Notes of Clarification 4 On to the more fundamental problem 6 Packinghouse operations 10 General operations 12 Dumping 15 Washing 16 Waxing 18 Sorting 21 Sizing 23 Fruit packing line 28 Section 4: Packing and packaging materials 29 Packing practices 31 Packing containers 34 Packaging practices 46 Labeling 49 Modularization of containers 50 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 52 Unit loads 54 Section 5: Decay and insect control 56 Chemical controls 57 Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments 60 Heat treatments 61 Section 5: Decay and insect control 62 Chemical controls 63 Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments 67 Heat treatments 68 Section 5: Decay and insect control 69 Chemical controls 70 Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments 74 Heat treatments 75 Section 6: Temperature and relative humidity control 76 Room cooling 77 Forced-air cooling 79 Hydro-cooling 82 Evaporative cooling 83 Night air ventilation 88 Chilling injury 90 Use of ice 91 Alternative methods of cooling 96 Increasing relative humidity 96 Section 6: Temperature and relative humidity control 98 Room cooling 99 Forced-air cooling 101 Hydro-cooling 104 Evaporative cooling 105 Night air ventilation 110 Chilling injury 112 Use of ice 113 Alternative methods of cooling 118 Increasing relative humidity 118 Section 7: Storage of horticultural crops 120 Recommended storage temperatures 121 Compatibility groups for storage of fruits, vegetables and floral crops 126 Storage practices 130 Storage structures 136 Dried and bulb crops 158 Root and tuber crops 159 Potatoes 160 Controlled atmosphere (C.A.) storage 164 Relative perishability and storage life of fresh horticultural crops 168

Section 8: Transportation of horticultural crops Open vehicles 169 Refrigerated trailers 172 Stacking patterns/handstacked 173 Stacking patterns/pallet and slip sheet loads 178 Bracing the load 179 Section 8: Transportation of horticultural crops Open vehicles 182 Refrigerated trailers 184 Stacking patterns/handstacked 185 Stacking patterns/pallet and slip sheet loads 190 Bracing the load 191 Section 9: Handling at destination 193 Unloading 194 Storage temperatures 196 Sorting/repacking 198 Ripening 199 Display 204 Section 10: Processing of horticultural crops 206 Processing equipment 206 Preparation for processing 208 Solar drying 210 Forced-air dehydrators 215 Oil-burning dehydrators 216 Electric dehydrators 217 Oven drying 218 Drying flowers 219 Extraction of essential oils from aromatic plants Canning 222 Juicing 225 Other methods of processing 226 Section 10: Processing of horticultural crops 227 Processing equipment 228 Preparation for processing 230 Solar drying 231 Forced-air dehydrators 236 Oil-burning dehydrators 237 Electric dehydrators 238 Oven drying 239 Drying flowers 240 Extraction of essential oils from aromatic plants Canning 243 Juicing 246 Other methods of processing 247 General references 248 Section 2: Curing root, tuber and bulb crops 250 Field curing 251 Curing with heated air 252 Bulk systems for curing onions 253 Emergency curing 254 Q & As about Fresh Produce 256 How to Dry Fruits and Vegetables 263 Advantages of solar drying 263 Methods of drying 264 Sun drying 264 Disadvantages 264 Solar drying 264 Advantages of solar dryers 264 The drying process 264 Precautions 265

169

181

221

242

Predrying treatments 265 Washing 265 Blanching 266 Procedure 266 Peeling 266 Cutting and slicing 267 Dryers 267 Dryer loading 268 It is important to keep flies and other insects from entering the cabinet and of f the fruit because of the risk of contamination. 268 Unloading the dryer 269 Packaging and storing 269 Specific products 270 Fruit 270 Mangoes 270 Pineapples 270 Bananas 271 271 Apples 271 Choose Which Drying Method is Right For You 272 The Drying Process 273 Vegetable Drying Guide 273 Fruit Leathers 274 Making Jerky 275 Ipomoea aquatica (Water Spinach) 276 Cultivation and culinary uses 276 Cultural references 278 Common Names 278

On to the more fundamental problem. It is my belief that one should look at religion and the political parties in th eir relationships with the state from a social and anthological perspective, the role interactions and negotiations between them play in forming and shaping a g iven civilization at a specifically given historic stage. The resulting shared im age, sense of statehood and peoplehood created as a result of the interaction and negotiations between the three aforementioned entities and its relationship to reality (How big are the lies?). It is on this basis , I believe that an approac h to social engineering could be developed. As for myself, when I look at the society in which I live, I examine it from a M aslowian perspective. Where are we as a society on the Maslows hierarchy of needs ? I believe that Jamaica is fighting to achieve at home the first three needs in the hierarchy, survival needs, security needs and love need. What is strange is that from an international perspective, Jamaica could be seen as fighting to ac hieve the upper three needs starting from the love need (the need for associatio n). The challenge is how to pull up the real Jamaica to the same level as its in ternational image. Surely this is by no means a challenge for me to solve, it is for those who were elected by the people to do. Equally I do not think that it is an easy objective to attain because the international image of the country ke

eps moving far ahead of the real Jamaica with each step taken forward. Of greater importance is the identification of those zones of agreement between the three lead entities:-the Church, the political parties and the state, and to question in a very real way if these zones of agreement are based on a desire t o reduce the participation of the citizenry of the country from the process of g overnment, or are these zones of agreement based on a genuine commitment to deep en democracy and in doing so deliberately seek to expand the role of the citizen ry in the formulation and implementation of the policies of government at all le vels. Are those zones of agreement based on a search and desire to share politic al and economic power with the citizenry of the country or are those zones of ag reement based on a desire to retain undivided political and economic power over the people. One should also seek to analyze the extent that the pure and best de sires of the Church for a fair and just society is also identical to or similar to those expressed in the views and outlooks of the political parties and in the approach of the state in solving both tactical and strategic problems. Here I have taken the liberty to call all organized religious expression the Chu rch, be they those emanating from with the ranks of Christians, Muslims, Rastas, Jews, Hindus or any other such grouping; because in my own view they do share at their core very similar views on morality, fairness, justice, etc, where major differences in basic values arise, in my view, those differences are based on th e social, political and or economic position of the orator. Indeed it is very ha rd for a religious leader who is from affluent circumstances, who live in afflue nt circumstances and serves the spiritual needs of the affluent to share an iden tical position on social justice and fairness with a religious leader who is fro m a social and economically deprived background, who lives in a socially and eco nomically deprived conditions and serves the spiritual needs of a socially and e conomically deprived congregation. One belongs to a group with a vested interest in maintaining things as they are and the other belongs to a group which has a desire to change things, one belong to a group to which the concept of injustice i s alien and the other belong to a group to which injustice is a real existing real ity within which they fight to survive. The Jesus of the affluent is much differ ent from the Jesus of the poor, equally so is the Mohammad of the affluent Musli m is very much different from the Mohammad of the poor Muslim, so is it with the Messiah of an affluent Jew different from the Messiah of an impoverished Jew (t here are Jew who live in poverty only a minority of Jews in any country where th ere is a significant Jewish population that are rich). Thus even within the Chur ch there are ongoing debates and negotiation about the real meaning of justice, fairness, tolerance, and the type of Jamaica in which they would want to share s pace and exist in a relatively harmonious manner. To the extent that the ideals of the Church, the political parties and the state are at odds with each other, the more intense the process of discourse and nego tiations would be at all levels of the society and the more complex the antholog ical and sociological processes. It is in this regard, the idea, that leading me mbers of the Jamaica Labour Party are unable to clearly state who is a Labourite as different from a member or supporter of the Peoples National Party apart fro m voting patterns, or to enunciate clearly the political and social ideals of th e Jamaica Labour Party is profoundly disturbing, not only because it means that a very large segment of the Jamaican people are being led by people who do not k now what they want or where they want to go but it weakens the entire process of government and grossly distorts the development of the Jamaican people and soci ety as a whole. It is my view that if social engineering is to succeed, then it has to take into account points of agreements, debates and negotiation which are on going withi n all levels of leadership within society and their potential impact in enabling or disabling the society in its strive to attain its Maslowian objectives.

I have two or so more compilations to send to your Church. I send it to your Chu rch, not because I am seeking friendship or I am seeking to establish a relation ship nor because I hold your Church in a more positive light than any other reli gious institution, but rather because of the outlook of your Church members. In my view, they seem more ready to explore new ideas, to embrace technology and fo r me most important, by making my small and at times useless contributions, I am trying not only to encourage wider and deeper debates between the Church, the p olitical parties and the State, but also to the extent possible assist the Churc h (at least this segment) in helping some very ordinary people to satisfy their s urvival and love needs. I short my attitude and approach to the Church is totall y instrumentalist, if to me, the Roman Catholics or the Muslims shared the appro ach of your Church, I would have dealt with them in the same and equal manner, h ere I have no intention of attacking any religious grouping but rather stating m y opinion. In this light please to expect a few more attachments from me. The attachments o n this note, is intended for the Adventists in St. Thomas, Portland and St. Mary . The attachment on the water spinach maybe given to those in St. Catherine and Clarendon also. The water spinach grows wild in Jamaica, and there might be a ve ry good export market for it in both sections of the United States (especially i n California where there is a strong Vietnamese population and in those areas in which there is a strong Chinese and Filipino population and in Canada where the re is a strong Asian community.. The basis challenges would be that of harvestin g and packaging. There is also good market potential for sun dried fruits and vegetables. As is k nown dried fruits can be sold and consumed both as substitutes to confectionarie s and also be used in baking and in the cooking of Asian dishes. Locally there i s a very large and active market for dried fruits around Christmas (for the baki ng of Christmas Cakes and puddings) and around Easter ( for the baking of Easter buns) and for the gift basket trade (once attractively packaged) and for sweet jars as are found on the desks of receptionists and secretaries, here the childr en birthday party market is not to be forgotten. In St. Thomas, tons of common m angoes go to waste each year because of the lack of processing, packaging and ma rketing; the same situation holds true for sections of Portland. In St. Elizabet h one speaks of tons of pine apples and unsold tomatoes going to waste because o f the very same reasons. As will be seen from the relevant attachment, the equipment requirement for the carrying out of solar drying is relatively inexpensive. For the small producer, packaging would be the major challenge, there are a very wide range of choices, ranging from packaging in transparent glass or plastic bottles , bulk packaging as in the case of raisins to the Chinese approach which uses paper wrappers for the packaging of dried plums, prunes etc. What is needed in the main are leaders hip, encouragement, training in small business operation and organizational supp ort. Could the Seven Day Adventist Church in St. Thomas or where ever provide th at leadership, encouragement, training and organizational support and still rema in in its core and in its daily functions a religious institution? Would the tak ing on of these burdens (crosses) detract from the main mission of the Adventist movement or would it facilitate and compliment the pursuit of the main mission? These are questions which only Adventists can answer and I am 1000% sure that I am not an Adventist. To the extent that your Church has contact with members of the Rasta community, I would be glad if it was forwarded to them also. The food is enough for all to eat. What can you Adventists in the United States and or Canada do to assist in the f inding of markets for this plant (the water spinach) and or solar dried fruits? How should it be packaged in order to meet the requirements of the market? Or ma

