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The state and the profession: the politics of the double bed Rudolf Klein Centre for the Analysis of Social Policy, School of Social Sciences, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY Rudolf Klein, MA, director BrMedJ7 1990;301:700-2 Drawing by E H Shepard (1948) (Reproduced by permission of the, estate of E H Shepard) In retrospect it is clear that those who fought Nye Bevan's plans for setting up the National Health Service were right in at least one important respect. The setting up in 1948 marked a revolution in the relation between the state and the medical profession. But it was not quite the revolution that the critics had anticipated and prophesied. It did not mean the triumph of bureaucracy over professionalism or the subordination of doctoring to ministerial diktat. Instead, it created a situation of mutual dependency. On the one hand the state became a monopoly employer: effectively members of the medical profes- sion became dependent on it not only for their own incomes but also for the resources at their command. On the other hand the state became dependent on the medical profession to run the NHS and to cope with the problems of rationing scarce resources in patient care. The subsequent history of the NHS can, in institutional and political terms, be seen largely as a series of attempts to manage this mutual dependency, to find ways of accommodating the frustrations and resentments of both sides in the partnership, and to devise organisational strategies for containing con- flicting interests within the framework of the NHS. My theme, in short, is that it is possible to understand what is happening in the NHS today-and indeed what has happened over the past 40 odd years-only if it is seen f 7e:'t",':--'. ..MORITU RI TE SALUTANT as the stage on which the tensions built into its design are acted out. For the drama to conflict between state and profession is not an accidental byproduct of Britain's health care, it is the inevitable outcome of the financial and institutional framework that was set up in 1948. The puzzle is not that there has been so much conflict but that it has, so far, been possible to cope with it in such a way as not to destroy the NHS. Symmetrical frustration For 40 years the state and profession have been engaged in a repetitive cycle of confrontation. The issues have changed over time (though some constant themes are evident), and so have the personalities, as Labour secretaries of state have yielded to Conserva- tive ones in the demonology of the medical profession (the special place of Mr Kenneth Clarke in this respect mainly reflects a lack of collective memory). Yet despite 40 years of bickering and recrimination the NHS has survived. Despite decades of denouncing the inadequacies of the NHS the medical profession remains dedicated to its defence. Despite the political costs of being regularly pilloried in the media for its stinginess the government proclaimed its loyalty to the principles of the NHS in the 1989 review. Despite the frequent protestations that the NHS is on the point of collapse public support remains undiminished. Consensus about the desirability of the NHS has survived and contained the conflict within it. How has this been achieved? What are the prospects of main- taining the balance in the coming decades? One answer may be that there is a neat symmetry of frustration'in the relationship between the state and the profession.' In the case of the state it is its control over money' that makes the NHS such an attractive proposition; in the international context the NHS is quite clearly' the "best buy" model for delivering comprehensive universal health care at the lowest price and in a reasonably equitable way.' But it is, of course, precisely this control that frustrates the medical pro- fession-in Enoch Powell's words: "The unnerving discovery every Minister of Health makes at or near the outset of his term of office is that the only subject he is ever destined to discuss with the medical profession is money."2 If the medical profession is not engaged in wrangles over its own pay it is battling for more funds for the NHS. Conversely, the NHS provides a'setting in which the medical profession can exercise its skills with almost complete autonomy: within the limits of the available resources NHS doctors