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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING НАУЧНИ ЧАСОПИС SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

УНИВЕРЗИТЕТ У БЕОГРАДУ, ПОЉОПРИВРЕДНИ ФАКУЛТЕТ, ИНСТИТУТ ЗА ПОЉОПРИВРЕДНУ ТЕХНИКУ

UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Година XLII, Број 1, 2017. Year XLII, No. 1, 2017.

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Издавач (Publisher) Универзитет у Београду, Пољопривредни факултет, Институт за пољопривредну технику, Београд-Земун University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Belgrade-Zemun Уредништво часописа (Editorial board) Главни и одговорни уредник (Editor in Chief) др Горан Тописировић, професор, Универзитет у Београду, Пољопривредни факултет

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S A D R Ž A J

RAZVOJ I OCENA VIŠENAMENSKE SEJALICE ZA DIREKTNU SETVU SA UREĐAJEM ZA OBRADU OSTATAKA U RAZLIČITIM USLOVIMA Vineet Kumar Sharma, Triveni Prasad Singh, Jayant Singh ....................................................... 1-10

KONSTRUKCIJA I RAZVOJ UREĐAJA ZA MERENJE PRINOSA NA ŽITNOM KOMBAJNU Karun Sharma, Manjeet Singh, Ankit Sharma ........................................................................... 11-20

UPOTREBA TRETIRANE OTPADNE VODE IZ PREHRAMBENE INDUSTRIJE U PROIZVODNJI PARADAJZA KROZ AUTOMATIZOVANO NAVODNJAVANJE Sandeep Kumar Pandey, A.K. Jain, Abhijit Joshi...................................................................... 21-30

KVALITATIVNE KARAKTERISTIKE MIKROTALASNOG SUŠENJA PEČURKI U FLUIDIZOVANOM SLOJU (Agaricusbisporus) Azad Gaurh, Anjineyulu Kothakota ,Sankar Rao, Ranaselva, Gourikutty Kunjurayan Rajesh ................................................................................................... 31-40

PROMJENA EKSPLOATACIONIH SVOJSTAVA TRAKTORA U ZAVISNOSTI OD UGLA PREDPALJENJA MOTORA Nermin Rakita, Selim Škaljić ..................................................................................................... 41-48

C O N T E N T S

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF MULTI TOOLBAR NO-TILL DRILL WITH RESIDUE HANDLING DEVICE UNDER VARIOUS PADDY RESIDUE CONDITIONS Vineet Kumar Sharma, Triveni Prasad Singh, Jayant Singh ....................................................... 1-10

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A YIELD MONITOR FOR GRAIN COMBINE HARVESTER Karun Sharma, Manjeet Singh, Ankit Sharma ........................................................................... 11-20

EFFECT OF TREATED WASTE WATER FROM FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES IN TOMATO PRODUCTION THROUGH AUTOMATED DRIP IRRIGATION Sandeep Kumar Pandey, A.K. Jain, Abhijit Joshi...................................................................... 21-30

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE ASSISTED FLUIDIZED BED DRIED BUTTON MUSHROOMS (Agaricusbisporus) Azad Gaurh, Anjineyulu Kothakota ,Sankar Rao, Ranaselva, Gourikutty Kunjurayan Rajesh ................................................................................................... 31-40

VARIATIONS IN EXPLOITATION CHARACTERISTICS OF TRACTORS DEPENDING ON PRE-IGNITION ANGLE OF THE ENGINE Nermin Rakita, Selim Škaljić ..................................................................................................... 41-48

Univerzitet u Beogradu Poljoprivredni fakultet Institut za poljoprivrednu tehniku

Naučni časopis POLJOPRIVREDNA TEHNIKA

Godina XLII Broj 1, 2017. Strane: 1 – 10

University of Belgrade Faculty of Agriculture

Institute of Agricultural Engineering

Scientific Journal AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Year XLII No. 1, 2017.

pp: 1 – 10

UDK: 613.6.027 Originalni naučni rad

Original scientific paper

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF MULTI TOOLBAR

NO-TILL DRILL WITH RESIDUE HANDLING DEVICE UNDER

VARIOUS PADDY RESIDUE CONDITIONS

Vineet Kumar Sharma*, Triveni Prasad Singh, Jayant Singh

G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,

Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Pantnagar, U. S. Nagar (UK)

Abstract: A multi-toolbar no-till drill has been designed and developed which could

work satisfactorily in combine harvested paddy fields. Performance evaluation of the

machine was conducted for under three different paddy residue conditions, i.e. chopped

paddy residue conditions spread loose straw conditions and tillage condition (control).

