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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURICENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

HIS 104: Nigeria from the Earliest time to 1600AD(2 Units)

Course Facilitator:

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STUDY GUIDE

Course Code/ Title:

Credit Units:

Timing:

Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours

(26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.

You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course

throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This

implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week.

Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the

activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All

activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes

(10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may

need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note

of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment.

Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find

out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some

minutes depending on your speed.

You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions

out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not

used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be

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careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the

time given; because time is money, do not waste it.

Reading:

When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You

should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study

session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are

not properly explained in the glossary.

Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main

points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not

spoiled for further usage.

Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning

and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary

are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations.

When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are

sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate

the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities

except when the question requires you to be detailed.

In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully,

making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore

before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you

to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the

answer.

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Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what

you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you

are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed

and strong enough before you engage in reading activities.

Bold Terms:

These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding

the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for

you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning

at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear

to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the

term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they

are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text.

Practice Exercises

a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to

remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you

read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities

provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering

these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You

can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as

summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity

you answered.

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b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are

provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every

question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their

answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in

your reading.

c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential

components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what

you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The

remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be

used in answering the self- assessment question.

Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are

expected to write down the major points related to the particular question

to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to

ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each

point as your answer to the question.

When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now

check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions

provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely

and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be

applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish

but careful to do the right thing.

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e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to

students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four

hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative

questions which are vital to student’s processes of their studies. For each

programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to

student’s enquiries.

Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors

through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student

hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in

doubt about your learning.

You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you

opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.

In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through

their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook for use. Your

course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them

effectively for your studies.

Continuous assessment

The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The

medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing,

Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or

assignment through your email. The continuous assessment may be conducted

more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for

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without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be

up to date.

Examination

All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for

Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period

of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may

require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The

grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what

you studied.

Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have

partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are

better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group.

You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in

comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries

of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text

questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you

provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week

commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various

the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall,

there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry ( i.e Bags, Cell

phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter

the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Study Session 1: The People of Nigeria.

Study Session 2: Agrarian and Technological Revolutions and innovations –

Nok, Igbo-Ukwe and Daima.

Study Session 3: The Formation and Growth of Towns, States and Empires.

Study Session 4: Sources for reconstruction and interpretation of Oral

traditions.

Study Session 5: The micro states and stateless societies.

Study Session 6: Internal trade, relations with North Africa, the coming of

Islam and first contact with Europe.

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STUDY SESSION 1.

THE PEOPLE OF NIGERIA

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Nigeria lies between latitudes 4oN and 14oN. It is bounded in the north by the

sahara desert and in the south by the Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria has witnessed

many waves of human movements from across the sahara, which has never been

a barrier between the lands lying to the north and south of that great desert. In

the course of human migrations there have been displacement as well as

intermingling of peoples, some groups have been pushed into new and often

more difficult environments and adapted to the new environment. These waves

of human migrations which constitute a major feature of the pre-colonial history

of Nigeria brought desert people into grassland environment and grassland

people into forest environment.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the Session, students should be able to:

i. Discuss the origin, settlement pattern and economic activities of the

Nigerian people.

ii. Classify Nigerian people into two broad categories namely the

Grassland peoples and peoples of the forest belt.

iii. Assess the distribution and movements of population in Nigeria in the

period covered by this study.

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1.3 IN-TEXT

Human settlement in the Nigerian area has a long history – Archaeological

evidence suggests that the country have been settled by man since the

(Paleolithic or Old Stone Age period 500,000 – 9000 BC). According to the

1952/53 census, there are more than 200 distinct ethnic groups in Nigeria, most

of who have different or distinct customs, traditions, and languages. The larger

and politically dominant groups include the Yoruba (10 million), the Igbo (7

million), the Hausa (16 million) and the Fulani (5 million). Other prominent but

less numerous groups include the Edo, the Ibibio of the Cross River State, the

Tiv of the Benue valley, the Nupe of the Middle Niger valley, and the Kanuri of

the Lake Chad basin.

Each ethnic group occupies a distinct and continuous territory and most

of the smaller groups had very little contact with other groups before the spread

of Islam and the imposition of colonial rule. There was, however, considerable

trade and cultural contacts between the major grassland groups featuring the

Hausa, Fulani, Nupe and northern Yoruba. In the forest belt a long-standing

historical link existed between the Edo of Benin with the Yoruba of Ife and

Lagos. The delta people whose territory is too swampy for cultivation and who,

in consequence, produced mainly fish and salt, carried on a sizeable trade with

the forest peoples who supplied them basic foodstuffs in exchange of fish and

salt. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the delta peoples accumulated much

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wealth because of their middle man position in the trade between the hinterland

peoples and the European traders on the Coast. It was during the colonial

period when the various groups inhabiting Nigeria came under one government

and when roads and railways were built that trade and cultural contacts among

the different ethnic groups increased substantially. Because of the considerable

differences in the environments occupied by the various groups, it is necessary

to consider the peoples of Nigeria under two major geographical groups namely

the forest peoples and the grassland peoples.

Peoples of the Forest belt

The forest belt attracted mostly people seeking refuge from southward

pressing groups from the north. The protection offered by the forests is obvious

from the attacks of the Fulani warriors who had great difficulty in penetrating

and fighting in a forest environment.

The largest known people of the forest belt are the Yoruba and Edo who

live in the southwest or western states of Nigeria and the Igbo, Ibibio and Ekoi

peoples of the south east or eastern states of Nigeria. There is a marked

difference between the political and social organization of the Yoruba and Edo-

speaking peoples who successfully established and maintained vast kingdoms

within the forest environment and the stateless societies of the Igbo, Ibibio and

Ekoi peoples of the south east of Nigeria. It is important to note that the empire

– building Yoruba and Edo peoples of the western forests had greater contacts

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with the Empire building groups of the far north, than was the case with the

politically fragmented peoples of the eastern forests.

The traditional religion of the forest peoples remained almost completely

insulated from the influence of Islam up till the Early years of the colonial

period, when Christianity was introduced and readily adopted in many districts

since the Christian missionaries were the innovators and agents of the diffusion

of western type education, the coastal and forest peoples of the south have since

produced the largest number of educated and highly trained people in the

country’s labour force.

The Yoruba Speaking people

The Yoruba speaking peoples of Nigeria are concentrated in the Ogun,

Oyo, Ondo, Kwara and Lagos states. The Yoruba are linguistically

homogenous and also share common traditions and claime descent from a

common ancestor called Oduduwa, who is believed to have established the Ife

dynasty. It is worthy to note that the Yoruba never united under a common

government. Rather, Yoruba land consisted of several powerful kingdoms such

as Ife, Oyo, Egba and Ijebu. Certain kings were, however, recognized

throughout the whole of Yorubaland, the most important of these being the Ooni

of Ife, who was regarded as the spiritual leader of all Yoruba and the Alafin of

Oyo who was the political leader of the Yoruba people.