ybe helping the Jamaican Adventists to earn an independent living would reduce t heir need for your remittances and hence reduce your status? It is hard to part with power and status, why should I want to reduce my own influence and high st atus? Am I mad! Have I joined the company of nerds and super nerds? What would b e the North American based Adventist answers to these questions (including your answers Miss Clark)? I guess we all here in Jamaica will in due time know the a nswers. Maybe the answers will be:-I do not go into the supermarkets and the shop s which sell Asian foods, I do not go near them. Of course I have never been into a Chinese, Filipino or Vietnamese restaurant outside of Jamaica. I am just too bu sy to do this type of thing, when I get home from work I am too tired to even op en my own door. The only day I have free is on a Saturday, and I am sure that no A dventist in his or her right mind could ever expect me to do this type of thing on a Saturday, it is better for them to starve and I keep the Sabbath Holy. What w ill your answer be? The question facing both poor but ambitious Adventists and Rastas alike would th at of pride. Would pride prevent them from climbing down into the canals, river beds and gullies to harvest the water spinach if it not only could provide them with part of a meal but also with assistance be exported and thus earning themse lves an income? At this moment they would not even have to spend a single cent t o collect the plant. Pride is a funny thing. Secondly would an Adventist Church in Portland or St. Thomas or even the Tent City Adventist Church in Portmore be bold enough to collect and prepare a meal with the water spinach? Or is the coll ection of offerings and tithes more than enough to prevent them from dealing wit h the food of paupers and social rejects? Maybe the water in which they grow is not clean and Adventists do not use fertilizer, manure nor use hydroponics techn ology in the growing of crops? Still yet dirt might be cleaner than dirty water . Would the canteen of the Northern Caribbean University, be deemed to be operat ed by mad people if in order to ensure that both affluent and poor students are able to afford to eat, meals with the water spinach is offered once a week? To w hat extent is hunger among Adventists or Rasta where it exists, a manifestation of a lack of information and or an abundance of pride? Similarly, would an Adventist be deemed mad by his or her congregation, if he o r she was seen in St. Thomas or Portland collecting ripe mangoes to be solar dri ed? Would he or she be deemed mad and lacking in ambition, if they said they wan ted to approach National Bakery or Captain Bakery to get an order for the prepar ation of three hundred pounds of solar dried ripe mango chips? Madness is a very catching illness; one has to be most careful about their contacts with mad peop le (I should of course know). Basil Fletscher c.c Phillip Cuff for Mrs. Cuff and the Tent City Adventist Church THE ASTRONOMER AN ASTRONOMER used to go out at night to observe the stars. One evening, as he w andered through the suburbs with his whole attention fixed on the sky, he fell a ccidentally into a deep well. While he lamented and bewailed his sores and bruis es, and cried loudly for help, a neighbor ran to the well, and learning what had happened said: Hark ye, old fellow, why, in striving to pry into what is in heav en, do you not manage to see what is on earth? THE WOLF AND THE LION ROAMING BY the mountainside at sundown, a Wolf saw his own shadow become greatly extended and magnified, and he said to himself, Why should I, being of such an i mmense size and extending nearly an acre in length, be afraid of the Lion? Ought I not to be acknowledged as King of all the collected beasts? While he was indul ging in these proud thoughts, a Lion fell upon him and killed him. He exclaimed with a too late repentance, Wretched me! this overestimation of myself is the cau

se of my destruction. Aesop THE TRUMPETER TAKEN PRISONER A TRUMPETER, bravely leading on the soldiers, was captured by the enemy. He crie d out to his captors, Pray spare me, and do not take my life without cause or wit hout inquiry. I have not slain a single man of your troop. I have no arms, and c arry nothing but this one brass trumpet. That is the very reason for which you sho uld be put to death, they said; for, while you do not fight yourself, your trumpet stirs all the others to battle. Aesop THE BROTHER AND THE SISTER A FATHER had one son and one daughter, the former remarkable for his good looks, the latter for her extraordinary ugliness. While they were playing one day as c hildren, they happened by chance to look together into a mirror that was placed on their mothers chair. The boy congratulated himself on his good looks; the girl grew angry, and could not bear the self-praises of her Brother, interpreting al l he said (and how could she do otherwise?) into reflection on herself. She ran off to her father. to be avenged on her Brother, and spitefully accused him of h aving, as a boy, made use of that which belonged only to girls. The father embra ced them both, and bestowing his kisses and affection impartially on each, said, I wish you both would look into the mirror every day: you, my son, that you may not spoil your beauty by evil conduct; and you, my daughter, that you may make u p for your lack of beauty by your virtues. Aesop _------------------------------------------_________--------------------------------------------

Packinghouse operations Packinghouse operations can be as simple as moving produce from a field lug into a shipping container, or may include a variety of handling practices, from clea ning, waxing, sizing, and quality grading to color sorting. The provision of sha de during the packing operations is extremely important. Shade can be created us ing palm leaf fronds, a plastic mesh or canvas sheet hung from temporary poles, or via a permanent roofed structure. When deciding upon where to locate a packin ghouse, access to the field and market point, adequate space for vehicles to ent er and leave the packinghouse and ease of access to labor will all be considerat ions (Proctor, 1985). In the simplest packinghouse, produce is delivered in picking containers, immedi ately after harvest, directly to the packers. The packers then sort, grade, size and pack the produce directly into appropriate transport containers. In this ca se, each worker must be knowledgeable regarding produce defects, grade and size requirements, and packing methods. As the size and complexity of the packinghouse increases, more operations and wo rkers trained in specific tasks might be added. Dumping Produce must somehow be removed from the field bin or harvesting container and m oved through the packinghouse. This first step is known as dumping". Dumping m ust be done gently, whether using water assisted methods or dry dumping. Wet dum ping can decrease bruising and abrasions by using moving, chlorinated (100-150 p pm) water to carry delicate produce. When using dry dumping, padded, sloped ramp s or moving conveyor belts can decrease injuries to produce.

Pre-sorting Pre-sorting produce is usually done to eliminate injured, decayed, or otherwise defective produce (culls) before cooling or additional handling. Pre-sorting wil l save energy in that culls will not be handled. Removing decaying produce items will limit the spread of infection to other units, especially if postharvest pe sticides are not being used. Cleaning For some commodities, such as kiwifruits and avocadoes, dry brushing may be suff icient to clean the produce. Other commodities, however, such as bananas and car rots, require washing. The choice of brushing and/or washing will depend upon bo th the type of commodity and the type of contamination. Sanitation is essential, both to control the spread of disease from one item to another, and to limit spore buildup in wash water or in the packinghouse air. Ch lorine treatments (100 to 150 ppm Cl) can be used in wash water to help control pathogen buildup during packing operations (Moline, 1984). There is some variati on in the strength of bleach available commercially in different countries, but a rule of thumb is to use 1 to 2 mls of chlorine bleach per liter (1 to 2 ounces of chlorine bleach per 8 gallons of clean water). Walls, floors and packing equ ipment can also be cleaned using quarternary ammonium compounds labelled as safe for food processing equipment (Kupferman, 1990). Waxing Waxing of immature fruit vegetables such as cucumbers and summer squash; mature fruit vegetables such as eggplant, peppers and tomatoes; and fruits such as appl es and peaches is common. Food grade waxes are used to replace some of the natur al waxes removed in washing and cleaning operations, and can help reduce water l oss during handling and marketing. If produce is waxed, the wax coating must be allowed to dry thoroughly before further handling. Sizing Sizing produce is optional but may be worthwhile if certain size grades receive a higher price than others. In most low-input packinghouses, manual sizing is st ill commonly practiced. Operators should be trained in selecting the size desire d and to either directly pack the items into containers or place the selected pr oduce gently into a bin for packing further down the line. Sizing can be done su bjectively (visually) with the use of standard size guages. Examples of the smal lest and largest acceptable sizes for each product can be placed within view of the operator for easy reference. Hand held sizers are used for a variety of prod ucts. Several types of mechanical sizers are available for small scale operations. One type is composed of a long slanted tray with a series of openings which converg e (largest at the top, smallest at the bottom). This type of sizer works best wi th round commodities. Other sizers are designed as conveyors fitted with chain o r plastic belts with various sized openings, and are useful for sizing most comm odities. Another simple method for mechanical sizing is to use a set of divergin g bar rollers (see illustration below), where the smallest sized produce falls t hrough the rollers first to a sorting belt or bin, and larger sized produce fall s between successively more divergent rollers. Diverging bar rollers sizer: General operations The typical series of operations in a packinghouse are illustrated below. Dumpin g can be done using either dry or water-assisted methods, depending upon the sor t of produce being handled. Cleaning, as well, can be by washing with chlorinate d water or dry brushing alone. Waxing, if practiced, occurs after washing and re moval of surface moisture. Grading, as illustrated, separates the product into p rocessing and fresh market categories. Sizing further separates the product, wit h the smallest size going to the local market or to processing. Typically, the b est quality produce is packaged and marketed at the regional or national level.

