance their reading comprehension.

With this work, the authors aim to provide an overview of a wide range of

studies related to the variables and the proposal theme, and some useful

background information and recommendation to validate the need for the

implementation of this proposal. For example, Echeverria (2011), in a study

performed in a high school in Colombia identified that students responded

better to the development thinking skills when they practiced reading strategies

and considered that the strategies and interactive reading activities allowed

them to improve the reading comprehension.

9

Additionally, in an article by McNulty Ferri (2009) from Universidad de

Antioqua, about the development of critical thinking through reading

comprehension in intermediate level noticed that students responded better to

the development of the reading comprehension when critical thinking activities

were incorporated.

After a process of revising of all the available and updated literature,

promoting the development of critical thinking to improve reading

comprehension is an approach that fits the necessities of students of Francisco

Huerta Rendón high school to attain the language learning reading objectives,

especially enhancing reading comprehension for their level.

Theoretical – Conceptual Framework

Didactic Foundation

Thinking in the Educational context

Thinking is a purposeful, organized, cognitive process that the mind uses

to make sense of the world. Thinking is at the core of human life and human

problems. Therefore, thinking must be at the core of the curriculum. For this

reasons the authors consider pertinent to implement the proposal developing

thinking skills at the students of eight grade of BGE at Francisco Huerta Rendón

high school.

Types of thinking

The main are critical thinking and creative thinking. Additionally the

elements of thought are:

Purpose

Question at issue

Information

Interpretation and inference

Concepts

Assumptions

Implications and consequences

Point of view

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Thinking skills

As Einstein asserted “Education is not the learning of facts, but the

training of the mind to think.” Consequently, the thinking determines what we

learn, how we learn, the effort we expend, what is true or false, and how deep

or superficial is the learning.

Furthermore, the thinking skills are divided into Low Order Thinking Skills

LOTS and High Order Thinking Skills HOTS.

Higher order thinking skills include critical, logical, reflective,

metacognitive, and creative thinking. They are activated when

individuals encounter unfamiliar problems, uncertainties, questions, or

dilemmas. Successful applications of the skills result in explanations,

decisions, performances, and products that are valid within the context of

available knowledge and experience and that promote continued growth

in these and other intellectual skills.

After this research, authors consider that even in the lowest level of

language knowledge teachers need to start the training using higher order

thinking skills.

Critical thinking

It is a self-directed process by which human beings take deliberate steps

to think at the highest level of quality.

“Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and

skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or

evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,

experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief

and action” (Scriven & Paul).

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Critical thinking skills

The types of critical thinking skills are reasoning, evaluating, problem

solving, decision-making, and analyzing.

Critical Thinking activities

Recognizing

Recalling

Distinguishing

Visualizing

Sequencing

Predicting

Inferring

Evaluating

Analyzing

Synthesizing

Drawing conclusions

Classifying

Critical thinking in EFL

There are multiple reasons for helping EFL learners improve their critical

thinking. First, they become better readers and critics of what they read

in English. Second, critical thinking can improve learners’ writing and

speaking abilities when they have to give their opinions and arguments in

the foreign language. Third, being a critical thinker is an advantage to be

successful, not only in academic contexts, but also when solving real life

tasks. Fourth, learning a foreign language implies using language within

communicative contexts in which learners can think critically in order to

achieve communicative goals. Otherwise, language could be seen as a

useless code to be learnt by force. Pineda (2003) states, “combining the

learning of a language with critical thinking may result in a more

meaningful learning experience” (p. 44).

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Pithers and Soden (2000) affirm that students are expected to learn not

only the specific contents of a discipline, but also, “to develop ‘generic’

abilities which can be deployed flexibly in a wide range of work and life

context” (p. 238).

Critical thinkers

They can do the following:

Distinguish between fact and opinion

Ask questions; make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define

their terms; and

Make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence

Focus on the most relevant information

Ask the right questions

Separate facts from opinions and assumptions

Make sound decisions

Set priorities

Learn quickly

Apply what they learn to new situations

Benefits of critical thinking

It is important to develop critical thinking to students as follows:

1. Personal and Public Life:

The critical thinking avoid falling for scams and making foolish decisions from

ignorance and help make better decision from verified information.

It also gives free one from unexamined assumptions, dogmas, and prejudices

and people can be better-informed citizens and voters.