have been more free to exercise -their professional judgments than their peers in the United States and in most other' Western countries. But it is, of course, precisely this autonomy that frustrates the governiment. If ministers are to achieve their priorities they are sooner or later driven to question medical practices and to search for ways of achieving some sort of influence over clinical decisions on such matters as, for example, lengths of stay or expenditure on drugs. There are other factors also. In the case of the state, to concede autonomy to the medical profession is also to delegate responsibility for rationing: the'NHS allows political decisions about'resources to be disguised as clinical decisions about individual patients. In the case of the medical profession the system allows it largely to control' entry and thus to assure employment for its members: the fact that doctors (like every other group) frequently consider themselves to be underpaid should BMJ VOLUME 301 3 OCTOBER 1990 700

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The s t a t e a n d t he p r o f es s i o n : t he p o l i t i c s o f t he d o u b l e b edR u d o l f K l ei nC en t r e f o r t he A n a l y s i so f S o c i a l P o l i c y ,S c ho o l o f S o c i a l S c i en c es ,U n i v er s i t y o f B a t h,B a t hB A 27A YR u d o l f K l ei n , M A , d i r ec t o rB r M ed J 7 1 9 9 0 ; 3 0 1 : 70 0 - 2D r a w i n g b y E HS hep a r d( 1 9 4 8 ) ( R ep r o d u c ed b yp er m i s s i o n o ft he,es t a t e o fE HS hep a r d )I n r et r o s p ec t i t i s c l ea r t ha t t ho s e w ho f o u g ht Ny eB ev a n ' s p l a n s f o r s et t i n g u p t he Na t i o n a l Hea l t hS er v i c e w er e r i g ht i n a t l ea s t o n e i m p o r t a n t r es p ec t .The s et t i n g u p i n 1 9 4 8 m a r k ed a r ev o l u t i o n i n t her el a t i o n b et w een t he s t a t e a n d t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n .B u t i t w a s n o t q u i t e t he r ev o l u t i o n t ha t t he c r i t i c sha d a n t i c i p a t ed a n d p r o p hes i ed . I t d i d n o t m ea nt he t r i u m p h o f b u r ea u c r a c y o v er p r o f es s i o n a l i s m o rt he s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f d o c t o r i n g t o m i n i s t er i a l d i k t a t .I n s t ea d , i t c r ea t ed a s i t u a t i o n o f m u t u a l d ep en d en c y .On t he o n e ha n d t he s t a t e b ec a m e a m o n o p o l yem p l o y er : ef f ec t i v el y m em b er s o f t he m ed i c a l p r o f es -s i o n b ec a m e d ep en d en t o n i t n o t o n l y f o r t hei r o w ni n c o m es b u t a l s o f o r t he r es o u r c es a t t hei r c o m m a n d .On t he o t her ha n d t he s t a t e b ec a m ed ep en d en t o n t hem ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n t o r u n t he NHS a n d t o c o p e w i t ht he p r o b l em s o f r a t i o n i n g s c a r c e r es o u r c es i n p a t i en tc a r e. The s u b s eq u en t hi s t o r y o f t he NHS c a n , i ni n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l t er m s , b e s een l a r g el y a s as er i es o f a t t em p t s t o m a n a g e t hi s m u t u a l d ep en d en c y ,t o f i n d w a y s o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g t he f r u s t r a t i o n s a n dr es en t m en t s o f b o t h s i d es i n t he p a r t n er s hi p , a n dt o d ev i s e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r a t eg i es f o r c o n t a i n i n g c o n -f l i c t i n g i n t er es t s w i t hi n t hef r a m ew o r ko ft he NHS . M yt hem e, i n s ho r t , i s t ha t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o u n d er s t a n dw ha ti s ha p p en i n g i n t he NHS t o d a y - a n d i n d eed w ha t ha sha p p en ed o v er t he p a s t 4 0 o d d y ea r s - o n l y i f i t i s s eenf7e: ' t " , ' : - - ' .. . M OR I TU R I TE S A LU TA NTa s t he s t a g e o n w hi c h t he t en s i o n s b u i l t i n t o i t s d es i g na r e a c t ed o u t . F o r t he d r a m a t o c o n f l i c t b et w een s t a t ea n d p r o f es s i o n i s n o t a n a c c i d en t a l b y p r o d u c t o fB r i t a i n ' s hea l t hc a r e, i t i s t hei n ev i t a b l eo u t c o m eo f t hef i n a n c i a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l f r a m ew o r k t ha t w a s s et u p i n1 9 4 8 . The p u z z l e i s n o t t ha t t her e ha s