FAO. 1986. Improvement of Post-Harvest Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Handling - A Manual. Bangkok: UNFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. The following is a flow diagram of packinghouse operations. The number and size of packing lines will depend on the kinds and quantities of produce that are han dled each day. Source: Kader, A.A. 1993. Postharvest Handling. In: Preece, J.E. and P.E. Read. The Biology of Horticulture - An Introductory Textbook. New York: John Wiley & S ons, Inc. pp. 353-377 Dumping Any time produce is dumped from one container into another, care should be taken to reduce mechanical damage to the commodity. When dumping produce from field b ins or from transport vehicles into the packinghouse, dry or wet dumping can be practiced. When using dry dumping practices, the filed container should be empti ed slowly and gently onto a tilted ramp with padded edges. In the illustration b elow, a conveyor belt then carries the dry dumped produce into the packinghouse. Dry dumping Wet dumping is sometimes used to reduce mechanical damage, either by dumping int o water rather than onto a dry ramp, or by immersion and floatation. If the spec ific density of the produce, such as apples, is lower than that of water the pro duce will float. For some produce, such as pears, salts (such as sodium lignin s ulfonate, sodium silicate or sodium sulfate) must be added to the water to incre ase its specific density and assure fruit floatation. The canvas curtain illustrated below is used to break the fall of fruit moving f rom a conveyor into a bulk bin. Source: USDA. No date. Modernising Handling Systems for Florida Citrus from Pick ing to Packing Line Agricultural Research Service, USDA Marketing Report No. 914 . Washing Steel drums can be used to make a simple washing stand. The drums are cut in hal t fitted with drain holes and all the metal edges are covered with split rubber or plastic hose. The drums are then set into a sloped wooden table. The table to p is constructed from wooden slats and is used as a drying rack before packing. Because steel drums are often used to store petroleum and chemical products, the y should be thoroughly cleaned before being used as a washing stand. Source: Grierson, W. 1987. Postharvest Handling Manual. Commercialization of Alt ernative Crops Project. Belize Agribusiness Company/USAID/Chemonics Internationa l Consulting Division. This tank for washing produce is made from galvanized sheet metal. A baffle made of perforated sheet metal is positioned near the drain pipe and helps to circul ate water through the produce. Fresh water is added under pressure through a per forated pipe, which helps move floating produce toward the drain end of the tank for removal after cleaning. Improvements to the design shown below might include a removable trash screen in front of the baffle, and/or a recirculating system for the wash water (with the addition of chlorine). FAO. 1989. Prevention of Postharvest Food Losses: Fruits Vegetables and Root Cro ps. A Training Manual. Rome: UNFAO. 157 pp. Waxing The waxing device illustrated here is designed to be used after a series of dry brushes on a conveyor line. Industrial wool felt is used to distribute the liqui d wax to the fruits or vegetables from a trough made the same width as the belt. Evaporation of wax from the felt is reduced by covering the felt with a layer o f heavy polyethylene sheeting.

Source: Martin, D and Miezitis, E.O. 1964. A wipe-on device for the application of materials to butts. Field Station Record Volume 3 No. 1 CSIRO Tasmanian Regio nal Laboratory, Hobart, Tasmania. Sorting/Packing The table illustrated below is a combination sorting and packing stand. Incoming produce is placed in the sorting bin, sorted by one worker into the packing bin , and finally packed by a second worker. If workers must stand to sort produce, a firm rubber pad for the floor can help reduce fatigue. Source: FAO. 1986. Improvement of Post-Harvest Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Handl ing- A Manual. Bangkok: UNFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. The surface of the portable sorting table illustrated below is constructed from canvas and has a radius of about 1 meter (about 3 feet). The edges are lined wit h a thin layer of foam to protect produce from bruising during sorting, and the slope from the center toward the sorter is set at 10 degrees. Produce can be dum ped onto the table from a harvesting container, then sorted by size, color and/o r grade, and packed directly into shipping containers. Up to 4 sorters/packers c an work comfortably side by side. Source: PHTRC. 1984. A portable sorting table. Appropriate Postharvest Technolog y 1(1):1-3. (Post-Harvest Training and Research Center, Department of Horticultu re, University of the Philippines at Los Banos.) Sorting The following illustrations represent three types of conveyors used to aid sorti ng of produce. The simplest is a belt conveyor, where the sorter must handle the produce manually in order to see all sides and inspect for damage. A push-bar c onveyor causes the produce to rotate forward as it is pushed past the sorters. A roller conveyor rotates the product backwards as it moves past the sorter. Belt conveyor: Push-bar conveyor Roller conveyor: Source: Shewfelt, R.L. and Prussia, S.E. 1993. Postharvest Handling: A Systems A pproach. San Diego: Academic Press Inc. 356 pp. When sorting for rejects, and removing any product that is too small, decayed or damaged, the height of the sorting table should be set at a level comfortable f or sorters. Stools, or a firm rubber pad on which to stand, can be provided to r educe fatigue. Locations of the table and the sorting bins should be chosen to m inimize hand movements. It is recommended that the workers arms create a 45 degree angle when s/he reac hes toward the table, and that the width of the table be less than 0.5 meter to reduce stretching. Good lighting will enhance the ability of the sorter to spot defects, and dark, dull belts or table tops can reduce eye strain. If a conveyor system is in use, the product must not flow too fast for the sorte rs to do their work. The rotational speed of push-bar or roller conveyors should be adjusted to rotate the product twice within the immediate field of view of t he worker. Source: Shewfelt R.L. and Prussia, S.E. 1993. Postharvest Handling: A Systems Ap proach. San Diego: Academic Press Inc. 356 pp. Sizing Round produce units can be graded by using sizing rings. Rings can be fashioned from wood or purchased ready-made in a wide variety of sizes. Single size hand held sizing ring: Multiple size rings: Source: FAO. 1989. Prevention of Postharvest Food Losses: Fruits, Vegetables and

Root Crops. A Training Manual. Rome: UNFAO. 157 pp. The rotary cylinder sizer illustrated below is composed of five hollow cylinders which rotate in a counterclockwise motion when driven by an electric motor. Eac h cylinder is perforated, with holes large enough to let fruits drop through. Th e first cylinder has the smallest diameter holes, and the fifth has the largest holes. When fruits fall through, they are caught on a slanted tray (the chute), and roll into the containers as shown. Take care that the distance of the drop i s as short as possible to prevent bruising. Oversized fruits are accumulated at the end of the line. This equipment works best with round commodities. Source: Reyes, M. U. (Ed.) 1988 Design Concept and Operation of ASEAN Packinghou se Equipment for Fruits and Vegetables. Postharvest Horticulture Training and Re search Center, University of Los Baos, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippine s. The onion sizing table illustrated below is one of three (or more) tables used i n a stairway fashion. Each table is made of plywood, and has been perforated wit h holes of a specific size. The uppermost table has the largest size holes, and the lowest table has the smallest holes. A layer of onions is dumped onto the up permost table. Those that do not pass through are classified as "extra-large i n size. Those that pass through fall into a mesh bag and roll into a large conta iner. This container of onions is dumped onto the second sizing table. The onion s that do not pass through are classified as "large", and so on. Source: Reyes, M. U. (Ed.) 1988. Design Concept and Operation of ASEAN Packingho use Equipment for Fruits and Vegetables. Postharvest Horticulture Training and R esearch Center, University of Los Baos, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippin es. The pommelo sizer illustrated below is composed of a rectangular chute made of p lywood, padded with foam to prevent bruising. The fruit is dumped into the octag onal platform at the top of the chute, then allowed to roll, one by one, down to ward a series of constrictions. Large fruits are caught in the first constrictio n, medium in the second, and small in the last. Undersized fruit passes out the end of the chute directly into a container. Workers must manually remove each fr uit and place it into the appropriate size container before the next fruit can p ass through the chute. The sizing is fastest when five workers are stationed at the sizer. Source: Reyes, M. U. (Ed.) 1988. Design Concept and Operation of ASEAN Packingho use Equipment for Fruits and Vegetables. Postharvest Horticulture Training and R esearch Center, University of Los Baos, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippin es. If a conveyor system is used in the packinghouse, a wide variety of sizing chain s and belts are available for sorting produce. Sizing chains can be purchased in many widths and in any size opening. Square openings are usually used for commodities such as apples, tomatoes and on ions, while rectangular openings are used for peaches and peppers. Hexagonal ope nings are often used for potatoes and onions. Square: Rectangular: Hexagonal: Source: 1994 Catalog of TEW Manufacturing Corporation, P.O. Box 87, Penfield, Ne w York 14526 USA Fruit packing line Small scale equipment for packing produce is available from several manufacturer s and suppliers. Illustrated below is a fruit packing line, available from TEW M anufacturing Corporation at a cost of less than US$ 5000. This particular model includes a receiving belt, washer and sorting table.