The multi-toolbar no-till drill was compered powered coulter double disc type drill. The

maximum effective field capacity of 0.45 ha·h-1 was found in Pantnagar no-till drill (M4)

followed by multi-toolbar no-till drill (M1) as 0.39-0.42 ha·h-1, multi-toolbar no-till drill

with residue handling device (M2) as 0.38 ha·h-1 and -powered coulter double disc type

drill (M3) as 0.34-0.33 ha·h-1. The maximum field efficiency of 73.5 % was found in

machine (M4) followed by 68.75 to 70.83 % for machine (M3), 63.5 to 63.8 % for

machine (M1) and 60.2 to 61.4 % for machine (M2). The maximum plant emergence of

161 plants·m-2 was observed in case of treatment T7. Highest yield of 5.8 t·ha-1 was

observed in treatment T3 where machine M2 (multi-toolbar no-till drill with residue

handling device) un-chopped residue condition. Almost similar yield was observed for

the treatment T1, T3 and T7 (control) as the same did not differ significantly at 5 % level

of significance.

Keywords: residue handling, no-till drill, sowing method, furrow opener, wheat

sowing, field performance

INTRODUCTION

Rice-wheat cropping system is very common in India. These two crops together

contribute more than 70 % of the total cereal production in the country from an area of

* Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Sharma i sar.: Razvoj i ocena . . . / Polj. Tehn. (2017/1). 1 - 10 2

about 25 Mha under wheat (Anonymous, 2013) and about 44 Mha under rice (Kumar et

al. 2014).

The loose straw delivered behind the combine harvesters poses many management

problems. Residue management is receiving a great deal of attention because of its

diverse and positive effects on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. No-

till drills of various makes could be used successfully for direct seeding the crop but

loose residue hinders the smooth operation of these drills. Disc openers cause less soil

disturbance than hoe openers because they create a narrower furrow (Munir, et al.,

2012). The limitations of disc openers are less draft requirement but large vertical force

for penetration. In addition, even where penetration is adequate, "hairpinning" (forcing

of uncut straw or chaff into the furrow) may result in seed "pop-up" after the disc drill

passes, thereby reducing seed-to-soil contact. Poor seed-to- soil contact interferes with

germination and seedling establishment and is often responsible for poor stands in chaff

rows.

The drills equipped with hoe, chisel, winged chisel or inverted "T" type furrow

openers, give more positive depth control. In heavy crop residue or when row spacing is

narrow, inverted T-type furrow openers is prone to blockage between the two adjacent

openers, causing operators irritation as well as reducing field capacity.

Hence, for proper residue management in direct drilling of wheat, the main operational

problem of straw accumulation in combine-harvested paddy field is to be solved.

Keeping the above aspect in view the straw multi-toolbar no-till drill was designed and

developed and present work was undertaken with the objective to "development and

evaluate the field performance in sowing of wheat crop by the new machine under

different paddy residue conditions".

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Straw Handling Device and its Attachment. It is a tractor mounted PTO operated

machine with adjustable ground clearance residue collecting fingers. It is attached ahead

of the no-till drill as an attachment. As the tractor moves forward, the loose straw is

thrown over the already sown area and direct sowing operations could be performed

simultaneously. A flat rubber belt of size 152 mm and thickness 7.2 mm has been used

as the conveyor belt for the straw thrower. Drive and driven pulleys of 152 mm diameter

and width 152 mm were selected and keyed to a shaft of 420 mm length and 25 mm

diameter. V-belt sheave of 120 mm diameter was keyed to the shaft for transmitting

power from main shaft drive pulley. Straw fingers of 170 mm length made of spring

steel wires having 5 mm diameter were fitted on the flat belt at a spacing of 400 mm

with each other. Power transmission shaft of 770 mm length made of mild steel (M S)

rod of 35 mm diameter was used to transmit the power from tractor PTO to straw throw

or assembly. Straw thrower assembly could be attached mounted with no-till drill by

attaching it to ahead the front of multi tool bar no-till drill by clamps. Clamps are made

of MS strips of dimensions 150 × 50 × 12 mm.