b een s o m u c hc o n f l i c t b u t t ha t i t ha s , s o f a r , b een p o s s i b l e t o c o p ew i t h i t i n s u c ha w a y a s n o t t o d es t r o y t heNHS .S y m m et r i c a l f r u s t r a t i o nF o r 4 0 y ea r s t he s t a t e a n d p r o f es s i o n ha v e b eenen g a g ed i n a r ep et i t i v e c y c l e o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n . Thei s s u es ha v e c ha n g ed o v er t i m e ( t ho u g h s o m e c o n s t a n tt hem es a r e ev i d en t ) , a n d s o ha v e t he p er s o n a l i t i es , a sLa b o u r s ec r et a r i es o f s t a t e ha v e y i el d ed t o C o n s er v a -t i v e o n es i n t he d em o n o l o g y o f t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n( t he s p ec i a l p l a c eo f M r K en n et hC l a r k ei n t hi s r es p ec tm a i n l y r ef l ec t s a l a c k o f c o l l ec t i v e m em o r y ) . Yetd es p i t e 4 0 y ea r s o f b i c k er i n g a n d r ec r i m i n a t i o n t heNHS ha s s u r v i v ed . D es p i t e d ec a d es o f d en o u n c i n gt he i n a d eq u a c i es o f t he NHS t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o nr em a i n s d ed i c a t ed t o i t s d ef en c e. D es p i t e t he p o l i t i c a lc o s t s o f b ei n g r eg u l a r l y p i l l o r i ed i n t he m ed i a f o r i t ss t i n g i n es s t heg o v er n m en t p r o c l a i m ed i t s l o y a l t y t o t hep r i n c i p l es o f t he NHS i n t he 1 9 8 9 r ev i ew . D es p i t e t hef r eq u en t p r o t es t a t i o n s t ha t t heNHS i s o n t he p o i n to f c o l l a p s e p u b l i c s u p p o r t r em a i n s u n d i m i n i s hed .C o n s en s u s a b o u t t he d es i r a b i l i t y o f t he NHS ha ss u r v i v ed a n d c o n t a i n ed t hec o n f l i c t w i t hi n i t . Ho w ha st hi s b een a c hi ev ed ? Wha t a r e t he p r o s p ec t s o f m a i n -t a i n i n g t heb a l a n c ei n t hec o m i n g d ec a d es ?On ea n s w er m a y b e t ha t t her e i s a n ea t s y m m et r y o ff r u s t r a t i o n ' i n t he r el a t i o n s hi p b et w een t he s t a t e a n dt he p r o f es s i o n . ' I n t he c a s e o f t he s t a t e i t i s i t s c o n t r o lo v er m o n ey ' t ha t m a k es t he NHS s u c h a n a t t r a c t i v ep r o p o s i t i o n ; i n t he i n t er n a t i o n a l c o n t ex t t he NHS i sq u i t e c l ea r l y ' t he " b es t b u y " m o d el f o r d el i v er i n gc o m p r ehen s i v eu n i v er s a l hea l t hc a r ea tt hel o w es t p r i c ea n d i n a r ea s o n a b l y eq u i t a b l ew a y . ' B u t i t i s , o f c o u r s e,p r ec i s el y t hi s c o n t r o l t ha t f r u s t r a t es t he m ed i c a l p r o -f es s i o n - i n En o c h P o w el l ' s w o r d s : " The u n n er v i n gd i s c o v er y ev er y M i n i s t er o fHea l t hm a k es a t o r n ea r t heo u t s et o f hi s t er m o f o f f i c e i s t ha t t heo n l y s u b j ec t he i sev er d es t i n ed t o d i s c u s s w i t h t hem ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n i sm o n ey . " 2 I f t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n i s n o t en g a g ed i nw r a n g l es o v er i t s o w n p a y i t i s b a t t l i n g f o r m o r ef u n d sf o r t heNHS . C o n v er s el y , t he NHS p r o v i d es a ' s et t i n gi n w hi c h t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n c a n ex er c i s e i t s s k i l l sw i t h a l m o s t c o m p l et e a u t o n o m y : w i t hi n t he l i m i t s o ft he a v a i l a b l e r es o u r c es NHS d o c t o r s ha v e b een m o r ef r ee t o ex er c i s e - t hei r p r o f es s i o n a l j u d g m en t s t ha n t hei rp eer s i n t he U n i t ed S t a t es a n d i n m o s t o t her ' Wes t er nc o u n t r i es . B u t i t i s , o f c o u r s e, p r ec i s el y t hi s a u t o n o m yt ha t f r u s t r a t es t he g o v er n i m en t . I f m i n i s t er s a r e t oa c hi ev et hei r p r i o r i t i es t hey a r es o o n er o r l a t er d r i v en t oq u es t i o n m ed i c a l p r a c t i c es a n d t o s ea r c h f o r w a y s o fa c hi ev i n g s o m es o r t o f i n f l u en c eo v er c l i n i c a l d ec i s i o n so n s u c h m a t t er s a s , f o r ex a m p l e, l en g t hs o f s t a y o rex p en d i t u r eo n d r u g s .Ther e a r e o t her f a c t o r s a l s o . I n t hec a s eo f t he s t a t e,t o c o n c ed ea u t o n o m y t o t hem ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n i s a l s ot o d el eg a t er es p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r a t i o n i n g : t he' NHS a l l o w sp o l i t i c a l d ec i s i o n s a b o u t ' r es o u r c es t o b e d i s g u i s ed a sc l i n i c a l d ec i s i o n s a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l p a t i en t s . I n t hec a s eo f t hem ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n t hes y s t em a l l o w s i t l a r g el y t oc o n t r o l ' en t r y a n d t hu s t o a s s u r e em p l o y m en t f o r i t sm em b er s : t hef a c t t ha t d o c t o r s ( l i k eev er y o t her g r o u p )f r eq u en t l y c o n s i d er t hem s el v es t o b eu n d er p a i d s ho u l dB M J VOLU M E3 0 1 3 OC TOB ER 1 9 9 070 0n o t d i s g u i s e t he f a c t t ha t t he NHS g u a r a n t ees t hem a ni n c o m e l i n k ed t o t he g o i n g r a t e f o r t he p r o f es s i o n a lm i d d l e c l a s s es . I n t he p a s t t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n ha sd o n ew el l o u t o f t he i n t er v en t i o n o f t he s t a t e i n m ed i c a lc a r e: a p r o f es s i o n t ha t ha d a s i z a b l e p r o l et a r i a t o fi n s ec u r e a n d p o o r l y p a i d p r a c t i t i o n er s b ef o r e 1 9 1 1 ha sb ec o m e c o l l ec t i v el y m o r e s ec u r e a n d w ea l t hi er w i t hea c h s t ep i n t he ev o l u t i o n o f t he s t a t e s y s t em . A b o v ea l l t he NHS c o m m a n d s l o y a l t y t ha t t r a n s c en d s s el fi n t er es t , w het her p o l i t i c a l o r p r o f es s i o n a l . I t i s b ec a u s et her e i s a g en er a l p er c ep t i o n t ha t t he NHS i s a na d m i r a b l e i n s t r u m en t f o r d i s t r i b u t i n g hea l t h c a r ef a i r l y - t ha t i t i s p r ef er a b l e t o ha v e a s y s t em w her e t hei n c en t i v es a r e t o d o t o o l i t t l e, ev en i f t hi s m ea n s m o r eq u eu es , r a t her t ha n d o t o o m u c h- t ha t c o n s en s u s ha shi t her t o c o n t a i n ed c o n f l i c t a n d t ha t t he i n d i v i d u a ld i s c o n t en t s ha v e n o t l ed t o a r ep u d i a t i o n o f t he 1 9 4 8s et t l em en t .On c ew e r ec o g n i s e, ho w ev er , t ha t t hes e d i s c o n t en t sa r e n o t j u s t a c c i d en t a l a b er r a t i o n s b u t a r e b u i l t i n t o t hed es i g n o f t he NHS i t f o l l o w s t ha t w ec a n n o t s i m p l y t a k et he c o m f o r t a b l e v i ew t ha t t he f u t u r e w i l l b e l i k e t hep a s t . Ha v i n g l i v ed w i t h t hes e t en s i o n s f o r t he p a s t 4 0y ea r s w hy s ho u l d t heNHS n o t a c c o m m o d a t e t hem i nc o m i n g d ec a d es ? G i v en t he c er t a i n t y t ha t c o n f l i c t w i l lc o n t i n u e a n d t he p o s s i b i l i t y t ha t t he NHS m a y b el i v i n g o f f a n i n her i t ed b u t n o t n ec es s a r i l y r en ew a b l ec a p i t a l o f c o m m i t m en t a n d l o y a l t y i s i t p o s s i b l e t od ev i s e b et t er s t r a t eg i es f o r m a n a g i n g t he r es en t m en tg en er a t ed b y t he m u t u a l d ep en d en c y o f t he s t a t e a n dt hep r o f es s i o n ? Wha t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , c a n b e l ea r n t f r o mp a s t ef f o r t s t o d o s o ?Ec o n o m y b ef o r e l o g i cOn e o p t i o n , c l ea r l y , i s t o t r y t o t r a n s m u t e p o l i t i c a li n t o t ec hn i c a l i s s u es : t o f l y o n a u t o m a t i c p i l o t i n s t ea d o fen g a g i n g i n a c o n s t a n t d i s p u t e a b o u t t he r o u t e. Her et he m o s t o b v i o u s ex a m p l e i s t he a t t em p t , s t r et c hi n gb a c k t o t he ea r l y d a y s o f t heNHS ' s hi s t o r y , t o d ev i s e af o r m u l a f o r d et er m i n i n g m ed i c a l p a y b y a n a l y s i n g d a t ar a t her t ha n b y en g a g i n g i n a p o w er s t r u g g l e. I t w a s t oa c hi ev e p r ec i s el y t hi s a i m t ha t t he g o v er n m en t s et u pt he R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n D o c t o r s ' a n d D en t i s t s 'R em u n er a t i o n i n 1 9 5 73 - t hei n d ep en d en t r ev i ew b o d yt ha t d ev i s ed b o t h t he n o t i o n o f a n d t hem ec ha n i s m f o rc o m p a r i n g m ed i c a l i n c o m es w i t h o t her p r o f es s i o n a li n c o m es ; t he m ec ha n i s m s t i l l s u r v i v es t o d a y . A sP r o f es s o r J o hn J ew k es p o i n t ed o u t i n a d i s s en t i n gm em o r a n d u m :The r es p o n s i b l e G o v er n m en t D ep a r t m en t s a r e i n t he ex t r a -o r d i n a r y , a n d p er ha p s u n i q u e, p o s i t i o n t ha t t hey l a r g el yc o n t r o l t he d em a n d f o r , t he s u p p l y o f , a n d t he p r i c e o f f er edf o r t he s er v i c es o f t he m ed i c a l a n d d en t a l p r o f es s i o n s . . . . I t i st hi s g r i p o f t he G o v er n m en t w hi c h ex p l a i n s w hy t he p r o f es -s i o n ha s s p en t s o m u c h t i m e, i n ev i t a b l y w i t ho u t s u c c es s ,i n s ea r c h o f a f o r m u l a w hi c h w o u l d i n p er p et u i t y p r o t ec t i ta g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y a c t i o n o n t he p a r t o f t he S t a t e. F o r t he s a m er ea s o n i t i s o n l y t o b e ex p ec t ed t ha t , i n a n y n ew m a j o rs et t l em en t w i t h t he p r o f es s i o n s , d o c t o r s a n d d en t i s t s w i l l n o tb e w ho l l y , n o r p er ha p s ev en p r i m a r i l y , c o n c er n ed w i t h t hen ew l ev el o f ea r n i n g s es t a b l i s hed . They w i l l a l s o b e v i t a l l yi n t er es t ed i n t he l i g ht t hr o w n b y t hes e d ec i s i o n s , i n t er m s o fw o r k s n o t o f w o r d s , u p o n t he v i ew w hi c h t he G o v er n m en tho l d s a s t o t he p l a c e o f t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n i n s o c i et y . . . .S u b s eq u en t l y , ho w ev er , b o t hLa b o u r a n d C o n s er v a -t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t he p r es en t o n e, ha v es ho w n t hei r b el i ef t ha t t he l o g i c o f n a t i o n a l ec o n o m i cm a n a g em en t m u s t o v er r i d e t he l o g i c o f t heNHS p a yd et er m i n a t i o n m a c hi n er y . M o s t d r a m a t i c a l l y t he f i r s tr ev i ew b o d y - o r i g i n a l l y a p p o i n t ed i n 1 9 6 2- r es i g n edi n 1 9 70 b ec a u s e t he g o v er n m en t w a s p r ep a r ed t oi m p l em en t o n l y ha l f t he 3 0 % i n c r ea s e r ec o m m en d ed .I t w a s t hi s w hi c h p r ec i p i t a t ed a m a j o r c o n f r o n t a t i o nb et w een t he g o v er n m en t a n d t he p r o f es s i o n , w i t h t heB M A a d v i s i n g i t s m em b er s n o t t o c o o p er a t e i n NHSa d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r t o s i g n n a t i o n a l i n s u r a n c e m ed i c a lc er t i f i c a t es i n p r o t es t a g a i n s t w ha t w a s s een a s " a r b i -t r a r y a c t i o n " b y t he s t a t e. The s u c c es s o r b o d y w a sa p p o i n t ed o n t he u n d er s t a n d i n g t ha t i t s r ec o m m en d a -t i o n s w o u l d n o t b e r ej ec t ed o r m o d i f i ed b y t he g o v er n -m en t " u n l es s t her e w er e o b v i o u s l y c o m p el l i n g r ea s o n sf o r s o d o i n g . " 4 I n t he ev en t , B r i t a i n ' s s t o r m y ec o n o m i chi s t o r y ha s p r o v i d ed q u i t e a f ew s u c h c o m p el l i n gr ea s o n s . The ex p er i en c e o f p a y d et er m i n a t i o n t her e-f o r e w a r n s a g a i n s t o p t i m i s m a b o u t t he s c o p e f o r i n s u -l a t i n g t he NHS f r o m p o l i t i c a l o r ec o n o m i c p r es s u r esb y m ea n s o f t ec hn i c a l f i x es , w het her b y d ev i s i n gf o r m u l a s f o r p a y o r f o r m u l a s f o r d et er m i n i n g i t sb u d g et b y a l l o c a t i n g a f i x ed p r o p o r t i o n o f t he n a t i o n a li n c o m e.En g i n eer i n g c o n s en s u sI n ev i t a b l y , i t w o u l d s eem , t he m a n a g em en t o fm u t u a l d ep en d en c y a n d t he r es u l t i n g c o n f l i c t d ep en d so n t he p o l i t i c a l s y s t em - t ha t i s , p o l i t i c a l c o n t ex t , s t y l e,a n d c o n v en t i o n s t ha t s ha p e t he r el a t i o n s hi p b et w eent he s t a t e a n d t he p r o f es s i o n . Her e i t i s p o s s i b l e t oi d en t i f y s o m e i m p o r t a n t c ha n g es t ha t d i s t i n g u i s h t hep a s t d ec a d e f r o m t he p r ev i o u s 3 0 y ea r s . F r o m t he1 9 5 0 s t o t he 1 9 70 s t he NHS p r o v i d ed p er ha p s t hem o s tc o n v i n c i n g t ex t f o r t ho s e w ho a r g u ed t ha t B r i t a i nha d a c o r p o r a t i s t p o l i c y m a k i n g s y s t em , w i t h p o l i c yem er g i n g f r o m a p r o c es s o f n eg o t i a t i o n a n d b a r g a i n i n gb et w een Whi t eha l l m i n i s t r i es a n d i n t er es t g r o u p sl i k e t he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n , i n d u s t r y , a n d t he t r a d eu n i o n s . 