Source: 1994 Catalog of TEW Manufacturing Corporation, P.O. Box 87, Penfield, NY 14526 USA ________________________________________ ________________________________________ Section 4: Packing and packaging materials ________________________________________ Packing practices Packing containers Packaging practices Labeling Modularization of containers Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) Unit loads ________________________________________ If produce is packed for ease of handling, heavily waxed cartons, wooden crates or rigid plastic containers are preferable to bags or open baskets, since bags a nd baskets provide no protection to the produce when stacked. Sometimes locally constructed containers can be strengthened or lined to provide added protection to produce. Waxed cartons, wooden crates and plastic containers, while more expe nsive, are reusable and can stand up to the high relative humidity found in the storage environment. Containers should not be filled either too loosely or too t ightly for best results. Loose products may vibrate against others and cause bru ising, while overpacking results in compression bruising. Shredded newspaper is an inexpensive and lightweight filler for shipping containers (Harvey et al, 199 0). For small-scale handlers interested in constructing their own cartons from corru gated fibreboard, Broustead and New (1986) provide detailed information. Many ty pes of agricultural fibres are suitable for paper making (Hunsigi, 1989), and ha ndlers may find it economically sensible to include these operations in their po stharvest system. Throughout the entire handling system, packaging can be both an aid and a hindra nce to obtaining maximum storage life and quality. Packages need to be vented ye t be sturdy enough to prevent collapse. Collapsed packages provide tattle or no protection, requiring the commodity inside to support all of the weight of the o verhead load. Packing is meant to protect the commodity by immobilizing and cush ioning it, but temperature management can be made more difficult if packing mate rials block ventilation holes. Packing materials can act as vapor barriers and c an help maintain higher relative humidities within the package. In addition to p rotection, packaging allows quick handling throughout distribution and marketing and can minimize impacts of rough handling. Produce can be hand-packed to create an attractive pack, often using a fixed cou nt of uniformly sized units. Packaging materials such as trays, cups, wraps, lin ers and pads may be added to help immobilize the produce. Simple mechanical pack ing systems often use the volume-fill method or tight-fill method, in which sort ed produce is delivered into boxes, then vibration settled. Most volume-fillers are designed to use weight as an estimate of volume, and final adjustments are d one by hand (Mitchell in Kader, 1992). Packaging in plastic films can modify the atmosphere surrounding the produce (mo dified atmosphere packaging or MAP). MAP generally restricts air movement, allow ing the product s normal respiration processes to reduce oxygen content and incr ease carbon dioxide content of the air inside the package. An additional major b enefit to the use of plastic films is the reduction of water loss. MAP can be used within a shipping container and within consumer units. Atmospher ic modification can be actively generated by creating a slight vacuum in a vapor sealed package (such as an unvented polyethylene bag), and then replacing the p ackage atmosphere with the desired gas mixture. In general, lowering oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide concentrations will be beneficial for most commodities

(see the table of recommended gas mixtures for various crops, Section 7). Selec tion of the best polymeric film for each commodity/package size combination depe nds upon film permeability and the respiration rate of the commodity under the e xpected time/temperature conditions during handling. Absorbers of oxygen, carbon dioxide and/or ethylene can be used within packages or containers to help maint ain the desired atmospheric composition. Modified atmosphere packaging should always be considered as a supplement to pro per temperature and relative humidity management. The differences between benefi cial and harmful concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide for each kind of pr oduce are relatively small, so great care must be taken when using these technol ogies. Packing practices The packing stand illustrated in the diagram below can be bolted to a second sta nd of the same construction if more space is required for packing produce. When trimming is necessary, add a loose board, thick enough to reach above the height of the front rail. The front rail should be smooth and rounded. Source: Grierson, W. 1987. Postharvest Handling Manual: Commercialization of Alt ernative Crops Project Belize Agribusiness Co./Chemonics International Consultin g Division/USAID A simple field packing station can be constructed from wooden poles and a sheet of polyethylene. Thatch over the roof will provide shade and keep the station co ol. The structure should be oriented so that the roof overhang keeps out the maj ority of the sun s rays. Source: Grierson, W. 1987 Postharvest Handling Manual: Commercialization of Alte rnative Crops Project. Belize Agribusiness Co./ Chemonics International Consulti ng Division/USAID Hands of bananas, after undergoing washing to remove latex and perhaps spraying with fungicides, are typically packed into cardboard containers lined with polye thylene. The following illustrations depict one method of filling a container wi th the fruit in order to ensure less damage during transport. Note that the poly ethylene liner is folded up over the bananas before closing the box. (a) Wide, flat medium-to-small hand in middle of compartment (b) Medium-length, wide hand on top, crown not touching fruit below (c) Medium-to-short length, wide hand, crown not touching fruit below (d) One large hand, or two clusters with long fingers Source: FAO. 1989. Prevention of Postharvest Food Losses: Fruits. Vegetables and Root Crops. A Training Manual. Rome: UNFAO. 157 PP. A circular rotating table can be used to pack a variety of crops. The produce is fed in along a conveyor or if no conveyor is in use, simply put onto the table, where packers select the produce and fill cartons at their stations. In the ill ustration below, a discard belt has been added below the supply belt, allowing e asy disposal of culls. Each packer can work independently, trimming as needed and check weighing carton s on occasion. Source: National Institute of Agricultural Engineering. 1979. Preparing vegetabl es for supermarkets. Field Vegetable Department, Silsoe, Bedford: NIAE Packing containers There are many types of packing containers. The three containers illustrated bel ow are constructed from corrugated cardboard. The regular slotted container is f ully collapsible and the most economical. Telescopic containers (half or full) have the highest stacking strength and prot ect against bulging but are more costly.

The container known as a Bliss box has very strong corners, but is not collapsib le. Source: Peleg, K. 1985. Produce Handling Packaging and Distribution. Westport, C onnecticut: AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Sacks are often used to package produce, since they tend to be inexpensive and r eadily available. The following table provides some information regarding the ch aracteristics of different kinds of materials used to make sacks. Characteristics of sacks as packaging units Sack types Tearing and snagging Impact Protection against Contamin ation Notes Moisture absorption Insect invasion Jute Good Good None None Poor, also cause contamination by sack f ibres Bio-deterioration. Insect harbourage. Odour retention. Cotton Fair Fair None None Fair High re-use value. Woven plastics Fair-Good Good None Some protection (if closely wove n) Fair Badly affected by ultra-violet light. Difficult to stitch. Paper Poor Fair-Poor Good - WFP multiwall sacks have plastic liners. Some protection, better if treated. Good Consistent quality. Good print. Source: Walker, D.J. (Ed) 1992. World Food Programme Food Storage Manual. Chatha m, UK: Natural Resources Institute Paper or cloth sacks can be easily closed using a length of strong wire and twis ting tool. Source: FAO. 1985. Prevention of Post-Harvest Food Losses: A Training Manual. Ro me: UNFAO. 120 pp. The table below provides examples of some types of typical mechanical damage and their effect on packaging containers. Type of damage Container Result Important factors Impact damage through dropping Sacks - woven and paper Splitting of sea ms and material causing leaking and spillage loss. Seam strength Fibreboard boxes Splitting of seams, opening of flaps causing los s of containment function. Distortion of shape reducing stacking ability. Bursting strength Closure method Wooden cases Fracture of joints, loss of containment function. Fastenings Wood toughness Cans and drums Denting, rim damage. Splitting of seams and closures cau sing loss of containment and spoilage of contents. Plastic bottles Splitting or shattering causes loss of contents. Material grade Wall thickness Compression damage through high stacking Fibreboard boxes Distorti on of shape, seam splitting causing loss of containment and splitting of inner c artons, bags, and foil wrappings. Box compression strength Plastic bottles Distortion, collapse and sometimes splitting, ca using loss of contents. Design, material, wall thickness Vibration Woven sacks Sifting out of contents. Closeness of wea ve Corrugated fibreboard cases Become compressed and lose their cushion ing qualities. Contents more prone to impact damage. Box compression strength Snagging, tearing, hook damage Sacks - woven and paper Loss of containm ent function - spillage (more severe with paper sacks). Tear strength Tins Punctured, loss of contents. Metal thickness Source: Walker, D.J. (Ed.) 1992. World Food Programme Food Storage Manual. Chath am, UK: Natural Resources Institute

The diagrams below are for a variety of commonly used fibreboard containers. Fin al dimensions can be altered to suit the needs of the handler. One piece box: Two-piece box with cover: Bliss-style box: Source: McGregor, B. 1987. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. The diagrams below are for a variety of commonly used fibreboard containers. Fin al dimensions can be altered to suit the needs of the handler. Full telescoping box: One-piece telescoping box: One-piece tuck-in cover box: Source: McGregor, B. 1987: Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. The diagrams below are for a variety of commonly used fibreboard containers. Fin al dimensions can be altered to suit the needs of the handler. Self-locking tray: Interlocking box: Source: McGregor, B. 1987. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. Shipping containers can be designed and made by the user from fibreboard in any size and shape desired. Three types of joints are commonly used to construct stu rdy boxes. Taped joints: Glued Joints: Stapled joints: Source: Peleg, K. 1985. Produce Handling Packaging and Distribution. Westport, C onnecticut: AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Containers can be constructed from wood and wire, using the general diagrams pro vided below. A special closing tool makes bending the wire loops on the crate s lid easier for packers to do. Wirebound crates are used for many commodities inc luding melons, beans, eggplant, greens, peppers, squash and citrus fruits. Packa ge Research Laboratory (41 Pine Street, Rockaway, New Jersey 07866) can provide a list of suppliers in your area. Ends: Blank for body: Source: Peleg, K. 1985. Produce Handling Packaging and Distribution. Westport, C onn.: AVI publishing Co., Inc. A wooden lug is the typical packing container for table grapes. This container i s very sturdy and maintains its stacking strength over long periods of time at h igh relative humidity. Rigid plastic containers are also widely used. Often, a paper liner is folded over the grapes before the top is nailed closed. The liner protects the produce from dust and water condensation. If a pad contai ning sulfur dioxide can be enclosed with the grapes within a plastic liner as a treatment to control decay. Most commodities other than table grapes can be dama ged (bleached) by sulfur dioxide treatments.