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2. The Workplace:

The critical thinking help people to be better problem-solver and principally to be

better analyze information and draw appropriate conclusions.

It helps us to communicate a position logically and making good decisions

(based on data, not feelings).

Barriers to Critical Thinking

Among the most relevant they are: lack of relevant background

information, poor reading skills, prejudice, superstition, resistance to change,

rationalization, stereotyping, wishful thinking, egocentrism, mindless

conformism, narrow-mindedness, and closed-mindedness.

Critical thinking in reading comprehension

Four language domains: In relation to the theme, researchers advise that all

four domains should be activated, incorporated, and integrated during a lesson

as follow:

Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are naturally interrelated and

integrated. We read when we write, and we listen when we speak to

each other.

Practice in any one of the four domains we result in improvement in

the other three.

By the time young children begin kindergarten at the age of five, they

have generally become grammatically competent in their primary

language. Thus, the holistic development of the four language

domains makes more sense cognitively than developing them in

isolation of each other, particularly because they are not acquired

independently of each other.

Connecting abstract and concrete concepts is best accomplished

when students can incorporate and use all four language domains to

practice and apply the new learning (Carrillo, 2011, p. 103).

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Teachers need to provide many opportunities for students to engage in

the four domains in order to develop the critical thinking in students.

Fifth domain: Thinking: Critical thinking within the process of acquiring a

foreign language has a very important role as follow:

Many of us mistakenly believe that beginning-level ELLs have such

limited English skills that deep critical thinking cannot be required of them

or accessed. This is an erroneous notion, with the result that ELLs,

particularly those in the preproduction and early production levels, are

not being adequately challenged. This lack of rigorous instructional

expectations may lead to high levels of disengagement.

There is another surprising connection between critical thinking and two

of the other domains in language: reading and writing. Because reading

and writing are constructive processes and the outcome of both

processes is to construct meaning, both are considered highly cognitive

in nature. Due to the high levels of cognition involved in constructing

meaning, research has shown that students become better critical

thinkers when reading and writing are taught together (Carrillo, 2011, p.

106).

Reading

Reading is an active process in which we get meaning from looking at

written symbols. However, it is also a receptive language domain because we

receive information that communicate something to us; although reading

requires active processing skills in order for comprehension to take place.

This process requires that learners integrate word recognition,

comprehension, fluency, and motivation to make meaning. Sometimes reading

skills involve minimal processing like in invitations, ads or menus but sometimes

it involves higher levels of comprehension like in novels, science textbooks, or

fiction books.

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Authors consider that students need to learn:

Phonemic awareness, alphabetical principle, decoding, word study, and

sight vocabulary to foster word recognition.

Background knowledge, oral and print vocabularies, how the language

works, various kinds of texts, various purposes for reading, and strategies

for constructing meaning to develop comprehension.

Accuracy, rate, phrasing and expression, and automatic comprehension

skills to work out fluency.

To explore their interests, read for various purposes; be exposed to different

genres to maintain the motivation to read.

In the reading process, learners decode symbols to construct meaning; in

other words, they do reading comprehension. Reading is also a way of

language acquisition and communication; there is a real interaction between the

reader and the text. This process needs rigorous practice and development. In

brief, critical analysis and creativity are required in the reading process.

Authors conclude that the reading ability is not learned only by natural

exposure like in speaking skills. Learners need to be trained using a wide range

of strategies and techniques; all of them according with the pre-establish aims

following the appropriate pedagogical approach and taking into account the

level and age of students.

Teachers have the great task to immerse learners in the wonderful world

of reading, and whatever effort is valuable when motivating students is the goal.

They need to support students in different ways; providing glossaries,

scaffolding, modeling, with direct instruction and always relating the topic with

students’ experiences to do the learning experience more meaningful.

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Reading Models

Bottom-up model

In the reading context, bottom-up is decoding of meaning by the reader

encoded by the writer.

Top-down model

It is the inference of meaning on the basis of activating prior semantic,

pragmatic, syntactic and discourse knowledge.

It is necessary that students are able to use top-down or global

strategies, as well as bottom-up processes.

Reading Stages

Most of researchers suggest the following stages in the reading process:

Pre-reading activities;

Reading for gist and detail;

Focusing on linguistic structures and forms;

Rebuilding selected language forms to express personal views.

Pre-reading activities: Students must be prepared before being exposed to

written texts by predicting the content, applying world knowledge and word

associations with the help of headlines, titles, subtitles, visual aids and

pictures.