6 I t w a s a s y s t em i n w hi c hd i f f er en c es m i g ht o no c c a s i o n er u p t i n t o o p en c o n f l i c t - a s w a s i n d eed t hec a s e w i t h t he NHS - b u t w her e a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s w er ec o n s t r a i n ed b y t he k n o w l ed g e t ha t t hey ha d a s ha r edi n t er es t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t hef r a m ew o r k . I n t hew o r d s o fS i r G eo r g e G o d b er , o n e o f t he m a i n a r c hi t ec t s o fc ha n g e a t t he t i m e, , i t w a s a p er i o d i n w hi c h p r o g r es sw a s l a r g el y m a d e w i t hi n t he NHS b y a p r o c es s o fen g i n eer i n g c o n s en s u s .I n t he 1 9 8 0 s , ho w ev er , t he C o n s er v a t i v e g o v er n -m en t ha s ex p l i c i t l y c ha l l en g ed a n d r ep u d i a t ed t hen o t i o n o f a c o r p o r a t i s t a p p r o a c h t o p o l i c y m a k i n g .C o r p o r a t i s m ha s b een i d en t i f i ed a s a s o u r c e o f s t a g -n a t i o n , i n s t i t u t i o n a l s c l er o s i s , a n d t he p u r s u i t o fs el f i n t er es t a t t he ex p en s e o f t he p u b l i c i n t er es t .C o n s en s u s b ec a m e t he en em y i n s t ea d o f b ei n g t heo b j ec t i v e. I t - i s a v i ew o f p o l i t i c s t ha t s ees a s t r o n g s t a t ed ea l i n g w i t h s t r o n g c i t i z en s ( s t r o n g b ec a u s e t hey a r eem p o w er ed b y t he g i v i n g o f m o r e r es o u r c es a n d m o r es a y o v er t hei r l i v es , w het her i n ho u s i n g o r ed u c a t i o n )r a t her t ha n w i t h i n t er es t g r o u p s l i k e p r o f es s i o n s ,w hi c h a c t a s t he a g en t s o f t hei r m em b er s . I t t her ef o r ei m p l i es a q u i t e d i f f er en t p o l i t i c a l s t y l e; t he o l d c o n v en -t i o n s ha v e b een r el eg a t ed t o t he hi s t o r y b o o k s . I t a l s oi m p l i es a d i f f er en t v i ew o f t he " p l a c e o f t he m ed i c a lp r o f es s i o n a l i n s o c i et y " : l i k eo t her p r o f es s i o n s , s u c ha sl a w , i t b ec o m es i n c r ea s i n g l y r eg a r d ed a s j u s t o n em o r el o b b y o r p r es s u r e g r o u p r a t her t ha n c a r r y i n g s o m es p ec i a l i m p r i m a t u r d er i v i n g f r o m t he n a t u r e o f i t sex p er t i s e o r i t s c l a i m s t o r ep r es en t a p a r t i c u l a r s et o fv a l u es .Ex c l u s i o n i n 1 9 8 9The c o n t r a s t c a n b e i l l u s t r a t ed b y c o m p a r i n g t he1 9 74 r eo r g a n i s a t i o n o f t he NHS w i t h t ha t n o w b ei n gi m p l em en t ed . I n 1 9 74 c o r p o r a t i s m a s i n t er p r et ed b yt he s ec r et a r y o f s t a t e, S i r K ei t h ( n o w Lo r d ) J o s ep h,r u l ed s u p r em e. The n ew d es i g n o f t he NHS w a sha m m er ed o u t i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t he p r o f es s i o n s .The p r o d u c t o f c o m m i t t ees , i t s p a w n ed y et m o r ec o m m i t t ees i n a n a t t em p t t o en s u r e t ha t ev er y i n t er es ti n t he NHS w o u l d b e r ep r es en t ed . ! I n d o i n g s o i tu n i v er s a l i s ed v et o - p o w er a n d b y s eek i n g t o s a t i s f yB M J VOLU M E3 0 1 3 OC TOB ER 1 9 9 0 70 1ev er y o n em a n a g ed t o p l ea s en o o n e. I n d eed , i t s eem edt o s ho w t ha t c o r p o r a t i s m l ed o n l y t o r i g i d i t y a n di n f l ex i b i l i t y . C o n v er s el y , t he 1 9 8 9 r ev i ew s eem ed t o b eb a s ed o n t he b el i ef t ha t i t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o a v o i dr ep ea t i n g t he m i s t a k es o f t he p a s t b y n o t t r y i n g t oc o n s u l t o r s a t i s f y a n y o f t he NHS i n t er es t g r o u p s . I tw a s t he f i r s t t i m e i n t he hi s t o r y o f t he NHS t ha t t hem ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n w a s s y s t em a t i c a l l y ex c l u d ed f r o mt he d ec i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c