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Although the Yoruba are predominantly an agricultural people, they have

a unique and longstanding tradition of living in large towns, the largest of which

include Ibadan; others are Ogbomosho, Oshogbo, Ilorin, Abeoukuta, Illesha and

Ede. The Yoruba are the most urbanized group not only in Nigeria but through

out the African continent. Urbanization facilitated the growth of trade among

the Yoruba as well as between them and other Nigerian peoples, notably the

Nupe and Hausa.

The basic unit of social organization among the Yoruba is the family.

The main occupation of the men is farming, while the women engage primarily

in trading. There is also a considerable number of professional artists and

craftsmen who excel in wood-curving and other crafts. The famous work of

arts, the terracotta and bronze heads of Ife which are reputed to be up to 800

years old are the handiwork of the Yoruba.

The Edo-speaking people

The Edo established the famous Empire of Benin – they occupy the

territory immediately east of Yoruba land. Several close traditional links exist

between these two ethnic groups, whose political systems are also similar.

At the height of its power in the late 15th century, Benin influence

extended from the banks of the lower Niger valley to Dahomey (modern

Republic of Benin). The Benin Empire therefore embraced a large number of

ethnic groups including the Edo themselves, the western Igbo, and some Yoruba

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groups. Today, several Igbo towns like Onitsha, Atani, and Ossomari, all

located on the east bank of the lower Niger claim to have been founded by

migrants from Benin.

The Igbo and the Ibibio

The Igbo and the Ibibio are found in the east of the lower Niger valley

and are divided into several sub groups. These states were not organized into

large states or kingdoms. The largest political organization in these states was

the village group which had a population of only a few thousand people. Even

within the village group, power or authority was never concentrated in the hands

of any individual or family and although there were chiefs, usually elderly men,

there was not ruling aristocracy which wielded authority as a specialized

fulltime occupation.

The village group was ruled by a council of elders, usually the heads of

the major extended families. There was never an Igbo or Ibibio state with a

political head or a widely accepted religious leader.

Occupations

Like the Yoruba and the Edo of the west, the Igbo and the Ibibio are a

settled agricultural people. But unlike the western people, the Igbo and Ibibio

live in small villages and not in towns. In addition to farming, they involved in

trade and were fisher folk.

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The Grassland Peoples

The grassland or Savannah peoples of Nigeria fall into two distinct

geographical groups namely the Middle Belt peoples and the peoples of the far

north. The Middle Belt is noted for the large number of very small ethnic

groups, including the hill dwelling peoples of the Jos plateau region and the

eastern highlands of the Adamawa. The two largest and most prominent of the

Middle Belt grassland peoples are the Tiv of the Benue valley in the east and the

Nupe of the middle Niger valley in the west.

The Tiv Speaking People

The Tiv political structure is highly fragmented and, according to

Bohannan, the only Tiv group of which one could say there must be someone

responsible was the compound; which was essentially a domestic rather than a

political unit; but, although the Tiv lacked political organization, they were not

lacking in political leadership, since men of great affluence and good qualities

were recognized as political leaders.

The Nupe speaking People

The Nupe, unlike the Tiv, have a rather integrated political organization

which is similar in some ways to the Yoruba system. Like the Yoruba, they

lived in large nucleated villages. They were farmers, traders and craftsmen.

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In the more open grassland areas of the Nigerian sudan, the most

numerous and politically dominated groups are the Hausa, the Fulani and the

Kanuri.

Hausa is the most widely spoken language and it is generally understood

in most parts of Northern Nigeria. the Hausa peoples of Nigeria are however,

concentrated in Sokoto, Kano and Kaduna states.

The Hausa political organization was characterized by a number of city-

states which were never unified until the Fulani conquest in the early part of the

19th century. It was after the Fulani conquest that Islam became more widely

adopted, even though it had been introduced as far back as the 14th century.

Hausa economy has always featured the intensive cultivation of guinea

corn, millet, maize and beans, and more Hausa live in small agricultural

villages, although there are also large traditional Hausa towns, uncluding, Kano,

Katsina, Zaria and Sokoto. The Hausa owned cattle but entrusted these animals

to the cattle Fulani while the pastoral activities of the Hausa are largely limited

to keeping goats and chicken. They practiced irrigation in the dry season.

The Hausa are well known as skilled craftsmen and are probably the most

traveled traders in West Africa. Some of their crafts work includes leather

goods, wood curving, blankets of camel hair, and perfumes. In Nigeria, the

Hausa are largely responsible for organizing the trade in cattle and kola nuts

between western Nigeria and the northern states of Nigeria. The Hausa cattle

and kolanuts brokers and transporters usually live in large Yoruba town of

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Ibadan, Ijebu Ode and Shagamu; but many Hausa kola buyers and seasonal

agricultural labourers may be found in small villages all over the cocoa and

kolanut growing areas of southwestern Nigeria. The Hausa lived in mud

houses, roofed with thatch.

Hausaland is also the home of the Fulani of Nigeria who are probably the

only ethnic group in Africa with no distinct territory. Rather the Fulani are to

be found in every country of the Sudan zone, extending from Senegal in the

west to the upper Nile in the east. They migrated into Nigeria from the west and

settled amongst the Hausa and subsequently conquered them during the Fulani

jihad led by Uthman Dan Fodio in the early 19th century.

Two types of Fulani are usually recognized. They are the cattle Fulani

and the settled or town Fulani. The cattle Fulani is essentially a nomadic cattle

rarer who migrates regularly with his cattle in search of water and good grazing,

particularly during the dry season. He maintains his identity because he hardly

moves with non Fulani people. The town or settled Fulani live in the conquered

towns of Hausaland, where he is essentially an administrator or a farmer. Many

of them own large herds of cattle which they entrust into the care of their

nomadic brethren. They are devoted muslims and have been largely responsible

for the spread of Islam throughout Hausaland and parts of the middle Belt.

The Kanuri of Borno also fall within the major grassland peoples. The

Kanuri are muslim. Islam was already well established in Borno before the

Fulani Jihad in Hausaland and although the Fulani made several efforts to

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conquer Borno, they never succeeded in doing so. The Kanuri are farmers and

traders many of them also own large herds of cattle which are under the care of

Shuwa Arabs or the cattle Fulani. The Kanuri had established the famous

Empire of Kanem-Borno and are reputed to have been the most Islamised group

in the region with a dynasty which ruled to the best part of a millennium. They

are found in Borno and Yobe states but also in the former areas of Kanem,

Niger and northern Cameroons.

Distribution and Movements of Populations

With a population of over 150 million in 1991, Nigeria is by far the most

populous country in Africa. It has an area of 922,280 square kilometers. Some

areas are highly populated while others are sparely populated. A few pockets of

high population destiny, for example, occur within the Middle Belt in the region

of the Jos plateau, Southern Tivland and Okenne districts. Outside these areas,

the middle belt is characterized by very extensive areas of very low. Population

densities other areas which are very sparsely settled include the cross river

district, the Niger Delta and the Lake Chad basin. Almost all the forest reserves

in the country are located in these sparsely settled areas, many of which also

attract migrant farmers from the land hungry, densely populated areas.