Rigid plastic or wooden containers are also used extensively for asparagus. The trimmed spears are packed upright in containers that provide for a large amount of ventilation. Containers for cut flowers are often long and narrow, of full telescopic design with vents at both ends to facilitate forced-air cooling. The total vent area sh ould be 5% of the total box surface area. A closable flap can help maintain cool temperatures if boxes are temporarily delayed in transport or storage in an unc ontrolled temperature environment. Source: Rij, R. Et al. 1979. Handling, precooling and temperature management of cut flower crops for truck transportation. USDA Science and Education Administra tion, AAT-W-5, Leaflet 21058. A simple wooden tray with raised corners is stackable and allows plenty of venti lation for fragile crops such as ripe tomatoes. Source: FAO. 1985. Prevention of Post-Harvest Food Losses: A Training Manual. Ro me: UNFAO. 120pp Packaging practices Adding a fiberboard divider to a carton will increase stacking strength. The use of dividers is common with heavy crops such as melons. The dividers also preven t melons from vibrating against one another during handling and transport. Woode n inserts, or fiberboard folded into triangles and placed in all four corners ca n be especially useful when a carton needs strengthening. Fiberboard divider: Triangular corner supports: Source: McGregor, B. 1987. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. When locally made containers have sharp edges or rough inner surfaces, a simple, inexpensive inner made from fiberboard can be used to protect produce from dama ge during handling. Cardboard liner for a palm rib crate: Source: Blond, R.D. 1984. The Agricultural Development Systems Project in Egypt (1979-83), USAID/Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt/University of California, Davis. If large bags or baskets must be used for bulk packaging of fruits or vegetables , the use of a simple vent can help reduce the buildup of heat as the product re spires. In the illustration below, a tube of woven bamboo (about one meter long) is used to vent a large bag of chili peppers. Thin paper or plastic sleeves are a useful material for protecting cut flowers f rom damage during handling and transport. In the illustration below, a packer is pulling a sleeve up over a bunch of flowers before packing the flowers into a v ented fibreboard carton. The sleeves both provide protection and help keep the b unches of flowers separate inside the box. Source: Reid, M.S. 1992. In: Kader, A.A. (Ed.) Postharvest Technology of Horticu ltural Crops. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Reso urces, Publication 3311. Labeling Labeling packages helps handlers to keep track of the produce as it moves throug h the postharvest system, and assists wholesalers and retailers in using proper practices. Labels can be preprinted on fiberboard boxes, or glued, stamped or st enciled on to containers. Brand labeling packages can aid in advertising for the product s producer, packer and/or shippers. Some shippers also provide brochure s detailing storage methods or recipes for consumers. Shipping labels can contain some or all of the following information: Common name of the product.

Net weight, count and/or volume. Brand name. Name and address of packer or shipper. Country or region of origin. Size and grade. Recommended storage temperature. Special handling instructions. Names of approved waxes and/or pesticides used on the product. Labeling of consumer packages is mandatory under FDA regulations. Labels must co ntain the name of the product, net weight, and name and address of the producer, packer or distributor. Source: McGregor, B. 1989. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. Modularization of containers When a variety of different sized cartons are packed at the same time, using box es in standard sizes can greatly ease future handling. When handling boxes that are non-uniform, stacks can be unstable or heavier cartons can crush lighter one s. An unstable load is likely to fall over during transport or to collapse durin g storage. Recommended container sizes are shown below. These containers are part of the MU M program (Modularization, Unitization and Metrication) advocated by the USDA. T hey can all be stacked in a variety of patterns, depending upon their size, yet still form a stable load on a single pallet of 1000 x 1200 mm (40 x 48 inches). MUM containers for horticultural crops: Outside Dimensions Number Per Layer Pallet Surface Area Util ized mm Inches Percentage 600 x 500 (23.62 x 19.69) 4 100 500 x 400 (19.68 x 15.75) 6 100 600 x 400 (23.62 x 15.75) 5 100 500 x 333 (19.68 x 13.11) 7 97 600 x 333 (23.62 x 13.11) 6 99 500 x 300 (19.68 x 11.81) 8 100 475 x 250 (18.70 x 9.84) 10 99 400 x 300 (15.75 x 11.81) 10 100 433 x 333 (17.01 x 13.11) 8 96 400 x 250 (15.74 x 9.84) 12 100 An example of a pallet load of MUM containers: Source: Ashby, B.H. et al. 1987. Protecting Perishable Foods During Transport by Truck. Washington, D.C.: USDA, Office of Transportation, Agricultural Handbook No. 669. The following illustrations show the arrangement of a variety of MUM containers on a standard pallet (1000 x 1200 mm or 40 x 48 inches). Using MUM containers ca n save space during transport and storage, since pallet utilization is close to 100%. Outside dimensions: 600 x 500 mm (23.62 x 19.69") Pallet utilization 100% Outside dimensions: 500 x 400 mm (19.68 x 15.75") Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 600 x 400 mm (23.62 x 15.75") Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions:

500 x 333 mm (19.68 x 13.11") Pallet utilization: 97% Outside dimensions: 600 x 333 mm (23.62 x 13.11") Pallet utilization: 99% Outside dimensions: 500 x 300 mm (19.68 x 11.81") Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 475 x 250 mm (18.62 x 9.84") Pallet utilization: 99% Outside dimensions: 400 x 300 mm (15.75 x 11.81") Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 433 x 333 mm (17.01 x 13.11") 435 x 330 mm (17.12 x 12.99") Pallet utilization: 96% Outside dimensions: 400 x 250 mm (15.75 x 9.84") Pallet utilization: 100% Outside dimensions: 400 x 333 mm (15.75 x 13.11") Pallet utilization: 99% Source: McGregor, B. 1989. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) Within a consumer package: If commodity and film permeability characteristics ar e properly matched, an appropriate atmosphere can evolve passively through consu mption of O2 and production of CO2 during respiration (Kader, 1992). Some rigid plastic consumer packages are designed with a gas diffusion window. Lightly processed lettuce (shredded or chopped) can be packaged in 5-mil plastic bags. After a partial vacuum is created, a gas mixture of 30 to 50% O2 and 4 to 6% CO2 is introduced into the bag, which is then sealed. SEALED PLASTIC BAG Within a shipping container: Polyethylene liners are added to shipping container s in cherry boxes, and polyethylene bags are used for bananas destined for dista nt markets. PLASTIC LINER Within a pallet: A single pallet load of produce such as strawberries can be sea led within a shroud of 5 mil polyethylene bag and a plastic sheet on the pallet base using wide tape. A slight vacuum can be introduced and 15% CO2 added to the air introduced via a small hose. Many plastic films are available for packaging, but very few have gas permeabili

ties that make them suitable for MAP. Low density polyethylene and polyvinyl chl oride are the main films used in packaging fresh fruits and vegetables. Saran an d polyester have such low gas permeabilities that they are suitable only for com modities with very low respiration rates. The following table provides the perme abilities of the films currently available for packaging fresh produce (Kader, 1 992). Film type Permeabilities (cc/m2/mil/day at 1 atm) CO2:O2 Ratio CO2 O2 Polyethylene: low density 7,700-77,000 3,900-13,000 2.0-5.9 Polyvinyl chloride 4,263-8,138 620-2,248 3.6-6.9 Polypropylene 7,700-21,000 1,300-6,400 3.3-5.9 Polystrene 10,000-26,000 2,600-7,700 3.4-3.8 Saran 52-150 8-26 5.8-6.5 Polyester 180-390 52-130 3.0-3.5 Unit loads Many shippers and receivers prefer to handle unit loads of produce pallets rathe r than handling individual shipping containers. The switch to unit loads has red uced handling, causes less damage to the containers and produce inside, and allo ws faster loading/ unloading of transportation vehicles. If small scale handlers wish to use unit loads for shipping produce, either wood en pallets or slip sheets can serve as the base of the load. Using guides for al igning the boxes (such as placing the pallet to be loaded against the corner of a room, or building a set of "bounce boards" if the pallet is loaded outside) wi ll stabilize the load. Using fiberboard, plastic or wooden containers with verti cal interlocking tabs can also help improve the unit load s stability. Container s must have holes for ventilation which align when stacked squarely on top of on e another. Glue can be used between layers of containers to reduce slipping, and plastic netting or plastic or metal straps should be added to secure the load. Cornerboards made from fiberboard, plastic or metal help to provide for a stable unit load. Strapping and cornerboards on a unit load: Sources: McGregor, B. 1989. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office o f Transporation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668. Ashby, B.H., et al., 1987. Protecting Perishable Foods During Transport by Truck . USDA, Office of Transporatation, Agricultural Handbook Number 669. ________________________________________ ________________________________________ Section 5: Decay and insect control The first line of defense against insects and disease is good management during production. The second is careful harvesting and preparation for market in the f ield. Thirdly, sorting out damaged or decaying produce will limit contamination of the remaining, healthy produce. Yet, even when the greatest care is taken, so metimes produce must be treated to control insects or decay-causing organisms. Certain fungi and bacteria in their germination phase are susceptible to cold, a nd infections can be reduced by treating produce with a few days of storage at t he coldest temperature the commodity can withstand without incurring damage. Rhi zopus stolonifer and Aspergillus niger (black mold) can be killed when germinati ng by 2 or more days at 0C (32 F) (Sommer, in Kader, 1992). On the other hand, br ief hot water dips or forced-air heating can also be effective, especially for r educing the microbial load for crops such as plums, peaches, papaya, cantaloupe and stone fruits (Shewfelt, 1986), sweetpotatoes and tomatoes. While high humidity in the storage environment is important for maintenance of h igh quality produce, free water on the surface of commodities can enhance germin ation and penetration by pathogens. When cold commodities are removed from stora ge and left at higher ambient temperatures, moisture from the surrounding warm a ir condenses on the colder product s surfaces (Sommer, in Kader, 1992). A tempor ary increase in ventilation rate (using a fan) or increasing exposure of the com