Reading for gist and detail: Once students have been familiarized with

linguistic items and structures with the content of the text, it is necessary to

make students to get an overall understanding of the text. Teachers can

promote students to do closer examinations of the text by questioning in a

graded and structured manner; from closer to open questions in order to

increase students’ participation.

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Focusing on linguistic structures and forms: After have reviewed the text for

meaning we can use it to draw particular attention to key language and

particular structure of the reading. Some activities pupils could do are gap-filling

exercises focusing on grammar, substituting some lexical items, jigsaw

readings, reconstruction of passages, and summarizing.

Rebuilding: Trainers always should use follow-up activities developing

speaking and writing skills assuming that students are familiar with the text.

Students can be asked to talk or write about his or her favorite character,

continue the story or produce an alternative one.

These kinds of activities are preferable to be personal and individual and

teachers always need to offer some modeling or reference material especially in

written activities.

Reading for pleasure

According to Krashen (2013) and research evidence the benefits of ‘free

voluntary reading’ by foreign language learners are the more positive effects on

reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition than in intensive reading.

Obviously, teachers need to enable students to discover the pleasure of reading

in a foreign language.

Teachers can upgrade the obstacles when planning extended reading

considering the following:

Avoiding material too simple or too difficult. It must be a balance.

Providing selecting material that learners will find interesting and pertinent.

Edited readers for young language learners.

Emphasizing cultural awareness.

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RED Model

They are useful keys to critical thinking:

Recognize assumptions

Evaluate arguments

Draw conclusions

The text

Reading text: Texts can be from a paragraph to a page or more in length and

they are usually used for intensive reading. Intensive means that the text is

studied in detail; by contrast in extensive the text is read or heard for pleasure

or for information.

A text is a piece of writing and speech which we use for learning

language. It can be study as a complete and autonomous unit: the reader

or listener can therefore understanding without necessarily knowing the

context, even if it was originally an extract from a book, a conversation,

etc. It is coherent, so it has a beginning, a middle and an end which

make a clear sequence of thoughts and events (Ur, 2012, p. 28).

Texts are generally aimed to improve language learning, comprehension

of content, and discourse analysis.

Language learning

Vocabulary. The main goal of intensive study of a text is vocabulary expansion

and review. In addition students need to comprehend all the words by explained

them and doing vocabulary-focused activities.

Grammar. The second goal is to study morphology and syntax because a text

provides different grammatical structures. Teachers need to select language

items.

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Comprehension of content

General gist. Firstly, language learners have to understand the general idea or

the purpose of different kinds of texts.

Detailed understanding. Secondly, learners need to comprehend different

parts of the text. Trainers should explain new words and concepts.

Reading between the lines. Learners will infer meanings that are not explicit in

the text; for instance the characters’ personality and motives or the approach

and prejudice of the writer.

Critical analysis. This means to judge a text according to reliance,

consistency, relevance, logic or about ideas and opinions.

Discourse analysis

It is an overall discussion of a text; not only isolated linguistic items. It

takes place after students have understood the total content. It is related to

style, function, structure, genre, and meaning.

Types of texts

The principal types of texts are descriptive, informative, instructive, and

persuasive.

Approaches to reading

There are several approaches for the developing of reading

comprehension.

Intensive reading (IR)

Extensive reading (ER)

KWL: Know, Want to know, Learned

SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review

ETR: Experience-Text-Relate

QAR: Question-Answer-Response

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DR-TA: Directed Reading and Thinking Activities

Reciprocal Teaching

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

Direct Explanation

Questioning the Author

Transactional Strategies Instruction (TSI)

Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI)

Intensive reading (IR)

There are three approaches to teach intensive reading:

Grammar translation

Comprehension questions and language analysis

Comprehension work and strategies

In this research work, the authors have focused in the comprehension

work and strategies. Authors consider this is the most appropriate approach to

foster critical thinking.

Extensive reading (ER)

In the EFL context ER is an approach whose main objective is to get

students reading in the English language and enjoy it; in order to enhance

fluency rather than accuracy; and any language learning is incidental. ER

responds to several classroom needs such as it is a manner of extending

contact with English outside the classroom.