Factors Responsible for the Pattern of Distribution of Population in Nigeria

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Environmental and historical factors are largely responsible for the

pattern of population distribution in Nigeria. Although the major concentration

of population in the Yoruba cocoa belt, the Kano groundnut belt and the Jos

plateau are partly a result of economic development during the colonial period,

these areas happen to have been already densely settled before 1900, largely as

a result of the civil wars and slave raids of the pre-colonial period.

The large concentrations of rural population in the Kano, Katsina and

Sokoto districts survived because for many generations the Hausa and later the

Fulani rulers of the city states were able to provide protection and stable

government for the people, thereby attracting more people from war-ravaged

borderland districts.

Inter-group warfare and slave raids were also largely responsible for the

large scale depopulation of vast areas or the middle Belt. There are, however,

many parts of the country which have always been sparsely populated because

of difficult environmental conditions. The Niger Delta, the Great Muri plains

and the areas lying between the Cross River and Cameroon border has always

been sparsely populated.

IN TEXT QUESTION

1. Explain why most of the Nigerian groups claim origin from the east.

IN TEXT ANSWER

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Most of the Nigerian groups like the Yoruba Fulbe, Kanuri, Hausa etc.

claim eastern origin for a number of reasons. First and foremost, the east was

associated with the rise of world religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

All the prophets emerged in the east. The east served as center of world

civilization. It is as a result of these facts that the Yoruba claim eastern origin,

the Kanuri also claim that they descended from an Arab hero called Saif Ibn

Dhiyazau from Yemen and the Fulani claim descend from an Arab or Muslim

Islamic Army General called Uqba Ibn. Nafi.

1.4 SUMMARY

This chapter has attempted to present the basic facts about the Nigerian

environment. The conclusion that can be drawn from this chapter is that

geographical factors have merely influenced but have not determined the course

of human history.

1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ)

(1) Discuss the origins and settlement pattern of any one of the following

groups: the Igbo, the Yoruba, the Hausa, the Fulani, the Kanuri, the Edo.

(2) Assess the distribution and movement of population in Nigeria between

1000 – 1600 AD.

1.6 REFERENCES

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(1) O. Ikime (ed) (1960). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.

(2) R. K. Udo, (1970). Geographical regions of Nigeria, London.

(3) K. M. Buchanan and J. C. Pugh, (1957). Land and people in Nigeria,

London.

1.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. M. Crowder (1974). The story of Nigeria, London.

2. H. Barth, (1957). Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa

1849 – 1855 New York Vol.I & Vol.III.

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Study Session 2: AGRARIAN AND TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS

AND INNOVATIONS – NOK, IGBO-UKWU AND DAINA

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Agrarian and technological revolutions simply refer to the beginnings and

development of food production, the coming of metal and the innovations put in

place by man in areas such as Nok, Igbo-ukwu and Daima considered being one

of the earliest centers of human civilization in this part of Africa.

2.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the study session, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the beginning and development of food production.

2. Explain the coming of metals into the Nigerian area.

3. Discuss the centers of ancient civilization in the Nigerian area.

2.3 IN-TEXT

The change from dependence on hunting, fishing and gathering wild

fruits to crop raising and domestication of livestock is the most important step

which early man has taken in the last 10,000 years. This development

fundamentally changed man’s way of life and brought with it numerous

consequences as follows:

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(i) It advanced man’s capacity for controlling his environment and set up

conditions necessary for the emergence of civilization.

(ii) It made sedentary life possible as never before.

(iii) It led to the storage of food.

(iv) It led to the accumulation of wealth, and an increase in population.

(v) It led to the division of labour.

(vi) It led to social stratification and new forms of social control.

The revolution in food production did not take place in a single location

and then spread to the rest of the world but few areas or places are responsible

as food centers in the world. The hill country of Anatolia Iran and Northern

Iraq are the early centers of food production. Here it is reported that, the

cultivation of wheat and barley and domestication of livestock such as sheep,

goats and cattle; Later the Euphrates, Nile and Indus, with the added techniques

of drainage and irrigation. By the 5th millennium BC there were domesticated

sheep and cattle in Egypt and cereals were being grown.

In tropical parts of Africa, there were domesticated suitable indigenous

wild grasses which gave rise to the African cultivated millets; the most

important of these was guinea corn (sorghum bicolor) which was domesticated

by the middle of the second millennium B.C. in the area between the sahara and

the Savannah between the Nile and the Lake Chad. Other wild grasses were

domesticated to become pearl millet and finger millet. African rice was

domesticated in the area of the inland delta of the Niger: In Iwo Eleru, an

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archaeological site during the Old Stone Age. Implements i.e. knifes associated

with harvesting of wheat and barely were discovered.

In the moisture zone of West Africa, the most stable crop was yam of

which more than one African variety was domesticated which might have taken

place more than 5,000 years ago. Perhaps, the cultivation of yam must have

required as a factor explaining the density of population in southern Nigeria.

We can conclude that by the first millennium AD, a sufficient agricultural

base had been established to support such ancient states of Ghana, Mali,

Songhai, Kanem-Borno Hausaland and the forest states of old Oyo, Benin,

Ahsnte.

The coming of Metal

The period of iron-age in Nigeria is divided into four namely:

1. Early contact period: C.400BC – AD 700

2. Northern contact period: C.700 AD – AD 1475

3. Southern contact period: C.1475AD – AD 1850

4. Inland contact period: after AD. 1850

EARLY CONTACT PERIOD: C.400BC – AD 700

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Throughout this period there would have been many parts of Nigeria

which had no contacts with the outside world where there were contacts

between West African and the Mediterranean world, such contact were very

limited. It was at the beginning of this period (C.400 – 700AD) that knowledge

of iron reached Nigeria. This was not just an importation of iron objects but

knowledge of an iron manufacture. At Taruga about 35 km, south-east of Abuja

in Central Nigeria, a number of iron-smelting furnaces have been excavated

dating from the 5th to the 3rd centuries B.C. Archaeological work been carried

out in an area now flooded by the Kanji Dam on the River Niger, indicated the

presence of iron in this area by the second century B.C. Taruga which located

very near to Abuja and the area flooded by River Niger are all located in

Nigeria. but it has been frequently suggested that a Knowledge of iron working

reached Nigeria from outside i.e. from Mewe in the Republic of Sudan. Mewe

was the later capital of the ancient Kingdom of Kush. Meroe was an important

industrial center for the manufacture of iron. Iron remains or slag are still

visible there today. It has been suggested that after the destruction of Mewe,

refugees with knowledge of iron from there had moved westwords along the

sahel strip south of the desert bringing with them a knowledge of iron working.

But the dates obtained on iron working in Taruge suggest that iron did not reach

Taruga from Mewe. Even if mewe was the center from which iron reached

West Africa, the connection must have started from the beginning of mewe’s

own iron-smelting activities. However, there is another route by which iron

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technology could have reached Nigeria and these are consistent with the Taruga

dates and which now seems more likely.