modity to drier air can help to evaporate the condensed moisture and to reduce t he chances of infection. Cold treatments can also serve to control some insect pests, and are currently u sed for the control of fruit flies. Treatment requires 10 days at 0 C (32 F) or below, or 14 days at 1.7 C (35 F) or below, so treatment is only suited to commo dities capable of withstanding long-term low-temperature storage such as apples, pears, grapes, kiwifruit and persimmons (Mitchell & Kader in Kader, 1992). For produce packed before cold storage treatment, package vents should be screened t o prevent the spread of insects during handling. Hot water dips or heated air can be used for direct control of postharvest insec ts. In mangoes, an effective treatment is 46.4 C for 65 to 90 minutes, depending on size (Sommer & Arpaia in Kader, 1992). Fruit should not be handled immediate ly after heat treatment. Whenever heat is used with fresh produce, cool water sh owers or forced cold air should be provided to help return the fruits to their o ptimum temperature as soon as possible after completion of the treatment. Control of storage insects in nuts and dried fruits and vegetables can be achiev ed by freezing, cold storage (less than 5 C or 41 F)), heat treatments, or the e xclusion of oxygen (0.5% or lower) using nitrogen. Packaging in insect-proof con tainers is needed to prevent subsequent insect infestation. Some plant materials are useful as natural pesticides. Cassava leaves are known to protect harvested cassava roots from pests when used as packing material in b oxes or bags during transport and short-term storage. It is thought that the lea ves release cyanogens, which are toxic to insects (Aiyer, 1978). The ashes of th e leaves of Lantana spp. and Ochroma logopur have been found to be very effectiv e when used as a dust against aphids attacking stored potatoes (CIP, 1982). The pesticidal properties of the seeds of the neem tree (as an oil or aqueous extrac t) are becoming more widely known and used throughout the world. Native to India , neem acts as a powerful pesticide on food crops but appears to be completely n on-toxic to humans, mammals and beneficial insects (NRC, 1992). Any "natural pes ticide" must be shown to be safe for humans before its approval by regulatory au thorities. Chemical controls Washing produce with chlorinated water can prevent decay caused by bacteria, mol d and yeasts on the surface of produce. Calcium hypochlorite (powder) and sodium hypochlorite (liquid) are inexpensive and widely available. The effectiveness o f the treatment will be decreased if organic matter is allowed to build up in th e wash water. The effectiveness of chlorine increases as pH is reduced from pH 1 1 to pH 8, but at lower pH chlorine becomes unstable. Fruits and vegetables can be washed with hypochlorite solution (25 ppm available chlorine for two minutes) then rinsed to control bacterial decay. Alternatively , these commodities can be dipped in hypochlorite solution (50 to 70 ppm availab le chlorine) then rinsed with tap water for control of bacteria, yeasts and mold s. Source: Ogawa, J.M. and Manji, B.T. 1984. in: Moline, H.E. (Ed). Postharvest Pat hology of Fruits and Vegetables. University of California, Division of Agricultu re and Natural Resources, UC Bulletin 1914. There are some chemicals that are generally recognized safe (GRAS) which are use d to control a variety of molds and fungi on fruit crops. Sulfur: Sulfur is used on bananas as a paste (0.1 % active ingredient) to control crown rot fungi. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is used as a fumigant or a water spray (0.5% for 20 minutes for the initial treatment, then 0.2% for 20 minutes at 7 day intervals) on grap es to control Botrytis, Rhizopus and Aspergillus fungi. Careful calculation of the amount of sulfur dioxide required to treat grapes can greatly reduce the need to vent or scrub the storage air after fumigation to re move excess S02. For information on the "total utilization" fumigation technique that has been developed for treating grapes with sulfur dioxide, see Luvisi (19 92). Sodium or potassium bisulfite:

Bisulfites are used in a sawdust mixture (usually contained within a pad that ca n be placed inside a carton) to release SO2 for control of molds on grapes (5 gr ams for a 24 to 28 lb box). Sources: Luvisi, D.A. et al. 1992. Sulfur Dioxide Fumigation of Table Grapes. Un iversity of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bulletin 1932. Ogawa, J.M. and Manji, B.T. 1984. in: Moline, H.E. (Ed). Postharvest Pathology o f Fruits and Vegetables. University of California, Division of Agriculture and N atural Resources, UC Bulletin 1914. Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia) of cabbage can be controlled by using lime powder o r a 15% solution of alum (aluminum potassium sulfate) in water. After treatment of the butt-end of the cabbage heads, the produce should be allowed to dry for 2 0 to 30 minutes before packing. Applying alum solution (spray or brush on): Applying lime powder (press butt-end into powder): Source: Borromeo, E.S. and Ilag, L.L. 1984. Alum and Lime Applications: Potentia l Postharvest Control of Cabbage Soft Rot. Appropriate Postharvest Technology 1( 1):10-12. On occasions when fungicides must be applied to produce, a simple tray with hole s punched in the bottom can be used hold the commodity while it is sprayed. In t he illustration below, a hand-operated knapsack sprayer is used to spray fungici des on bananas to the stage of run-off. The bananas can then dry in the perforat ed tray before further handling. Source: FAO. 1989. Prevention of Postharvest Food Losses: Fruits. Vegetables and Root Crops. A Training Manual. Rome: UNFAO. 157 pp. When fruit is packed for export, fungicides are often applied to meet the requir ements of international quality standards and to reduce deterioration during tra nsport. The "cascade applicator" illustrated below was developed to apply fungic ide uniformly and effectively by using a liquid curtain to drench the fruit. Fruit in a perforated plastic tray is introduced on a roller conveyor belt (not shown) into the applicator. Inside a simple fan shaped deflector creates a curta in of liquid fungicide. The fruit passes under the curtain where it is drenched, then out of the applicator to drain on a tilted return tray. The tank holds up to 50 liters of fungicide solution, and a pump is mounted at the level of the ta nk outlet. A filter is fitted on the top of the tank to remove foreign matter fr om the return flow of fungicide from the applicator box and the return tray. Fungicide Applicator: Source: Overseas Div., AFRC. Nat l Institute of Agricultural Engineering. 1974. Bulletin No. 6. Silsoe, Bedfordshire, England. Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments For commodities that tolerate high CO2 levels, 15 to 20% CO2-enriched air can be used as a fungistat to control decay-causing pathogens, such as Botrytis cinere a on strawberry, blueberry, blackberry, fresh fig and table grapes during transp ort. See page 77 for a description of the method for atmospheric modification wi thin a pallet cover. Insecticidal atmospheres (0.5% or lower O2 and/or 40% or higher CO2) have been s hown to be an effective substitute for methyl bromide fumigation to disinfest dr ied fruits, nuts and vegetables The effectiveness of insecticidal atmospheres de pends upon the temperature, relative humidity, duration of exposure and life sta ge of the insect. Following are some examples: 1) Sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius elegantulus) has been controlled at amb ient temperature in stored tropical sweetpotatoes by treatment with low oxygen a nd high carbon dioxide atmospheres. At 25 C (76 F), storage in 2 to 4% oxygen an d 40 to 60% carbon dioxide results in mortality of adult weevils in 2 to 7 days. Source: Delate, K. et al. 1990. Controlled atmosphere treatments for control of sweetpotato weevil in stored tropical sweetpotatoes. Journal of Economic Entomol

ogy 83:461-465. 2) Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) in stone fruits can be controlled at 25 C (76 F) by using atmospheres of 0.5% oxygen and 10% carbon dioxide for 2 to 3 days (a dult or egg) or 6 to 12 days (pupa). Normal color and firmness changes during ri pening are not affected by treatment. Source: Soderstrom, E.L. et al. 1990. Responses of codling moth life stages to h igh carbon dioxide or low oxygen atmospheres. Journal of Economic Entomology 83: 472-475. Heat treatments Postharvest heating using hot water or hot forced-air to kill or weaken pathogen s can be used as a method for decay control in fresh fruits and vegetables. HOT WATER TREATMENTS: Commodity Pathogens Temperature (C) Time (min) Possible injuries Apple Gloeosporium sp. 45 10 Reduced storage life Penicillium expansum Grapefruit Phytophthora citrophthora 48 3 Green beans Pythium butleri 52 0.5 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Lemon Penicillium digitatum 52 5-10 Phytophthora sp. Mango Collectotrichum gloeosporioides 52 5 No stem rot cont rol Melon Fungi 57-63 0.5 Orange Diplodia sp. 53 5 Poor degreening Phomopsis sp. Phytophthora sp. Papaya Fungi 48 20 Peach Monolinia fructicola 52 2.5 Motile skin Rhizopus stolonifer Pepper (bell) Erwinia sp. 53 1.5 Slight spotting HOT FORCED-AIR TREATMENTS: Commodity Pathogens Temperature (C) Time (min) RH(%) Possible injuries Apple Gloeosporium sp. 45 15 100 Deterioration Penicillium expansum Melon Fungi 30-60 35 low Marked breakdown Peach Monolinia fructicola 54 15 80 Rhizopus stolonifer Strawberry Alternaria sp. 43 30 98 Botrytis sp., Rhizopus sp. Cladosporium sp. Source: Barkai-Golan, R. and Phillips, D.J. 1991. Postharvest heat treatments of fresh fruits and vegetables for decay control. Plant Disease (Nov): 1085-1089. ________________________________________ ________________________________________ Section 5: Decay and insect control The first line of defense against insects and disease is good management during production. The second is careful harvesting and preparation for market in the f ield. Thirdly, sorting out damaged or decaying produce will limit contamination of the remaining, healthy produce. Yet, even when the greatest care is taken, so metimes produce must be treated to control insects or decay-causing organisms. Certain fungi and bacteria in their germination phase are susceptible to cold, a nd infections can be reduced by treating produce with a few days of storage at t he coldest temperature the commodity can withstand without incurring damage. Rhi zopus stolonifer and Aspergillus niger (black mold) can be killed when germinati ng by 2 or more days at 0C (32 F) (Sommer, in Kader, 1992). On the other hand, br ief hot water dips or forced-air heating can also be effective, especially for r educing the microbial load for crops such as plums, peaches, papaya, cantaloupe