ER states that learners learn to read by reading. First they see the

language previous learnt in another context communicating things. Secondly, as

students choose the books that they want to read as well as the time to do read,

it is a personalized learning experience and make students autonomous. Then

students will be able to develop their writing skills because of reading

extensively. Finally, ER can be a pleasurable activity with great value in

education field.

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ER expands the reading comfort zone of students and according to

Bamford and Day it consists of some principles:

1. The reading material is easy.

2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must be available.

3. Students choose what they want to read.

4. The teacher is a role model.

Extensive vs. Intensive Reading

IR focuses on reading to learn rather than in learning to read; and put

especial emphasis in strategies and techniques to attain language or content

goals.

A lot of in-class reading work has traditionally been ‘reading for detail’ –or

‘intensive reading’ i.e. reading texts closely and carefully with the

intention of gaining an understanding of as much detail as possible.

Often this is so that the student can answer comprehension questions.

This is typically a stop/ start kind of reading, involving go back over small

pieces of the same text a number of times to find out more and more

about it, making sure that the words have been correctly interpreted

(Scrivener, 2011, p. 264).

ER increases the students reading speed. There are a large amount of

report of ER research, which states that learners improve in several areas such

as vocabulary knowledge, writing skills, positive motivation, speaking

proficiency, listening proficiency and grammar.

In everyday life, we tend to do much more extensive reading, ie fluent,

faster reading, often of longer texts, for pleasure, entertainment and

general understanding, but without such careful attention to the details.

When we don’t understand words or small sections, we usually just keep

going, maybe only coming back when there has been a major breakdown

in our understanding (Scrivener, 2011, p. 264)

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Strategies for reading

Because of reading is an essential skill to obtain English reading

proficiency, teachers must ensure that students develop and achieve effective

comprehension skills and it becomes a fundamental priority, regardless of level.

Teachers can use research and data as the basis for professional

decisions. Harris (1997) states some reading strategies:

Recognizing the type of text: poem, newspaper article, brochure.

Examining pictures, the title, etc. for clues.

Going for gist, skipping inessential words.

Using punctuation or clues; question marks, capital letters, etc.

Using knowledge of the world to make sensible guesses.

Substituting English words.

Analyzing unknown words, breaking a word/phrase down and

associating parts of it with familiar words.

Saying the text out loud and identifying ‘chunk boundaries’; how a

sentence breaks down and which part of it to work on at one time.

Identifying the grammatical categories of words (p.7).

Useful reading activities

It is fundamental to use authentic material like newspaper articles,

brochures, ads, etc; that is to say some material done for native people.

One test for useful reading (or listening work) might be to check how far

tasks reflect real-life uses of the same text. If a text is used in class in

ways that are reasonably similar to real life, it is likely that the task will be

effective (Scrivener, 2011, p. 266)

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Reading Comprehension

After further research, the authors conclude that comprehension is the

key to accessing content. Teachers should provide comprehensible input like

choosing topics that learners can relate to their background experience;

teachers should create a low-anxiety environment, and encourage pupils to

respond as frequent as possible in the target language. Furthermore using

these strategies trainers will help English learners at all levels to make

connections, visualize, infer, and predict when reading.

Researchers have concluded that exist six important elements that must

be present to reading comprehension; they are background knowledge, word

recognition, and the language of comprehension, text structure, comprehension

strategies, attention and motivation.

Comprehension Strategies

Background knowledge

It is a well-known fact that motivation has an important place in

education; teachers can increase the learners’ motivation to read a text

activating their prior knowledge about the topic. Useful strategies are making

connections and List-Group-Label, but these require direct instruction and need

to be modeled many times before students can apply this strategy fluently.

Making connections to Background Knowledge: It is a priority to include

topics that English learners have had experience with. When using this strategy

at elementary level teachers must ask students to remind similar events in their

own lives.

Teachers can provide scaffolding like this:

- This story makes me think about….

- I remember when…

- This part of the story reminds me of…

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List-Group-Label to Background Knowledge: It consists on brainstorming as

a manner of activating prior knowledge. This strategy is highly effective in

activating all four domains of language as well as thinking.

Motivation and attention

For most of the students, reading becomes a boring activity because of

the lack of reading purpose and scarcity of monitoring learners for

comprehension. We can use questioning and concept mapping strategies to

foster a purpose for reading and engage learners.

Teaching Questioning: This is not a natural skill so learners need explicit

direction. In order to establish a purpose for reading it is advisable that teachers

provide effective direct instructions so that students generate questions. This is

the key for successful outcomes.