es s l ea d i n g u p t o t he r ev i ew ;a n ex c l u s i o n w hi c h m a y p er ha p s ex p l a i n t he s u b s e-q u en t b i t t er n es s r a t her m o r et ha na c t u a l p o l i c y c o n t en t .I n d eed , t he B M A ' s s u b s eq u en t a d v er t i s i n g c a m p a i g ns er v ed l a r g el y t o a d v er t i s e t he f a c t o f t he p r o f es s i o n ' sex c l u s i o n . I t d r ew a t t en t i o n t o t he p r o f es s i o n ' s l o s s o fp r i v i l eg e: i n ha p p i er , c o r p o r a t i s t d a y s t he p r o f es s i o nha d i t s o w n d i r ec t a n d p r i v a t e l i n k s w i t h c i v i l s er v a n t sa n d m i n i s t er s - a n i r o n t r i a n g l e o f c o n s u l t a t i o n t ha tt u r n ed o u t t o b em a d eo f c a r d b o a r d i n t he 1 9 8 0 s .Lo o k i n g t o t he f u t u r e, t her ef o r e, i t s eem s c l ea r t ha tt he w a y i nw hi c ht her el a t i o n s hi p b et w een t hes t a t ea n dt he m ed i c a l p r o f es s i o n i s m a n a g ed w i l l d ep en d n o t o nw ha t ha p p en s w i t hi n t he NHS b u t o n w ha t ha p p en s t oB r i t a i n ' s p o l i t i c a l s y s t em . I f t he 1 9 8 0 s t u r n o u t t o b ea ni n t er r eg n u m - i f t he a s s a u l t o n t he r o l e o f i n t er es tg r o u p s p r o v es t o ha v e ex ha u s t ed i t s el f - t hen t her em a y w el l b e a r et u r n t o t he p o l i t i c s o f t he d o u b l eb ed : p ea c e b et w een p a r t n er s t hr o u g h p r o p i n q u i t y .The em p ha s i s m i g ht t hen o n c e a g a i n b e o n t r y i n gt o en g i n eer c o n s en s u s t hr o u g h t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o fp r o f es s i o n s , t r a d e u n i o n s , a n d o t her i n t er es t g r o u p si n t he p o l i c y p r o c es s - t he Eu r o p ea n r a t her t ha nt he A m er i c a n m o d el . I t s eem s u n l i k el y , ho w ev er ,t ha t m em o r i es o f t he 1 9 70 s a n d ea r l i er d ec a d es w i l ld i s a p p ea r en t i r el y o r t ha t t he r i s k s o f c o r p o r a t i s t s t a g -n a t i o n w i l l b e q u i et l y a c c ep t ed . I f t he p r o f es s i o n s a r eo n c e a g a i n t o b e s een a s p a r t n er s i n t he p o l i c y p r o c es sr a t her t ha n p r es s u r e g r o u p s ex c l u s i v el y p u r s u i n g t hei ro w n i n t er es t i t m a y m ea n t ha t t hey w i l l a l s o ha v e t os ho w t hei r w i l l i n g n es s a n d c a p a c i t y t o a d a p t a n dc ha n g ea n d , a b o v ea l l , t o r ec o g n i s et ha t t hey a r ea c c o u n t -a b l e a s m u c h t o t he s o c i et y t ha t g r a n t s t hem t hei rp r i v i l eg ed s t a t u s a s t o t hei r o w n m em b er s . I f s u c h an ew p o l i t i c a l s et t l em en t c a n n o t b e a c hi ev ed , ho w ev er ,i t s eem s u n l i k el y t ha t t he NHS w i l l s u r v i v e l o n g i n t ot het w en t y f i r s t c en t u r y .1 Or g a n i s a t i o n f o r Ec o n o m i c C o o p er a t i o n a n d D ev el o p m en t . F i n a n c i n g a n dd el i v er i n g hea l t h c a r e. P a r i s : OEC D , 1 9 8 7.2 P o w el l J E. M ed i c i n ea n dp o l i t i c s . Lo n d o n : P i t m a n M ed i c a l , 1 9 6 6 .3 R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n D o c t o r s ' a n d D en t i s t s ' R em u n er a t i o n . R ep o r t . Lo n d o n :HM S O, 1 9 6 0 . ( C m n d 9 3 9 . ) ( C ha i r m a n : S i r Ha r r y P i l k i n g t o n . )4 R ev i ew B o d y o n D o c t o r s ' a n d D en t i s t s ' R em u n er a t i o n . R ep o r t . Lo n d o n :HM S O, 1 9 71 . ( C m n d 4 8 25 . ) ( C ha i r m a n : Lo r d Ha l s b u r y . )5 Ec k s t ei n H. P r es s u r eg r o u p p o l i t i c s . Lo n d o n : A l l en a n d U n w i n , 1 9 6 0 .6 B eer S H. B r i t a i n a g a i n s t i t s el f . Lo n d o n : F a b er a n d F a b er , 1 9 8 2.7 G o d b er G . C ha n g e i n m ed i c i n e. Lo n d o n : Nu f f i el d P r o v i n c i a l Ho s p i t a l s Tr u s t ,1 9 75 .8 K l ei n R . Thep o l i t i c s o f t he NHS . 