Carthage was established in 814 BC by a group of people called the

Phoenicians among whom the use of iron was common earlier than in Egypt or

at Mewe. Carthagiman influence became strong on the North African coast the

Garamanten traders of Fezzan traded with the Empire of western Sudan. It is

suggested that the Garamanten might have introduced iron and knowledge of

iron working to the people with whom they traded. This means that knowledge

of iron working must have reached the Nigerian area from these traders.

Nok Culture

The iron smelting areas of Taruga were associated with terracotta figures

of a distinctive style artistic style named after the Nigerian village of Nok where

they were first discovered. Nok culture was first known as a result of the

recovery of archaeological remain from the tin mining area west of the Jos

plateau in the course of mining operations.

These remains consisted of the following:

(i) ground stone axes

(ii) smaller stone tools

(iii) iron axes

(iv) other iron tools

(v) backed clay drought pipe

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(vi) quartz lip-plugs

(vii) other ornaments

(viii) Striking terracotta heads.

The style of the Nok terra cotta, although not uniform, represents

remarkable artistic achievements and has been admired throughout the world.

DAIMA

Daima was located in north western Borno south of Lake-Chad. It is

reported that soon after the first appearance of iron in the middle of the first

millennium AD the people of Daima begun to build circular huts of mud. The

people made use of potsherd pavements in making floors in their buildings. The

making of fired clay models of livestock such as cow, sheep, goats, wild

animals and human beings were also found at Daima grains of guinea corn

(sorghum) were found and it is reported to be the oldest direct evidence or

agriculture in west Africa.

Igbo – ukwu

Apart from the archeological sites of NOk and Daima, Igbo-ukwu was

also an important center of ancient civilization in the Nigerian area.

At Igboukwu, bronzes, vessels were found. Some of the vessels found

were covered by clothes there were sets of decorated pots in highly artistic

styles. There was large number of beads, mostly of colored glass. The nature

28

of bronzes shows that they were used for religious purposes, actual purposes

and of ornaments or dress-regalia of some important personalities.

The finds of Igbo-ukwu are an indication of the concentration of

considerable social wealth in terms of the economy of the area. The bronzes are

the products of a special class of craftsmen using imported raw materials.

Elephants tusks were also discovered and this suggest that there tusks were

considered to be objects of value.

IN- TEXT QUESTION

1. How did the change from hunting to cultivation of crops change man?

IN TEXT ANSWER

The change on dependency on hunting, fishing and gathering of wild

fruits to crop raising and domestication of livestock is the most important step,

which early men has taken in the last ten thousand years. This development

fundamentally changed mans way of life and brought with it numerous

consequences as follows:

i. It advanced mans capacity for controlling his environment and set up

conditions necessary for the emergence of civilization.

ii. It made sedentary life possible as never before.

iii. It led to the storage of food.

iv. It led to the accumulation of wealth and an increase in population.

29

v. It led to the division of labour.

vi. It led to social stratification and new forms of social control.

All these explain that a lot of changes were made on the life of man.

Summary

Food production and the coming of metal or iron into the Nigerian area is

an indigenous development. Daima, for example, was an agricultural center

with dates going back to the first millennium; Taruga, Nok and Igbo-ukwu are

acclaimed centers of ancient civilization.

The knowledge of iron working might have reached the Nigerian area

from Mewe Sudan but iron deposits have been found in the Nigerian area with

dates going back to the periods of Mewe in the Sudan, we can therefore

conclude that external influence regarding food production and the coming of

iron into the Nigerian area are not convincing in view of recent archeological

discoveries in the early history of the Nigerian area.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

(1) Do you agree that food production and metal came into the Nigerian

area from outside?

(2) Enumerate and discuss the major archaeological finds discovered at

Nok.

(3) Assess the importance of Daima in the history of the Nigerian area.

30

(4) Assess the importance of Igbo-ukwu in the early history of the

Nigerian area.

REFERENCS

(1) Ikime, (1980) eds Groundwork of Nigerian history, Ibadan.

(2) Gonnah, Graham (1969) Settlements Mounds of the Firki: the

reconstruction of a lost society, Ibadan.

(3) Shaw, Thurstan (1964) Archaeology and Nigeria, Ibadan.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Shaw Thurstan, (1970) Igb-ukwu an account of archaeological discoveries in

eastern Nigeria, Lodon.

____________ (1976) Discovering Nigerias’ past, Ibadan.

____________ (1976) Unearthing Igbo-ukwu – Ibadan.

31

STUDY SESSION 3: THE FORMATION AND GROWTH OF TOWNS,

STATES AND EMPIRES.

1.1 Introduction

The formation and growth of towns, states and empires in the Nigerian

area is an important theme of historical studies. We shall examine factors

which were responsible for the establishment and growth of towns states and

Empires some of the states or empires to be examined include Kanem – Borno,

Hausa states, Oyo Empire and the Kingdom of Benin. A few prominent town

which emerged in the Nigerian area will also be examined.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the Study Session, students should be able to:

1. Discuss for the rise of towns, states and Empires which emerged

in the Nigerian area.

2. Explain the growth and development of towns, state and

Empire.

3. Discuss the indigenous and foreign perspectives regarding the

establishment of Empires or states in the Nigerian area.

1.3 IN - TEXT

The Kingdom of Kanem-Borno

32

Kanem is located in the north-eastern part of lake chad in the modern

republic of Chad. Kanem is believed to have been founded in the 9th C. AD by

a group of people called the Zaqhawa.

The kingdom was bounded in the north by the sahara desert, in the south

by Mandara mountains, in the east by Wadai, Darfur and in the west by the

Hausa states. At its peak in the 13th century, the boundaries extended to Fezzan

in the north and Darfur in the east.

Factors responsible for the Rise and Development of Kanem – Borno Empire

Kanem – Borno was founded in the 9th CA by the Zaghaya people who

ruled up to the 11th century and power shifted from the Zeghawa to the

Kanembu in the 13th C. Several factors were responsible for the rise of kanem –

Borno Empire. These included Islam, trade, political organization and warfare.

Kanem Borno emerged before the coming of Islam into the Empire. The

Empire was founded in the 9th C.A. but Islam reached the empire in the 11th C.

Islam was introduced into the empire by foreign Muslim traders who visited the

Empire. They traded with the people and took this opportunity to convert the

people into Islam. Mai Umme Jilmi was the first Muslim ruler of Kanem who

accepted the religion in 1096. He was converted to the religion by an Arab

missionary in the person of Muhammad Ibn. Mani. With the Islamization of the

empire Mai Umme Jilmi and his successors took the religion seriously and used

it to expand the territory of Kanem. Islamic wars were launched and several

33

areas were brought under the control of the empire of Kanem – Borno. Islam

therefore played an important role in the rise and expansion of the empire of

Kanem – Borno.