This strategy will help students to construct questions, then they apply it

during their own reading after have practice it several times. Teachers can

scaffold students creating a chart like this:

- Our questions before we read the book

- Our questions while we read the book

- Our questions after we read the book

Reading Comprehension Strategies

The most useful are predicting, questioning, and summarizing. In relation

to this Grabe (2004) recommends to follow this individual text comprehension

strategies:

Prior knowledge activation;

Mental imagery;

Graphic organizers;

Text structure awareness;

Comprehension monitoring;

Question answering;

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Question generating;

Mnemonic support practice;

Summarization (p.51).

He also recommends the promotion of strategic reader, rather than to

teach individual reading strategies. In this proposal, authors have integrated all

of these strategies in each lesson.

Authors consider important to assess learners in the following areas to

provide diagnostic information in order to identify frequent reading problems:

reading vocabulary words, passage comprehension, accuracy, and fluency.

It is highly necessary to build a reading profile of students; that can be

used to develop English language proficiency. In this research work researchers

are going to include an assessment sheet in the end of each unit.

Pedagogical Foundation

Readers of research have to take into account that Foreign Language

(FL) learning and teaching are very complex fields influenced by a lot of factors

and variables. Therefore, all of these factors play an important role on the

learning field.

This research work is supported for uncountable researches like

Lightbown (2003) who argued that “ESL research is an important source of

ideas and ‘can help shape teachers’ expectations of themselves and their

students, and provide valuable clues to effective pedagogical practice” (p.10).

Consequently, authors have gathered all the updated studies related to

reading comprehension strategies as well as the link with the development of

the High Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). At last, they have exposed the methods

and strategies that fit better in the accomplishment of the proposal.

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Theories of second language acquisition

The principal theories are the following:

Intuitive acquisition. (Krashen, 1982) We learn another language the same

way as we learnt our first: intuitive acquisition through lots of exposure to the

language in authentic communicative situations.

Habit-formation. (Skinner, 1957) Language is a set of habits: we mimic,

memorize, and drill the patterns of the language until we learn to produce

the correct forms automatically.

Cognitive process. (Chomsky, 1957) Language involves the understanding

of underlying rules: if we master these rules, we will be able to apply them in

different contexts.

Skill learning. (Johnson, 1996) Language is a skill. We learn it in school just

as we learn other skills: someone explains rules or words to us; we

understand and practice them until we master them and use them fluently

and skillfully.

The authors interpret that it exists a contrast among these four theories.

Intuitive acquisition and Habit formation theories are implicit teaching; in

consequence, they claim that students do not need to be taught grammatical

rules since the language learning is subconscious. On the contrary, Cognitive

process and Skill learning are explicit teaching theories; because of this, they

argue that pupils need to understand how the language works consciously.

Learning strategies

Learners have to be aware of the specific techniques they can use to

improve their performance in English language learning; as it was stated by

Chamot (2005) learning strategies are defined as ‘procedures that facilitate a

learning task’ (p.112).

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Additionally, learning strategies are very important because they allow

learners to gain insights into the metacognitive, social and affective processes

involved in language learning; in other words learning strategy instruction can

help students to be better language learners.

There are four main classes of learning strategies:

Cognitive strategies, involving the manipulation or transformation of the

learning materials/input (e.g. repetition, summarizing, using images);

Metacognitive strategies, involving high order strategies aimed at

analyzing, monitoring, evaluating, planning and organizing one’s own

learning process;

Social strategies, involving interpersonal behaviors aimed at increasing

the amount of L2 communication and practice the learner undertakes

(e.g. initiating interaction with native speakers, cooperating with peers);

Affective strategies, involving taking control of the emotional (affective)

conditions and experiences that shape one’s subjective involvement in

learning (Skehan, 2003, p. 608).

In order to develop an appropriate level of communicative competence in

FL, teachers need to recall that the learning process involves wide range of

aspects and strategies that must be integrated; if learners are human beings

with different personalities and many necessities.

Furthermore, some researchers have summarized the characteristics of

strategies:

1. They are active

2. They are conscious

3. They are chosen by the learner

4. They are purposeful

5. They are used by the learner to control or regulate their own learning

6. They are about learning the language

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Therefore knowing the importance of using strategies in EFL learning-

teaching most of the theorists advise that strategy instruction should be explicit

and teachers always must remind learners the wide range of available

strategies; apart from this, trainers have to provide many opportunities to

practice them.