2n d ed . Lo n d o n : Lo n g m a n , 1 9 8 9 .C o v er i l l u s t r a t i o n sThec o v er o f t hi s i s s u e i l l u s t r a t es s o m e o f t he m o s ti m p o r t a n t l a n d m a r k s i n m ed i c i n e r ec o r d ed i n t heB M 7i n t he p a s t 1 5 0 y ea r s .Ei g ht p l a n t s t ha t ha v eb eeni m p o r t a n t i nm ed i c i n ea r e i l l u s t r a t ed :A m m i v i s n a g a , t he ef f ec t o f w hi c h i n r el i ev i n ga n g i n a l ed t o t he s y n t hes i s o f s o d i u m c r o m o g l y c a t ea n d a m i o d a r o n e; C a t ha r a n t hu s r o s eu s ( t he M a d a -g a s c a r p er i w i n k l e) , t he s o u r c e o f v i n b l a s t i n e a n dv i n c r i s t i n e; D i g i t a l i s l a n a t a ; D i g i t a l i s p u r p u r ea ;G l y c y r r hi z a g l a b r a - t he ef f ec t o f l i q u o r i c e i nr el i ev i n g i n d i g es t i o n l ed t o t he p r o d u c t i o n o fc a r b en o x o l o n e; M el i l o t u s o f f i c i n a l i s , t he s o u r c e o fd i c o u m a r o l ; P hy s o s t i g m a v en en o s u m , t he s o u r c e o fp hy s o s t i g m i n e; P o d o p hy l l u m hex a n d r u m .The r em a i n i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s a r e r em i n d er s o fs o m e i m p o r t a n t a r t i c l es t ha t ha v e b een p u b l i s hedi n t he j o u r n a l : S i c k l e c el l s ' ; l eu k a em i a c el l s 24 ;m i c r o c o c c i - g r a p e s ha p ed g r o u p s ( m a g n i f i edx20 0 0 ), ;m i c r o c o c c i i n a n a b s c es s w a l l( m a g n i f i edx 1 6 0 0 ) 5 6 ; x r a y f i l m o f a ha n d ' ; S p en c er Wel l sf o r c ep s 8 ; el ec t r o c a r d i o g r a m 9 ; Or n i t ho d o r o s m o u b a t a ,t he v ec t o r o f " t i c k f ev er " ' 1 1 ; t he A n o p hel esm o s q u i t o ' 2- ' 4 ; b u t t er f l i es ' 5 ; s ea s n a k e. ' 61 A l l i s o n A C . P r o t ec t i o n a f f o r d ed b y s i c k l e c el l t r a i t a g a i n s ts u b t er t i a n m a l a r i a l i n f ec t i o n . B r M ed J 3 1 9 5 4 ; i : 29 0 - 4 .2 C o u r t B r o w n WM , D o l l R . M o r t a l i t y f r o m c a n c er a n d o t herc a u s es a f t er r a d i o t her a p y f o r a n k y l o s i n g s p o n d y l i t i s . B r M ed1 9 %5 ; i i :1 3 27- 3 2.3 S t ew a r t A , Web b J , Hew i t t D . A s u r v ey o f c hi l d ho o dm a l i g n a n c i es . B r M ed J 1 9 5 8 ; i : 1 4 9 5 - 5 0 8 .4 G a r d n er M J , S n ee M P , Ha l l A J , P o w el l C A , D o w n es S ,Ter r el l J D . R es u l t s o f c a s e- c o n t r o l s t u d y o f l eu k a em i a a n dl y m p ho m a a m o n g y o u n g p eo p l e n ea r S el l a f i el d n u c l ea r p l a n ti n Wes t C u m b r i a . B r M ed J 1 9 9 0 ; 3 0 0 : 4 23 - 9 .5 Og s t o n A . R ep o r t u p o n m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s i n s u r g i c a l d i s ea s es .B r M ed J 1 8 8 1 ; i : 3 6 9 - 75 .6 Wi l l i a m s R EO, No b l e WC , J ev o n s M P . I s o l a t i o n f o r t hec o n t r o l o f s t a p hy l o c o c c a l i n f ec t i o n i n s u r g i c a l w a r d s .B r M ed J r 1 9 6 2; i i : 275 - 8 2.7 A n o n y m o u s . Then ew k i n d o f r a d i a t i o n . B r M ed J 7 1 8 9 6 ; i : 23 8 .( P ho t o g r a p h b y A J C S w i n t o n . )8 Wel l s TS . R em a r k s o n f o r c i p r es s u r e a n d t he u s e o f p r es s u r e-f o r c ep s i n s u r g er y . B r M ed J 7 1 8 79 ; i : 9 26 - 8 ; i i : 3 - 4 .9 Lew i s T. El ec t r o c a r d i o g r a p hy a n d i t s i m p o r t a n c e i n t hec l i n i c a l ex a m i n a t i o n o f hea r t a f f ec t i o n s . B r M ed J 1 9 1 2; i :1 4 22- 3 .1 0 R o s s P H, M i l n eA D . " Ti c k f ev er . " B r M ed J 3 1 9 0 4 ; i i : 1 4 5 3 - 4 .1 1 D u t t o n J E, To d d J L. The n a t u r e o f t i c k f ev er i n t he ea s t er np o r t o f t heC o n g o F r ee S t a t e. B r M ed J 7 1 9 0 5 ; i i : 1 25 9 - 6 0 .1 2 S ho r t t HE, G a r n ha m P C C , M a l a m o s B . The p r e- er y t hr o c y t i cs t a g e o f m a m m a l i a n m a l a r i a . B r M ed J 7 1 9 4 8 ; i : 1 9 2- 4 .1 3 S ho r t t HE, G a r n ha m P C C , C o v el l G , S hu t e P G . The p r e-er y t hr o c y t i c s t a g e o f hu m a n m a l a r i a , P l a s m o d i u m v i v a x .B r M ed J 1 9 4 8 ; i : 5 4 7.1 4 S ho r t t HE, F a i r l ey NH, C o v el l G , S hu t e P G , G a r n ha m P C C .The p r e- er y t hr o c y t i c s t a g e o f P l a s m o d i u m f a l c i p a r u m . Ap r el i m i n a r y n o t e. B r M ed J r 1 9 4 9 ; i i : 1 0 0 6 - 8 .1 5 C l a r k C A . P r ev en t i o n o f R h ha em o l y t i c d i s ea s e. B r M ed J1 9 6 7; i v : 7- 1 2.1 6 R ei d HA . S ea s n a k e b i t es B r M ed J 7 1 9 5 6 ; i i : 73 - 8 .70 2 B M J VOLU M E3 0 1 3 OC TOB ER 1 9 9 0