Apart from Islam, trade also played an important role in the rise and

development of the empire foreign traders, Arabs, Berbers flocked into the

Empire during the period of the Trans-saharan trade. With trade, came Islam,

new ideas and a considerable amount of wealth which came to develop the

Empire. Traders paid taxes to the empire and the wealth accruing from the trade

was used by the rulers to pay the salaries of staff and develop the empire. It was

therefore, partly through trade that Kanem-Borno rose and developed into an

appreciable empire. One important factor which was responsible for the rise

and development of Kanem – Borno was good leadership. The rulers of the

empire are acclaimed to be good rulers. They used the sharia to administer their

territory. Islamic laws were enforced; meaning there was justice and good

governance enjoyed by the subjects.

Wars and warfare were embarked upon. With a strong standing army, the

rulers of Kanem – Borno defeated their neighbours, introduced Islam to the

conquered areas and taxed the dependant people in line with the sharia. Large

areas were conquered and this meant a lot of revenue was realized from the

outlying conquered provinces. This added to the economic base of the Empire.

Lastly, the efforts of individual rulers were also an important factor in

explaining the rise and development of Kanem Borno Empire. Rulers such as

34

Mai Umme Jilmi, Mai Dunoma Daballemi, Mai Ali Ghaji and Mai Idris

Alooma, to mention just a few, initiated and enforced policies which stabilized

the kingdom and provided the much needed revenue to sustain the empire, they

defended the territorial integrity of the empire and ventured to all directions

hence they developed the empire.

The Hausa States

The Hausa states which emerged in Hausa land were independent states

which included Kano, Katsina, Zazzau, Gobir, Zamfara, Kebbi, Yauri. These

states came under the influence of Songhai Empire by the 15th Century and

Borno with the collapse of Songhai in the 16th Century. Each state occupied a

defined territory and was under its own rulers/sarakuna. These states competed

for the control of trade and political dominance. By the beginning of the 19th

century, Gobir was the most dominant state in Hausaland.

Islam in Hausaland

It would appear that, after Borno, the next area in present day Nigeria to

which Islam spread is Hausaland. The introduction of Islam into this area is

generally associated with the coming of the Wangarawa a group of Mande

Dyula Muslim merchants and clerics from Mali. Islam reached Kano in the

reign of Sarkin Kano Yaji (1349 – 1385). It is related that the Muslim

immigrants preached Islam to the Sarki who accepted and built a mosque. The

35

Sarki also appointed several of the Muslim immigrants to offices associated

with the practice of Islam.

A north African Muslim scholar Muhammed b. Abdulkanni al-maghili

visited Kano in C. 1492 during the reign of sarki Rumfa and spread the religion.

The Development of Islam in Hausaland

It would appear that it was in the 15th century that a strong Muslim

tradition begun to be established especially in Kano and Katsina. It was not

only the Muslim wanga rawa scholars clerics that arrived the Muslim Fulani

with books of law and theology also immigrated, some of them staying in

hausaland while others continued their journey to settle in Borno. It is reported

that in about 1487, Ahmad b. Umar b. Muhammad Aqit of Timbuctu, the great-

great grand father of the celebrated Ahmad baba, have stayed and taught in

Kano. It was the same 15th century (about 1492-4) that Muhammad al-maqhili

visited Kano and Katsina at the request of Sarkin Kano, Mohammed Rumfa, Al-

Maghili write the obligation of princes apparently to guide the sarkin Kano in

his administration as a Muslim ruler.

Islam, under sarki Rumfa spread and become increasingly influential in

Kano by the end of the 15th C. He built mosque on the site of a shrine

signifying the triumph of Islam over traditional religion in the city.

Both in Kano and Katsina, the rulers encouraged the ulama to preach and

spread Islam.

36

In Kebbi, the ruler Muhammad Kanta accepted Islam and encouraged its

spread in the city and its environs most of the were aliens, especially the Fulani

and traders. In Yawuri, Islam might have reached the state in the 17th century.

Yawuri resisted the muslim jihadist under Shehu Usman Dan Fodio in the 19th

century and was given a dhimmi status. It recognized the political authority of

the caliphate but was left free to continue its traditional religion.

In conclusion, we can say that the Hausa states emerged in Hausaland.

There was no single central political authority rather each city state was under

its own ruler. This suggest that Hausaland was more of a geographical term

than a political term. It was only in the 19th century that the jihad of Shehu

Uthman Dan Fodio brought the whole Hausaland under a single political

umbrella called the caliphate Geographical factors such as fertility of the soil,

trade and Islam were some of the most important factors which led to the

establishment and development of the Hausa states in the period covered by this

study i.e. (1000-1600AD).

Oyo Empire

The foundation of old Oyo empire has been attributed in the traditions to

Oranyan, who is also said to be the founder of present Benin monarchy of all

the Yoruba kingdoms, the one that eventually acquired the largest territory and

became a veritable empire was Oyo. It emerged as a strong kingdom in the

middle of the 16th century from the Bariba and Tapa attacks with an army

37

composed of both cavalry and infantry. After a short period spent in

consolidating, it embarked on its imperial expansion by about the beginning of

the 17th century.

Imperial Expansion of Oyo Empire under its Rulers (Alafins)

Imperial expansion in old Oyo empire started by about the beginning of

the 17th century and continued up to the late 18th century. However, we are

concerned with the beginning of the 17th century, which falls within our period

i.e. (1000-1600).

The first Alafin to start the process of imperial expansion in old Oyo

empire was Obalokun. He conquered Ijanna and stationed an officer called

Ajele in the area Ijanna was in Egbado towards the coast. The Oba attempted to

conquer Illesha in the south east but he was defeated. After Obalokun, the next

Alafin who succeeded him was Ajagbo. Ajagbo created the little Are-onas

kakanfo. He sent out 4 expeditions under military officers to all direction of the

empire. His army moved towards the coast and conquered a town called Weme.

He also conquered some part of Egba kingdom. The conquest of old Oyo

continued throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Dahomey was conquered in

1726 and in 1730 thus Dahomey kingdom became a tributary of old Oyo

empire. By 1750, therefore, the Alafin of Oyo was ruler of a territory that

covered the Oyo kingdom, the whole of Egba and Egbado, some parts of

38

Igbomina, the whole of Ajase kingdom, the whole of Weme kingdom, the whole

of Dahomey kingdom and parts of Tapa (Nupe) and bariba.

The bringing together of such a vast territory under a single

administration was bound to have economic advantages. Trade routes were

established and there was regular supply of taxes, wealth to the central

government. The Alafins lived in larvish palace, and maintain a formidable

force. Inspite of these economic advantages, however, there were some

problems been faced by the Alafins of old Oyo empire. The basic problem was

how to govern the territories, maintain peace and order and at the same time

prevent breakaways. The Ajeles were appointed by the Alafin to supervise the

local rulers of the conquered territories and they were to a large extending

successful in this regard.

Perhaps the most persistant problem was how to distribute power among

the ruling circles in the capital city of Oyo. The constitution of Oyo empire like

all Yoruba kingdom was balanced between the Alafin and his chiefs and other

stakeholders. For the 17th & 18th centuries, there were frequent clashes between

members of the Oyomesi (council) and the Alafins in their bid to control power.