Sheltered instruction: They are strategies used in content areas and can be

used in EFL too. ESL instruction should focus on four skills areas as follow:

1. The function of language. The purpose of language is communication,

which encompasses social conversation, asking questions, and

communicating ideas.

2. The form of language. Forms refer to the structure of English

language, such as its grammar, sentence structure, and syntax. The

form of the language represents its building blocks.

3. Fluency. Fluency refers to the ease with which we speak a particular

language. It takes an ample amount of time dedicating to learning

English in order to become fluent. Although ESL usually focuses on

speaking, fluency can also refer to reading.

4. Vocabulary. In order to become proficient, ELLs must develop a

broad and varied vocabulary. Research shows that they should be

taught the key vocabulary associated with a topic, referred to as brick

words, prior to a lesson in order to assist them in their language

development (Carrillo, 2011, p. 120).

Students should be taught the vocabulary words they will encounter in

the lessons in order to build background knowledge and associate this to their

experiences to provide comprehensible input during the lesson.

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Pedagogical Foundation

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Hymes (1971) carried out the idea that grammatical knowledge is not

sufficient to know a language. At the same time, learners also need to develop

linguistic, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence; therefore, he proposed his

theory of ‘communicative competence’.

CLT states that the purpose of language is to communicate and we learn

best through natural acquisition. Pupils are exposed to language and

communication skills in order to use the target language effectively. In this

approach, fluency is estimate over accuracy and it is more learned-centered.

Some methodologies based on this approach are Task Based Instruction and

CLIL.

Content-Based Instruction

The main goal of this approach is to teach English language and

academic content simultaneously. That is to say, trainers use the content to

teach language goals.

Content-area learning succeeds when students have transitioned from

learning to read to reading to learn. The principal challenges using this

approach are:

An increase in the amount of content-specific vocabulary

Complex sentence instruction and syntax

Difficulty reading and understanding informational texts

Difficulty understanding what the teacher says

Use of higher-level thinking skills in reading and writing (Carrillo,

2011, p. 124).

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Task-based Learning and Teaching (TBLT): It is based on CLT approach. In

this TBLT pedagogical approach, the tasks are aimed to allow students to solve

problems and negotiate meaning achieving an objective in order to

communicate.

First we need to differentiate a task from an exercise. While exercises

are concerned with semantics (meaning of words and phrases); tasks are

associated with pragmatic meaning (the use of language in context).

Ellis (2003) claims the critical characteristics of a task:

A task is a work plan.

A task involves a primary focus on meaning and will incorporate some

forms of ‘gap’ in information that has to be filled.

A task will reflect real world processes of language use. Task

therefore suggests the need for some form of authenticity.

A task may involve any of the four language skills. This can be both in

writing and speaking, and reading and listening, although often the

literature on tasks is concerned purely with productive skills and

spoken outcome in particular.

A task engages cognitive processes. e.g. selecting, reasoning,

classifying information.

A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome (p.9-10).

According to Norris (2011) when using tasks we will have the following

advantages:

Involves ‘real’ communication;

Respects learners’ interests and is learned-centered;

Attends to learners’ interlanguage development;

Is motivating with relevance to applications outside the classroom;

Offers real outcomes (with tangible success criteria - you get what

you ask for outside the classroom);

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Allows for trial and error in the classroom (p.580).

The main components of a task-based lesson are:

Pre-task phase: In this first step is very important to motivate learners to carry

out the task; either reducing the linguistics demands by brainstorming or

predicting language they might need to use. In this phase, the trainer needs to

provide some essential input and modeling the task outcome.

During task phase: The teachers must to take a lot pedagogical decisions

about the materials, time, complexity, accuracy or fluency focus, and students

support in this stage.

Post-task phase: Ellis (2003) suggests three categories of adequate tasks:

“repeat performance; reflecting on the task; and focusing on forms”.

In relation to this, Norris (2011) argued:

It should be clear that much more goes on in the task-based classroom

than simply turning learners loose on tasks (or vice versa). Teachers play

an essential role throughout the task lesson cycle, motivating,

schematizing, scaffolding, monitoring, intervening, and so on (p.585).