Multi Toolbar No-Till Drill. Main frame: Two angle irons of 50 × 5 mm size having

2092 mm length were welded together to form a square hollow section beam with a

cross-section of 50 × 50 mm. In all, three beams of identical size with above mentioned

specifications were fabricated. All the three beams were joined together in parallel

Sharma et al.: Development and . . . / Agr. Eng. (2017/1). 1 - 10 3

position with another two side hollow square beams having cross-section of 40 × 40 mm

to form a rectangular frame with overall length of 2092 mm and width 1830 mm

respectively.

Seed and fertilizer box: The seed and fertilizer box of multi-toolbar no-till drill is

made by using mild steel sheet. Both seed and fertilizer box is made of equal size and

joint together in the centre along the length. The trapezoidal shaped seed and fertilizer

boxes (top width 250 mm, bottom width 150 mm, depth 31 cm in centre and length of

box 2500 mm) are made from 20 gauge M S sheet.

Depth control device: Depth control wheels are made from 80 mm wide and 6 mm

thick M S flat with diameter 335 mm to support the equipment with in operation. It also

provided a uniform depth of operation. Two such wheels have been provided to both

sides of the frame. Depth of the wheel could be varied by holes in the arm and by

adjusting the nut and bolts.

Power transmission unit: A ground wheel of 349 mm diameter with rim width 80

mm and thickness of 6 mm was fabricated from M.S. flat for power transmission. The

wheel was provided with 4 spokes of M S flat (120 × 25 × 5 mm). 11 lug of spikes 100 ×

50 × 5 mm size with tapered end were welded on the periphery. Two stage chain drive is

provided from wheel to the main drive shafts and farther to fertilizer and seed metering

units. In first stage, chain drive is provided from ground wheel to a counter shaft. In

second stage drive was arranged from counter shaft to seed and fertilizer metering unit.

The transmission ratio between ground wheel and seed and fertilizer metering unit is

kept as 1:2. A floating arm is used to connect the ground wheel at rear right end of the

main frame.

Figure 1. Isometric view of prototype residue handling device and multi toolbar no-till drill

Seed and fertilizer metering unit: The seed metering mechanism (flutted roller) is

fitted under the bottom of seed box. Seven numbers of flutted rollers, having 12 numbers

of flutes, with aluminium feed cups are fitted on a common shaft for metering the seed.

Seed rate adjustment is obtained by sliding the flutted roller in or out into feed cups.

An adjustable orifice with agitator type fertilizer metering mechanism has been used, in

the no-till drill, for metering of fertilizer. In this type of metering mechanism, fertilizer

flow is regulated by changing the size of the opening provided on the movable (M S) flat

at the bottom of the fertilizer box. A rubber agitator fixed above the opening in the

fertilizer box helps in maintaining continuous flow of fertilizer. This mechanism was


adopted because of its ability to meter medium and small size fertilizer with fair

accuracy, in design as well as its and simplicity with low cost.

Polyethylene tubes of 25 mm diameter and 2 mm thickness have been were used to

convey seed from orifice to the furrow opener under gravity.

Furrow opener: Seven inverted-T type furrow openers are mounted to the frame of

the drill with clamps. The overall height of the furrow opener is kept 720 mm which

providing a clearance of 650 mm between ground and frame of the drill. The furrow

opener is made from 8 mm thick high carbon bit welded to a mild steel plate. Furrow

openers shank made of medium carbon steel flat with a 16×50 mm cross section. The

rake angle is kept 28º in order to make a slit 3 to 5 cm in the soil. The relief angle of the

blade is kept 8º. The furrow opener is welded to the shank in place of bolting it through

nut and bolts.

Field performance and evaluation. Comparative field performance evaluation of the

developed multi-toolbar no-till drill was carried out in different treatment at crop

research center, G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar.

Geographically, it is located at 29°N latitude and 79.29°E longitude and an altitude of

243.84 meter above mean sea level which is embodied with wet moisture regime and

high water table conditions for most part of the year.

The soil of the experimental field is loam in texture, medium in organic carbon,

medium in available phosphorus and high in available potassium. The soil pH values

ranges between 7.2 and 7.3 which is slightly alkaline in nature. The soil organic carbon

content varies from 0.62 to 0.68 %. The available phosphorus and potassium were

observed as 37 and 180.5 kg/ha. The soil of the experimental field is silty clay loam with

sand: silt: clay contents of 36.2:47.6:16.2 %. The average initial bulk density and

moisture content were observed as 1.55 g/cc and 21.94 % (d.b) respectively, at the depth

of 150 mm before conducting the experiment.