Summary

Oyo Empire was the most dominated empire in Yorubaland. The Alafin

was recognized as the political overlord in Yorubaland while the Ooni of Ife

was considered as the spiritual leader of the Yoruba. Oyo was established in the

39

16th century but consolidated its power in the 17th century and continued with

her imperial struggle for the whole of the 18th century.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

(1) Discuss the factors which gave rise to Oyo Empire.

(2) Examine the imperial expansion of Oyo under her rulers in the 17th

century.

(3) Assess some of the problems been faced by Oyo empire after it

conquered a large territory in Yoruba land.

REFERENCES

(1) O. Ikime (1980). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.

(2) Johnson S. (1921). The History of the Yoruba, Lagos.

SUGGESTED READINGS

S. O. Bioboke (1957) The Egba and their Neighbours, Oxford.

J. A. Atanda (1974) The New Oyo Empire, Ibadan.

40

STUDY SESSION 4: SOURCES FOR THE RECONSTRUCTION OF

HISTORY ORAL TRADITIONS

1.1 Introduction

Etymologically, the word history is a derivative of the Greek word

‘historia’ meaning ‘to learn by enquiry’ to some, history is concerned with

everything that ever happened: History – a subject which, in its broadest sense

is concerned with everything that happened: Everything and everybody that has

his history. History deals with the activities of man in the past. Its study helps

us to understand the situation in which we now live. The definition could be

endless: A close study of the above definitions reveals that history is concerned

with the systematic study of the development of peoples, politics and

institutions, from earliest times to the present. In this Session, we are

essentially concerned with sources for the reconstruction of history.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the Study Session, students will be able to:

1. Discuss the primary, secondary and tertiary sources for the reconstruction and

reinterpretation of Nigerian history.

2. They will also appreciate the significance of oral traditions as an

indispensable source for the reconstruction and interpretation of Nigerian

history.

41

1.3 IN - TEXT

Sources for the reconstruction of Nigerian history include primary

sources as well as secondary sources. There are also tertiary sources; primary

sources include oral testimonies eye-witness accounts, archival sources,

Unpublished works which include projects, dissertations and thesis, Seminar,

workshop and symposium papers. Secondary sources on the other hand, include

published works which include government publication, journal articles, books,

monographs and chapters from books.

Tertiary sources include internet materials. All these sources can be used

to reconstruct the history of Nigeria. It is not advisable for students of history to

depend on only one source of history in the reconstruction of the Nigerian past

but that all available sources must be utilized in history research.

Oral Traditions

Oral traditions simply mean oral testimonies transmitted from one person

to the other and spanning several generations. This is particularly useful in non-

literate societies; these are societies with no writings. In this situation, the

source of information is through oral traditions collected from the elders of such

societies.

A lot of information can be obtained from oral traditions; for example,

information on the establishment of villages or towns. The reign of kings in the

community, the death of an important personality in society, events such as

42

droughts, wars migrations etc can be obtained from oral accounts provided by

elders who serve as custodians of history in non-literate societies.

Some scholars have argued that oral traditions are not history because

precise dates on happenings in the past cannot be ascertained. That it relies on

human memory which cannot be accurate. In spite of these limitations,

however, oral traditions, if properly used, can be an indispensable source for the

reconstruction of the history of Nigeria.

1.4 SUMMARY

History cannot be written without sources. All sources, primary,

secondary and tertiary must therefore be adequately utilized for the

reconstruction and interpretation of the past.

1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

(1) Define history and discuss any two sources of history.

(2) How important is oral traditions in the reconstruction of history.

1.6 REFERENCES

O. Ikime ed (1980) Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.

M. Crowder, (1966) The story of Nigeria, London.

43

1.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Fayana & Biggs, (1965). History of Nigeria, London.

History of Nigeria Series, Nigeria upto 1800AD, Vol.I, Lagos.

Jan Vansina (1972) Oral Traditions in Africa, London.

44

STUDY SESSION 5: THE MICROSTATES AND STATELESS

SOCIETIES

1.1 Introduction

Scholars have classified states into two broad classification namely large

states and small states. The large states are the states which had well organized

political structures while the small state had a low level of political

centralization and therefore, described as stateless states or societies. We shall

consider the characteristics of these states and with few examples from the

Nigerian area illustrate them.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the Study Session, students should be able to:

1. Identify the centralized states from the non centralized states.

2. Explain and provide relevant examples of centralized and non-centralized

states in the Nigerian area.

1.3 IN-TEXT

The centralized states of the Nigerian area include Kanem-Borno, Hausa

States, the Sokoto Caliphate, Oyo, Benin while the non centralized or stateless

societies are made up of small states or societies such as the Igbo, the Ibibio, the

Efik, the Ijaw, the Urhobo, the Itsekiri, etc. some of the major characteristics of

the centralized or powerful states include:

45

1. These states occupied large territories covering thousands of

kilometers.

2. They were monarchical; meaning that the system of government

in these states was based on individuals i.e. kings who

commanded respect from their subjects. This also means that

authority in the centralized states was centralized power and

authority was centralizing in the hands or in the person of the

king.

3. There was always a strong military force in the centralized

states. There was always standing army to defend the state.

4. Political institutions in the centralized states were complex and

offices were hereditary in nature.

5. Slaves played an important role in the development of

centralized states.

In the stateless societies, there were no kings; and, therefore, power and

authority were not centralized in an individual king rather it was decentralized.

This means that everybody in the stateless societies participated in the decision

making process in the society. Men, women, hunters, blacksmith, youth, secret

societies all participated in the decision making process in these societies.

In addition to the above, stateless societies, occupied small territories and

the political institutions were not as complex as the ones found in the

centralized states.

46

There was not standing army in the stateless societies. The army in these

societies is called levees enmasse. This means that whenever there was a need

for warfare, all able bodied men were recruited and once the war was over, they

were disarmed. There was no military sophistication in the stateless societies.

1.4 SUMMARY

The centralized states were the dominant states and empires of the

Nigerian area while the stateless societies are the small states. One thing is,

however, clear and that is the stateless societies, like the powerful state have

succeeded in regulating their political economic and social aspect of life and

this is what governance is all about.

1.5 Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Define a state.

2. Examine the major characteristics of centralized states and stateless

societies of the Nigerian area.

1.6 References

J. F. Ade Apaji & M. Crowder (1971) History of West Africa vol. I, London.

History of Nigeria series: Nigeria from the Earliest Times to 1800AD.

1.7 Suggested Readings

47

G.I.C. Eluwa et all (1987) A history of Nigeria.

Alan Burns, (1969) History of Nigeria, London.

48

STUDY SESSION 6: INTERNAL TRADE RELATIONS WITH NORTH

AFRICA, THE COMING OF ISLAM AND FIRST CONTACT WITH

EUROPE

1.1 Introduction

In this Session, we are concerned with the nature and extend of internal

trade in the Nigerian area and the subsequent relations established between the

peoples of the Nigerian area and the Barbers and Arabs of North Africa

resulting into the penetration of Islam into our study area. The last aspect or

theme to be considered is the early contact of the Nigerian peoples with Europe

and the benefits accrued from this contact will also be analyzed.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the Study Session, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the internal as well as the long distance trade between the Nigerian

peoples on one hand and between foreign traders such as the Berbers and the

Arabs on the other hand.