TBL gives enough tools to develop critical thinking in a coherent and

useful form; thus, students are going to work with activities that motivate their

own leaning in the use of English and solve problems of daily life. Teachers and

researchers can become critical thinkers through TBL approach on their

classroom behavior, methodologies, materials, activities, and they can also

improve their weaknesses and increase their strengths on their professional

practices.

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Content and Language Integrating Learning (CLIL)

CLIL focuses on the use of English for the teaching of other school

subjects or specific content. As with task-based instruction, the

assumption is that learners will absorb the language best through using it

purposefully, and through understanding and creating meaningful texts

(Ur, 2012, p. 8).

Models of Content-Based Instruction

Content-Driven: Trainers have to work with content-area teachers

cooperatively to identify the grammar, vocabulary and text structure that

learners will encounter in the textbooks. In that way teachers construct

background; as a result, learners are aware of specific knowledge and they will

succeed in the content instruction.

Content-Based: In this model teachers teach the foreign language in

combination with the content according to learners’ level. In order to this model

to be effective trainers have to establish language aims as well as content

objectives.

Psychological Foundation

It is particularly difficult to increase motivation in young learners; but we

can use and adapt some research outcomes to influence in learners’ motivation

as follow:

1. By taking every opportunity to show them how important it is for them to

know English.

2. By fostering their self-image as successful language learners.

3. By ensuring that classroom activities are interesting.

It is fundamental the motivation when we pretend to enhance the reading

comprehension at students.

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Developmental stages

According to Piaget, there are four stages in the cognitive development

of children. In this theory the first stage is sensorimotor, and it goes from 0 to 2

years old; the second stage is pre-operational and starts at 2 and ends at 7

years; the third is concrete operations and goes from 7 to 11; and formal

operations start at 11 to the adult stage.

In this research work the students of Eighth grade of GBE are in the

beginning of formal operations stage. That is to say, they are developing their

abstract thinking.

Abstract thinking is less superficial than concrete thinking and involved

the use of higher order thinking skills. This is a manner of thinking in which

concentration is on conceptualization or generalization of things. An abstract

thinker can view a particular phenomenon from an angle that others might not

be able to view.

Sociological Foundation

Nowadays, teaching culture is necessary because the changes in our

society. Learners need to be aware of different ways of thinking; as well as

customs, rites and manners. It is very important to construct better citizens that

respect other ways of thinking.

Significant changes to society in recent decades as a result of

globalization, internationalization and migration have considerably

changed the linguistic and cultural make-up of many parts of the world, in

particular in urban areas, as well as the need of cultural knowledge,

understanding and skills. The increasing diversity of languages spoken,

and the related cultural practices being in evidence in many societies,

captured frequently through labels such as ‘multiculturalism’ and

‘multilingualism’, requires of us as FL teachers to review, and possibly

revise, our perspectives on the role of culture in the language curriculum

(Pachler, Evans, Redondo, & Fisher, 2014, p. 277).

http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-conceptual-and-vs-perceptual/http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-stereotype-and-vs-generalization/

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It is very important to construct better citizens that respect other ways of

thinking and this apprenticeship can be developed in the classrooms too.

Teaching culture. - The Council of Europe published in 2006 a document

called Plurilingual Education in Europe (p. 6). This document aim to promote:

Mutual understanding: The opportunity to learn other languages is an

essential condition for intercultural communication and acceptance of

cultural differences.

Democratic citizenship: Participation in democratic and social

processes in multilingual societies is facilitated by the plurilingual

competence of individuals.

Social cohesion: Equality of opportunity for personal development,

education, employment, mobility, access to information and cultural

enrichment depends on access to language learning throughout life.

Perry and Southwell (2011) mentioned that ‘intercultural competence’ is a

must in a globalized and multicultural world. And they defined as ‘the ability to

effectively and appropriately interact in an intercultural situation or context’

(p.453).

Porto (2013) states the dimensions of culture knowledge, skills and

attitudes:

Savoir être (for instance, attitudes of curiosity and inquisitiveness);

Saviors (knowledge of different aspects of life in a certain society,

such as work, education, traditions, etc.);

Savoirs comprendre (involving the skill of interpreting and related

those saviors);

Savoir apprendre/savoir faire (involving the skill of discoveryand

interaction);

Savoir s’engager (involving critical cultural awareness) (p.4).