and stone fruits (Shewfelt, 1986), sweetpotatoes and tomatoes. While high humidity in the storage environment is important for maintenance of h igh quality produce, free water on the surface of commodities can enhance germin ation and penetration by pathogens. When cold commodities are removed from stora ge and left at higher ambient temperatures, moisture from the surrounding warm a ir condenses on the colder product s surfaces (Sommer, in Kader, 1992). A tempor ary increase in ventilation rate (using a fan) or increasing exposure of the com modity to drier air can help to evaporate the condensed moisture and to reduce t he chances of infection. Cold treatments can also serve to control some insect pests, and are currently u sed for the control of fruit flies. Treatment requires 10 days at 0 C (32 F) or below, or 14 days at 1.7 C (35 F) or below, so treatment is only suited to commo dities capable of withstanding long-term low-temperature storage such as apples, pears, grapes, kiwifruit and persimmons (Mitchell & Kader in Kader, 1992). For produce packed before cold storage treatment, package vents should be screened t o prevent the spread of insects during handling. Hot water dips or heated air can be used for direct control of postharvest insec ts. In mangoes, an effective treatment is 46.4 C for 65 to 90 minutes, depending on size (Sommer & Arpaia in Kader, 1992). Fruit should not be handled immediate ly after heat treatment. Whenever heat is used with fresh produce, cool water sh owers or forced cold air should be provided to help return the fruits to their o ptimum temperature as soon as possible after completion of the treatment. Control of storage insects in nuts and dried fruits and vegetables can be achiev ed by freezing, cold storage (less than 5 C or 41 F)), heat treatments, or the e xclusion of oxygen (0.5% or lower) using nitrogen. Packaging in insect-proof con tainers is needed to prevent subsequent insect infestation. Some plant materials are useful as natural pesticides. Cassava leaves are known to protect harvested cassava roots from pests when used as packing material in b oxes or bags during transport and short-term storage. It is thought that the lea ves release cyanogens, which are toxic to insects (Aiyer, 1978). The ashes of th e leaves of Lantana spp. and Ochroma logopur have been found to be very effectiv e when used as a dust against aphids attacking stored potatoes (CIP, 1982). The pesticidal properties of the seeds of the neem tree (as an oil or aqueous extrac t) are becoming more widely known and used throughout the world. Native to India , neem acts as a powerful pesticide on food crops but appears to be completely n on-toxic to humans, mammals and beneficial insects (NRC, 1992). Any "natural pes ticide" must be shown to be safe for humans before its approval by regulatory au thorities. Chemical controls Washing produce with chlorinated water can prevent decay caused by bacteria, mol d and yeasts on the surface of produce. Calcium hypochlorite (powder) and sodium hypochlorite (liquid) are inexpensive and widely available. The effectiveness o f the treatment will be decreased if organic matter is allowed to build up in th e wash water. The effectiveness of chlorine increases as pH is reduced from pH 1 1 to pH 8, but at lower pH chlorine becomes unstable. Fruits and vegetables can be washed with hypochlorite solution (25 ppm available chlorine for two minutes) then rinsed to control bacterial decay. Alternatively , these commodities can be dipped in hypochlorite solution (50 to 70 ppm availab le chlorine) then rinsed with tap water for control of bacteria, yeasts and mold s. Source: Ogawa, J.M. and Manji, B.T. 1984. in: Moline, H.E. (Ed). Postharvest Pat hology of Fruits and Vegetables. University of California, Division of Agricultu re and Natural Resources, UC Bulletin 1914. There are some chemicals that are generally recognized safe (GRAS) which are use d to control a variety of molds and fungi on fruit crops. Sulfur: Sulfur is used on bananas as a paste (0.1 % active ingredient) to control crown rot fungi. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is used as a fumigant or a water spray (0.5% for 20 minutes for the initial treatment, then 0.2% for 20 minutes at 7 day intervals) on grap

es to control Botrytis, Rhizopus and Aspergillus fungi. Careful calculation of the amount of sulfur dioxide required to treat grapes can greatly reduce the need to vent or scrub the storage air after fumigation to re move excess S02. For information on the "total utilization" fumigation technique that has been developed for treating grapes with sulfur dioxide, see Luvisi (19 92). Sodium or potassium bisulfite: Bisulfites are used in a sawdust mixture (usually contained within a pad that ca n be placed inside a carton) to release SO2 for control of molds on grapes (5 gr ams for a 24 to 28 lb box). Sources: Luvisi, D.A. et al. 1992. Sulfur Dioxide Fumigation of Table Grapes. Un iversity of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bulletin 1932. Ogawa, J.M. and Manji, B.T. 1984. in: Moline, H.E. (Ed). Postharvest Pathology o f Fruits and Vegetables. University of California, Division of Agriculture and N atural Resources, UC Bulletin 1914. Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia) of cabbage can be controlled by using lime powder o r a 15% solution of alum (aluminum potassium sulfate) in water. After treatment of the butt-end of the cabbage heads, the produce should be allowed to dry for 2 0 to 30 minutes before packing. Applying alum solution (spray or brush on): Applying lime powder (press butt-end into powder): Source: Borromeo, E.S. and Ilag, L.L. 1984. Alum and Lime Applications: Potentia l Postharvest Control of Cabbage Soft Rot. Appropriate Postharvest Technology 1( 1):10-12. On occasions when fungicides must be applied to produce, a simple tray with hole s punched in the bottom can be used hold the commodity while it is sprayed. In t he illustration below, a hand-operated knapsack sprayer is used to spray fungici des on bananas to the stage of run-off. The bananas can then dry in the perforat ed tray before further handling. Source: FAO. 1989. Prevention of Postharvest Food Losses: Fruits. Vegetables and Root Crops. A Training Manual. Rome: UNFAO. 157 pp. When fruit is packed for export, fungicides are often applied to meet the requir ements of international quality standards and to reduce deterioration during tra nsport. The "cascade applicator" illustrated below was developed to apply fungic ide uniformly and effectively by using a liquid curtain to drench the fruit. Fruit in a perforated plastic tray is introduced on a roller conveyor belt (not shown) into the applicator. Inside a simple fan shaped deflector creates a curta in of liquid fungicide. The fruit passes under the curtain where it is drenched, then out of the applicator to drain on a tilted return tray. The tank holds up to 50 liters of fungicide solution, and a pump is mounted at the level of the ta nk outlet. A filter is fitted on the top of the tank to remove foreign matter fr om the return flow of fungicide from the applicator box and the return tray. Fungicide Applicator: Source: Overseas Div., AFRC. Nat l Institute of Agricultural Engineering. 1974. Bulletin No. 6. Silsoe, Bedfordshire, England. Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments For commodities that tolerate high CO2 levels, 15 to 20% CO2-enriched air can be used as a fungistat to control decay-causing pathogens, such as Botrytis cinere a on strawberry, blueberry, blackberry, fresh fig and table grapes during transp ort. See page 77 for a description of the method for atmospheric modification wi thin a pallet cover. Insecticidal atmospheres (0.5% or lower O2 and/or 40% or higher CO2) have been s hown to be an effective substitute for methyl bromide fumigation to disinfest dr ied fruits, nuts and vegetables The effectiveness of insecticidal atmospheres de pends upon the temperature, relative humidity, duration of exposure and life sta ge of the insect. Following are some examples:

1) Sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius elegantulus) has been controlled at amb ient temperature in stored tropical sweetpotatoes by treatment with low oxygen a nd high carbon dioxide atmospheres. At 25 C (76 F), storage in 2 to 4% oxygen an d 40 to 60% carbon dioxide results in mortality of adult weevils in 2 to 7 days. Source: Delate, K. et al. 1990. Controlled atmosphere treatments for control of sweetpotato weevil in stored tropical sweetpotatoes. Journal of Economic Entomol ogy 83:461-465. 2) Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) in stone fruits can be controlled at 25 C (76 F) by using atmospheres of 0.5% oxygen and 10% carbon dioxide for 2 to 3 days (a dult or egg) or 6 to 12 days (pupa). Normal color and firmness changes during ri pening are not affected by treatment. Source: Soderstrom, E.L. et al. 1990. Responses of codling moth life stages to h igh carbon dioxide or low oxygen atmospheres. Journal of Economic Entomology 83: 472-475. Heat treatments Postharvest heating using hot water or hot forced-air to kill or weaken pathogen s can be used as a method for decay control in fresh fruits and vegetables. HOT WATER TREATMENTS: Commodity Pathogens Temperature (C) Time (min) Possible injuries Apple Gloeosporium sp. 45 10 Reduced storage life Penicillium expansum Grapefruit Phytophthora citrophthora 48 3 Green beans Pythium butleri 52 0.5 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Lemon Penicillium digitatum 52 5-10 Phytophthora sp. Mango Collectotrichum gloeosporioides 52 5 No stem rot cont rol Melon Fungi 57-63 0.5 Orange Diplodia sp. 53 5 Poor degreening Phomopsis sp. Phytophthora sp. Papaya Fungi 48 20 Peach Monolinia fructicola 52 2.5 Motile skin Rhizopus stolonifer Pepper (bell) Erwinia sp. 53 1.5 Slight spotting HOT FORCED-AIR TREATMENTS: Commodity Pathogens Temperature (C) Time (min) RH(%) Possible injuries Apple Gloeosporium sp. 45 15 100 Deterioration Penicillium expansum Melon Fungi 30-60 35 low Marked breakdown Peach Monolinia fructicola 54 15 80 Rhizopus stolonifer Strawberry Alternaria sp. 43 30 98 Botrytis sp., Rhizopus sp. Cladosporium sp. Source: Barkai-Golan, R. and Phillips, D.J. 1991. Postharvest heat treatments of fresh fruits and vegetables for decay control. Plant Disease (Nov): 1085-1089. ________________________________________ ________________________________________ Section 5: Decay and insect control The first line of defense against insects and disease is good management during production. The second is careful harvesting and preparation for market in the f ield. Thirdly, sorting out damaged or decaying produce will limit contamination of the remaining, healthy produce. Yet, even when the greatest care is taken, so metimes produce must be treated to control insects or decay-causing organisms.

Certain fungi and bacteria in their germination phase are susceptible to cold, a nd infections can be reduced by treating produce with a few days of storage at t he coldest temperature the commodity can withstand without incurring damage. Rhi zopus stolonifer and Aspergillus niger (black mold) can be killed when germinati ng by 2 or more days at 0C (32 F) (Sommer, in Kader, 1992). On the other hand, br ief hot water dips or forced-air heating can also be effective, especially for r educing the microbial load for crops such as plums, peaches, papaya, cantaloupe and stone fruits (Shewfelt, 1986), sweetpotatoes and tomatoes. While high humidity in the storage environment is important for maintenance of h igh quality produce, free water on the surface of commodities can enhance germin ation and penetration by pathogens. When cold commodities are removed from stora ge and left at higher ambient temperatures, moisture from the surrounding warm a ir condenses on the colder product s surfaces (Sommer, in Kader, 1992). A tempor ary increase in ventilation rate (using a fan) or increasing exposure of the com modity to drier air can help to evaporate the condensed moisture and to reduce t he chances of infection. Cold treatments can also serve to control some insect pests, and are currently u sed for the control of fruit flies. Treatment requires 10 days at 0 C (32 F) or below, or 14 days at 1.7 C (35 F) or below, so treatment is only suited to commo dities capable of withstanding long-term low-temperature storage such as apples, pears, grapes, kiwifruit and persimmons (Mitchell & Kader in Kader, 1992). For produce packed before cold storage treatment, package vents should be screened t o prevent the spread of insects during handling. Hot water dips or heated air can be used for direct control of postharvest insec ts. In mangoes, an effective treatment is 46.4 C for 65 to 90 minutes, depending on size (Sommer & Arpaia in Kader, 1992). Fruit should not be handled immediate ly after heat treatment. Whenever heat is used with fresh produce, cool water sh owers or forced cold air should be provided to help return the fruits to their o ptimum temperature as soon as possible after completion of the treatment. Control of storage insects in nuts and dried fruits and vegetables can be achiev ed by freezing, cold storage (less than 5 C or 41 F)), heat treatments, or the e xclusion of oxygen (0.5% or lower) using nitrogen. Packaging in insect-proof con tainers is needed to prevent subsequent insect infestation. Some plant materials are useful as natural pesticides. Cassava leaves are known to protect harvested cassava roots from pests when used as packing material in b oxes or bags during transport and short-term storage. It is thought that the lea ves release cyanogens, which are toxic to insects (Aiyer, 1978). The ashes of th e leaves of Lantana spp. and Ochroma logopur have been found to be very effectiv e when used as a dust against aphids attacking stored potatoes (CIP, 1982). The pesticidal properties of the seeds of the neem tree (as an oil or aqueous extrac t) are becoming more widely known and used throughout the world. Native to India , neem acts as a powerful pesticide on food crops but appears to be completely n on-toxic to humans, mammals and beneficial insects (NRC, 1992). Any "natural pes ticide" must be shown to be safe for humans before its approval by regulatory au thorities. Chemical controls Washing produce with chlorinated water can prevent decay caused by bacteria, mol d and yeasts on the surface of produce. Calcium hypochlorite (powder) and sodium hypochlorite (liquid) are inexpensive and widely available. The effectiveness o f the treatment will be decreased if organic matter is allowed to build up in th e wash water. The effectiveness of chlorine increases as pH is reduced from pH 1 1 to pH 8, but at lower pH chlorine becomes unstable. Fruits and vegetables can be washed with hypochlorite solution (25 ppm available chlorine for two minutes) then rinsed to control bacterial decay. Alternatively , these commodities can be dipped in hypochlorite solution (50 to 70 ppm availab le chlorine) then rinsed with tap water for control of bacteria, yeasts and mold s. Source: Ogawa, J.M. and Manji, B.T. 1984. in: Moline, H.E. (Ed). Postharvest Pat hology of Fruits and Vegetables. University of California, Division of Agricultu re and Natural Resources, UC Bulletin 1914.

There are some chemicals that are generally recognized safe (GRAS) which are use d to control a variety of molds and fungi on fruit crops. Sulfur: Sulfur is used on bananas as a paste (0.1 % active ingredient) to control crown rot fungi. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is used as a fumigant or a water spray (0.5% for 20 minutes for the initial treatment, then 0.2% for 20 minutes at 7 day intervals) on grap es to control Botrytis, Rhizopus and Aspergillus fungi. Careful calculation of the amount of sulfur dioxide required to treat grapes can greatly reduce the need to vent or scrub the storage air after fumigation to re move excess S02. For information on the "total utilization" fumigation technique that has been developed for treating grapes with sulfur dioxide, see Luvisi (19 92). Sodium or potassium bisulfite: Bisulfites are used in a sawdust mixture (usually contained within a pad that ca n be placed inside a carton) to release SO2 for control of molds on grapes (5 gr ams for a 24 to 28 lb box). Sources: Luvisi, D.A. et al. 1992. Sulfur Dioxide Fumigation of Table Grapes. Un iversity of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bulletin 1932. Ogawa, J.M. and Manji, B.T. 1984. in: Moline, H.E. (Ed). Postharvest Pathology o f Fruits and Vegetables. University of California, Division of Agriculture and N atural Resources, UC Bulletin 1914. Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia) of cabbage can be controlled by using lime powder o r a 15% solution of alum (aluminum potassium sulfate) in water. After treatment of the butt-end of the cabbage heads, the produce should be allowed to dry for 2 0 to 30 minutes before packing. Applying alum solution (spray or brush on): Applying lime powder (press butt-end into powder): Source: Borromeo, E.S. and Ilag, L.L. 1984. Alum and Lime Applications: Potentia l Postharvest Control of Cabbage Soft Rot. Appropriate Postharvest Technology 1( 1):10-12. On occasions when fungicides must be applied to produce, a simple tray with hole s punched in the bottom can be used hold the commodity while it is sprayed. In t he illustration below, a hand-operated knapsack sprayer is used to spray fungici des on bananas to the stage of run-off. The bananas can then dry in the perforat ed tray before further handling. Source: FAO. 1989. Prevention of Postharvest Food Losses: Fruits. Vegetables and Root Crops. A Training Manual. Rome: UNFAO. 157 pp. When fruit is packed for export, fungicides are often applied to meet the requir ements of international quality standards and to reduce deterioration during tra nsport. The "cascade applicator" illustrated below was developed to apply fungic ide uniformly and effectively by using a liquid curtain to drench the fruit. Fruit in a perforated plastic tray is introduced on a roller conveyor belt (not shown) into the applicator. Inside a simple fan shaped deflector creates a curta in of liquid fungicide. The fruit passes under the curtain where it is drenched, then out of the applicator to drain on a tilted return tray. The tank holds up to 50 liters of fungicide solution, and a pump is mounted at the level of the ta nk outlet. A filter is fitted on the top of the tank to remove foreign matter fr om the return flow of fungicide from the applicator box and the return tray. Fungicide Applicator: Source: Overseas Div., AFRC. Nat l Institute of Agricultural Engineering. 1974. Bulletin No. 6. Silsoe, Bedfordshire, England. Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments For commodities that tolerate high CO2 levels, 15 to 20% CO2-enriched air can be used as a fungistat to control decay-causing pathogens, such as Botrytis cinere a on strawberry, blueberry, blackberry, fresh fig and table grapes during transp

ort. See page 77 for a description of the method for atmospheric modification wi thin a pallet cover. Insecticidal atmospheres (0.5% or lower O2 and/or 40% or higher CO2) have been s hown to be an effective substitute for methyl bromide fumigation to disinfest dr ied fruits, nuts and vegetables The effectiveness of insecticidal atmospheres de pends upon the temperature, relative humidity, duration of exposure and life sta ge of the insect. Following are some examples: 1) Sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius elegantulus) has been controlled at amb ient temperature in stored tropical sweetpotatoes by treatment with low oxygen a nd high carbon dioxide atmospheres. At 25 C (76 F), storage in 2 to 4% oxygen an d 40 to 60% c