2. Discuss the coming of Islam into the Nigerian area and its impact on the

people.

ii. Explain the historical contact between the coastal Nigerian peoples

and the European.

49

1.3 IN-TEXT

INTERNAL TRADE

It is observed that different Nigerian peoples interacted through trade as

far back as from 14th and 15th centuries or even before these periods. Several

trade routes became prominent linking Hausaland with Borno, Borno with

Fombina (Adamawa) and the Benue valley; Hausaland with Nupe and the

confluence; Hausaland with Yorubaland; Yorubaland with Benin. In addition

there was constant traffic on the Niger Benue waterway and on the creeks and

Lagoons. There were many branch routes and networks of local routes linking

various periodic markets. The Jukun, the Nupe and the Igalla made extensive

use of the Niger Benue waterways in exchanging their trading items with their

neighbor.

In the forest areas, river system provided communication; in the savannah

areas pack animals camels, horses, donkeys provided the much needed

communication or transport than of goods currencies were used by cowries

shells were the widely accepted currency in pre-colonial trade. Copper, iron

bars, piece of paper, piece of cloth also served as currencies in this period.

The trade in slaves itself was a source of inter-group relations or

interaction by the end of the 18th century; these were slaves in various parts of

50

the Nigerian area. Nupe slaves in Lagos, Hausa slaves in different parts of

Yorubaland Awka slaves in Benin, Igho slaves in Calabar.

An important aspect of the slave trade was that a great economic

development took place; and, this was the introduction of new food crops from

the new world.

The coming of Islam into the Nigerian area

Before Islam came to North Africa, West Africa had maintained long

contact through the trans-Saharan trade with the countries, states and peoples of

North Africa (Maghreb). So, from North African cities of Egypt, Tunisia,

Algeria, Libya and Morocco, the Arabs and Arabised Berbers came to West

Africa to trade and spread the religion of Islam.

It is difficult to date precisely the coming of Islam into the area or the

central Sudan or the present day Nigeria; It is however, known that Kanem-

Borno empire was the first to receive Islam and from there it spread to other

parts of the central – Bilad al Sudan.

It is difficult to date precisely the coming of Islam into the areas of the

central Sudan or the present day Nigeria. it is, however, known that the Kanem-

Borno Empire was the first to receive the religion in about the 11th century A.D.

It was also known that the first king of Borno to accept Islamic religion was Mai

Humai Jilmi who reigned in the 11th century AD. It has been suggested that it

51

was possible that the religion came to Borno earlier than the 11th century AD,

but was accepted by the ruling dynasty by the eleventh century.

The Muslim preachers who came to West Africa were Traders. It is

believed that both the Arabs and the desert Berbers carried Islam to Borno

Empire from the 11th century AD, the rulers of Borno paid serious attention to

the practice of Islam. Many of the Borno kings are said to have performed

pilgrimages while some of them are said to be learned scholars in Arabic

education or were pious and generous Muslims.

Another area in the present day Nigeria to which Islam spread is

Hausaland. Islam was introduced to this area by the Wangarawa – a group of

Dyula muslim merchants and teachers from Mali in the 14th century. Islam was

first officially introduced to the Sarkin Kano ie (king of Kano) who in turn

appointed several of the Muslim teachers and preachers to offices where the

practice of Islam was necessary. This included the Imam, the Muezzin and

others. Also, the king ordered all his subjects to accept Islam. After the

traditional religionists had unsuccessfully opposed the new religion, the Kano

kings made it a state religion. Islam was, however, firmly established in

Hausaland only in the fifteenth century particularly in Kano and Katsina.

Other groups helped the peaceful spread of Islam in Hausaland and Borno

were the Muslim Fulani. The kings of Kano and Katsina supported the Islamic

teachers and preachers, who completely Islamized these states. By the 17th

52

century, the Islamic religion was strong not only in Kano and Katsina but also in

Gobir, Zazzau, Kebbi and Yawuri.

Other areas in Nigeria where Islam penetrated before 1800 AD were

Nupe and Yoruba land. As in Borno and Hausaland, Islam came to Nupe and

Yorubaland through trade. Through Hausaland and Borno, trade routes, Nupe

and Yorubaland were linked to the trans-saharan trade. Yoruba was connected

to hausaland and Borno through the same trade routes via Borgu and Nupe. It

was Nupes early trade with Hausaland, Borno, Bendi areas, Songhai and Mali

empires that brought Islam to Nupe. Yoruba historian including Samuel

Johnson believed that Islam came to Yorubaland in the 18th century. But there

are records which suggest that Islam entered the area during the 17th century, a

time when Alaafin Ajagbo was said to have embraced Islam. By the 18th

century, Islam had spread to many Yoruba areas including Bagri, Ketu,

Ogbomosho, Owu, Ijara Igboho, Kisi, Saki, Iseyin and Ikoyi.

Early European Contacts

West Africa had from remote period long contacts with North Africa, the

Arabs and the peoples of Europe through long distance trade - the trans-Saharan

trade. But from the 15th century or so, the old trading system whereby the Arabs

were the only middlemen linking the west and East no longer satisfied the

Europeans. In addition, wars and counter wars which took place around the two

sides of the Mediterranean coasts in the 15th century compelled the Europeans,

53

particularly Spain and Portugal, to look for alternative routes to the East.

Between the 15th and 16th century, attempts were made by the European to find

a new trade route to the East Indies.

The Greeks, the Romans, the Phoenician had, before the 15th explored

Africa. By the 15th century, the Portuguese also came to West Africa. The

desire of the European was to find the sources of gold, Ivory and slaves and

many other agricultural products needed by the European.

The European also wanted to covert Africans to Christianity and wanted

to stop the advance of the Muslim into the sub-saharan Africa.

Another reason was that European countries including Portugal wanted to

acquire colonies in Africa and Asia.

The Early European – Nigerian Trade

Trade was at first conducted between the Africans and the Europeans at

the coast. The coastal trade was beneficial to both sides but the benefits of the

trade mostly benefited the Europeans. From the 16th century onward, however,

the trade shifted away from the exchange of raw materials and manufactured

goods to trade in slaves. In the trade, the Africans supplied slaves, gold, ivory,

pepper, gum Arabic and ostrich feathers in exchange for European goods like

cloths, beads, cowry shells and other manufactured goods.

So many trading ports developed along the West African Coast. Some of

the most important parts that flourished during the Portuguese period were Cape

54

Blanco, Cape Verde, Arguin, all in the upper Guinea area. Others were Sao

Tome, Gwala, Princepe and Fernando Po in the Niger Delta area.