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Contextual Framework

This research work is being developed at Francisco Huerta Rendón

high school, which is a public high school located at Guayaquil city, Tarqui

parish, Ciudadela Universitaria, Av. Las Aguas and Av. Juan Tanca Marengo; it

currently has more than 1,900 of students, which has technological

infrastructure, in accordance with her current rector Jacqueline Calero de Mora.

There are 82 students per classroom and 4 English teachers.

Finally, authors could notice that the majority of the students come from

low and middle level families in the areas surrounding the institution, the

classes take place in small classrooms where there is overcrowding of students,

there are resources such as libraries where there are materials such as reading

texts that they can use .

The problem in reading comprehension development was found in

students of Eighth grade of General Basic Education (BGE). Here, students do

not have adequate resources to work, the authors noted that the readings are

not appropriate to promote critical thinking engagement. The teachers only use

the material given by the ministry; furthermore, there is no additional material

that complements the reading part.

Legal Framework

The Art. 26 of the Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador, in the section

five declare that:

Education is a right of people throughout their lives and an unavoidable

and mandatory duty of the state. It constitutes a priority area for public

policymaking and public investment, the guarantee of equality and social

inclusion and the conditions for the good way of living. People, families

and society have the right and responsibility to participate in education.

(Asamblea Nacional Constituyente, 2011)

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According to the previous National plan of good living in the Objective 4:

Strengthening the capacities and potentialities of citizens. Thus, the authors

take out the following statements:

4.4.j. Creating and strengthening infrastructure, equipment and

technologies which, together with the human resources trained, promote the

development of creative, cognitive abilities and innovation throughout

education, at all levels, as well as 4.4.l to promote secular education, based on

the centrality of critical thinking, logical reasoning and creativity, in all

educational levels, adapting the mechanisms of evaluation for this purpose

likewise, 4.4.n. to design and implement tools and instruments which allow the

cognitive-holistic development in student population likewise, 4.4.d. to promote

quality bilingual intercultural education for children, adolescents and young

adults belonging to various communities, peoples and nationalities in all levels

and modalities and finally, 4.8.i to promote the learning of a foreign language

under the parameters of international accreditation, from early education to the

top level.

Moreover, the authors have gathered the pertinent statements that

support this research work from the Curricular Guidelines for Eighth grade of

GBE. According to this, the Eighth grade of GBE starts in level A.1.1, as English

subject was not a compulsory subject in the past school year. Therefore, most

students are not familiarized with the foreign language.

In addition to this, these guidelines align with the CEFR level A.1 that

corresponds to a Basic User which has been divided into A.1.1 and A.1.2 to

approach them to the Ecuadorian reality in other words to make sublevels.

“The CEFR is not a curriculum; instead it is intended to provide ‘a

common basis for the elaboration of language syllabi, textbooks,

curriculum guidelines, examinations, etc.” (Council of Europe, 2001,p.1).

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According to the curricular guidelines students from Eighth grade of

General Basic Education should read expository and transactional text

such us: nonfiction texts as descriptions and biographies.

In this teaching it is also important that teacher to provide the activities

for the development critical thinking skill, they will help in enriching the

development of skills.

Students should be able to start processes of development the abstract

thinking, critical thinking is important to development of thinking skills.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY, PROCESS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSION OF RESULTS

In this section, the authors present an overview of the research

methodology that has been used to investigate the approaches and the

strategies that are being implemented to develop the critical thinking into the

reading comprehension process of students of Eighth grade of GBE at

Francisco Huerta Rendón high school. It contains an account of the procedures

used for this study, including research design, selection and description of the

population, the techniques and instruments used for data collection, data

analysis and trustworthiness criteria for the study.

Methodological Design

In the elaboration of the present work the authors will follow the scientific

approach. Indeed this educational research will also include empirical and

statistical methods. Therefore, this is a mixed method approach research.

Certainly, there are two main types of researches: qualitative and

quantitative therefore the authors have chosen the mixed methods approach as

the quantitative research and the theoretical review and content analysis in the

qualitative research will provide a better view of the problem and its possible

solution.

Types of Research

This research will implement different types of research as follow:

Descriptive: It is descriptive because describe the situation and the problem in

the institution.

Explorative: It explores many aspects concerned with the conflict situation and

the manner to overcome it.

Documents

UNIVERSITY OF GUAYAQUIL FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, …repositorio.ug.edu.ec/bitstream/redug/38135/1/Garcia - Villon.pdf · insufficient reading comprehension of the English language in