In the Nigerian area, the Portuguese were fairly successful. They

obtained the articles they needed from the middlemen at the Coast; as a result,

they did not venture into the hinterland. The Portuguese missionary activities

were not very successful. This is partly because the Portuguese did not get the

necessary man power for evangelical work in the interior. Portuguese

missionary teachers were few because mosquitoes and other deadly diseases

prevented them from coming in large numbers.

Reasons for the Decline of Portuguese – Nigeria Trade

By the middle of the sixteenth century, Portuguese trade with Nigeria was

decreasing because of the following reasons. In the first place, trade was no

longer promising. The slaves, pepper and ivory were no longer obtained in

large commercial quantity as expected. Secondly, the Portuguese discovered

that Nigerians were only interested in getting arms and ammunitions from them

without giving enough local products in return. Thirdly, the Portuguese

discovered that Asian commodities were paying more than the Nigerian articles

and therefore they decided to concentrate their efforts on the more profitable

trade. Fourthly, Portugal did not have the materials to tap the natural revenues

of the vast areas under their control. Finally, the presence of other European

merchants and companies in West Africa destroyed their monopoly. With time

55

the French, Dutch and English Competitors gradually displaced the Portuguese

in West Africa.

Results of the Early European Contacts

Early European contacts with Nigeria had for-reaching results. In the

first place, trade developed between the Europeans and Nigerians and the

people living at the coast benefited immensely from this trade. The trade

introduced to Nigerians goods which later became symbols for measuring the

wealth of an individual. These goods included knives, hoe, gun-power, beads,

glassware cloth and others.

In the second place, the coastal trade attracted large numbers of people

from the hinterland. These settled permanently with the coastal communities.

Many inland kingdom, states and empires like Dahomey tried to participate in

the coastal trade transferring their seats of administration nearer the coast. The

coastal trade also expanded many existing centers of large populations of city-

states like Bonny, Calabar, Okrika, Nembe and others. Thirdly the coastal trade

greatly reduced the volume of trade across the Sahara to North Africa. This led

to the economic decline of many Nigerian states and Empires in the north and a

halt in the trans-saharan trade.

Fourthly, the Portuguese language phrases and expressions were used in

the coastal states.

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Finally, the European introduced a variety of crops to the Nigerian area.

The crops came mostly from Asia and South America. They include sugar

cane, Maize, pawpaw, guava, sweet potatoes, tobacco, plantain, banana,

pineapples, cassava and others. By introducing new crops, however, the

Europeans helped to improve the quality and quantity of Nigerian food.

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The Atlantic trade became important in the 15th century with the arrival of

the Portuguese to the Nigerian coast. By the 18th century, it had grown

tremendously both in extent and volume. Slaves from West Africa and from

Nigeria in particular had been sent to North Africa and southern Europe through

the Sahara before the beginning of the trans-Atlantic trade. Moreover, slaves as

an institution had existed as part of the African rural system particularly in the

large Empires. Some of the slaves exported worked as domestic servants and

by the fourteenth century many were used on sugar plantation in Sicily and

southern Spain.

The demand for slaves from the Nigerian coast on a large scale could be

traced to the introduction of plantation system of agriculture. The Spaniard had

established Sugar plantation system of agriculture in the Canary Islands in

1455. The Portuguese did the same on Madeira and by the close of the century

they had colonized Sao-Thome and Principe where they also established sugar

plantations. During the sixteenth century, the plantation system moved from the

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Canaries to Hispaniola and from Madrid to Brazil. The revolution reached the

Carribean in the seventeenth century and by the 18th century; Jamaica St.

Domingo and Haiti had sugar plantations.

Sugar plantation demanded plenty of labour to cultivate and harvest the

cane to extract the juice and to reduce it to semi-refined sugar. In 1441,

Gonzalves, a Potuguese Voyager, returned to Portugal with ten African slaves

as a present to Prince Henry the Navigator. By 1460 when Henry died 700-800

slaves were being exported annually to Portugal from West Africa.

The middlemen such as the Ijaw, the Urhobo, the Biri, the Kalobari

bought slaves and sold to the European at the coast. The European included not

only the Portuguese but the Spaniards, the French, the British and others.

Three categories of people were involved in the slave trade and they

performed different functions.

1. There were men who captured and sold the slave, a function performed

by Nigerians.

2. Nigerians who brought the slaves from the Nigerian coastal sold them to

the coastal chiefs and Merchant: and,

3. European merchant who bought slaves from Nigeria coastal chiefs and

merchants and transported the slaves to Europe or the New World.

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DECLINE OF THE SLAVE TRADE

The slave trade lasted for more than four centuries declined by the 19th

century. The British industrialization was responsible for the decline of the

slave trade. The industrial revolution produced industries, machinery and

factories which came to replace human labour. Slave labour by about this

period was no more needed by the industrialized European nations spearheaded

by Britain. It is for this reasons that the British took all sorts of measures to

abolish the slave trade.

EFECTS OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC TRADE

The Trans-Atlantic trade had far reaching effects. The effects were felt

more in the Niger Delta. Other areas affected included Benin, Oyo, Ijebu, Hausa

land etc.

1. The trade depopulated Nigeria. It reduced man power of the Nigerian

area. Thousands of the able bodied men and women who could be used for

productive purpose in Nigeria were forcibly transported annually to the New

World. The young men and boys were sent to work on the tobacco and sugar

plantations while the women worked as domestic servant. Nobody can give a

precise number of Nigerians taken away as slaves to the New World and

Europe.

2. The slaves trade led to the killing of Nigerian local industries weaving,

blacksmithing, pottery, crafts were seriously hampered.

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3. It led to food insecurity; there were famine, hunger and disease.

4. It led to warfare and inter-tribal wars. Some communities were

completely wiped out.

5. New crops from Europe were introduced but item such as guns, gun

powder, razorblade, mirrors all sorts of assorted rubbish were introduced into

Nigerian area.

6. Finally, the slave trade developed Europe and America and

underdeveloped Nigeria.

SUMMARY

Trade can be conveniently divided into short distance or local trade and

long distance trade which included the Trans-Saharan trade and the Trans-

Atlantic slave trade.

The people of Nigeria participated in both forms of trade and benefited

economically but the Trans-Atlantic slave trade brought far reaching and

negative effect to the people of the Nigerian area. It led to the

underdevelopment of the country and developed the European.

Self – Assessment Exercises

(1) What do you understand by the term short distance trade?

(2) How important was the Trans-Saharan trade to the peoples of the

Nigerian area?

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(3) Assess the effects of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade on the empires,

states and people of the Nigerian area?

(4) What benefits did Nigerians get from their contact with the

Europeans?

References

(1) O. Ikime (1980). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.

(2) Michael Crowder and G. Abdullahi (1979). Nigeria: an introduction

to its history, London, Longman Group Ltd.

Further Readings

(1) Elizabeth Isichei (1983). A history of Nigeria, London Longman

Group Ltd.

(2) Alan Burns (1969). History of Nigeria, London, George Allen and

Unwin Ltd.

(3) Michael Crowder (1966). The story of Nigeria: London, Faber and

Faber.