It was compared with other existing drill for wheat sowing and harvesting in

experimental field on 8-Nov-2013 and 16-Aprail-2014 respectively. Trial was conducted

to assess the machine and crop parameters including crop yield. Wheat variety (DWP-

621-50) was sown in each experimental plot at recommended seed and fertilizer rate.

The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with seven treatments and three

replications each. The size of each plot was 28×4.5 m. The experiment was carried out

with the following treatments:

T1 - Un-chopped residue + multi-toolbar no-till drill

T2 - Chopped residue+ multi-toolbar no-till drill

T3 - Un-chopped residue + residue handling device + multi-toolbar no-till drill

T4 - Chopped residue + residue handling device + multi-toolbar no-till drill

T5 - Un-chopped residue+ Powered coulter double disc type drill

T6 - Chopped residue + Powered coulter double disc type drill

T7 - Control (conventional method of sowing)

Experiment was conducted to evaluate the machine performance, speed of

operation, fuel consumption, draft, depth of sowing, field capacity, field efficiency,

residue conveying efficiency, % and Residue flow percentage.

The crop parameters noted were germination count, tillering count, final plant stand,

plant height, number of spikes, spike length, number of grains per spike, thousand grain

weights and grain yield.


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Initial field condition. The bulk density of the soil was observed as 1.55 g/cc in un-

chopped and chopped residue field and 1.31 g/cc after tilled field. Soil moisture content

was observed as 21.94 % (db) in both in residue un-chopped and chopped field. The

moisture content of soil was observed less in tilled field (19.56 %) in compared to

chopped and un-chopped un-tilled field, because soil moisture reduced slightly during

tillage operation.

The average loose residue load and anchored stubble load in the un-chopped residue

field was observed as 0.789 and 1.870 kg/m2 at an observed moisture content of 32.56

and 69.03 % (wb), respectively. The average residue load in the chopped residue field

was observed as 1.950 kg/m2 at an observed moisture content of 43.2 % (wb). The

average clod mean weight diameter, in tilled field, was observed as 15.45 mm.

Field performance of no-till drill. The seven field treatment combination was

sowing by four type no-till seed drill. The treatment T1 and T2 was sowing by Multi-

toolbar no-till drill (M1), treatment T3 and T4 by Multi-toolbar no-till drill with attached

residue handling device (M2), treatment T5 and T6 by Powered coulter double disc type

drill (M3) and treatment T7 by Pantnagar no-till drill (M4). The forward speed was

recorded 3.2, 3.0, 3.8 and 4.05 km/h in the no-till drill M1, M2, M3 and M4 respectively

(Table-1). The maximum fuel consumption was recorded as 3.54 l/h in Powered coulter

double disc type drill (M3) fallowed by 3.47, 3.31 and 3.26 l/h in multi-toolbar no-till

drill (M1), multi-toolbar no-till drill with attached residue handling device (M2) and

Pantnagar no-till drill (M4) respectively.

The maximum depth of sowing of 7.0 cm was measured in treatment T3 followed by

6.83, 6.7, 6.5, 5.7, 4.9, and 4.7 cm in treatment T4, T2, T1, T7, T5 and T6 respectively.

Depth of sowing was observed more in no-till condition because of more depth of the slit

opened by the no-till drill. The lower seed placement depth occurred in case of powered

coulter double disc type no-till drill due to large amount of residue condition. The

maximum effective field capacities of 0.45 ha/h was found in no-till drill (M4) followed

by M1 (0.39-0.42 ha/h), M2 (0.38 ha/h) and M3 (0.34-0.33 ha/h) (Table:1). The

maximum field efficiency of 73.5 % was found in machine (M4) followed by 68.75 to

70.83 % in machine (M3), 63.5 to 63.8 % in machine (M1) and 60.2 to 61.4 % in

machine (M2). Residue conveying efficiency was found as 81.6 and 22.1 % in T3 and T4

treatments respectively. The minimum residue flow percentage was found as 78.56 % in

T1 treatment followed by 97.6 % in T3, which was sown in un-chopped field conduction.

In treatment T2, T4, T5 and T6, the residue flow percentage was found as 100 %.

The field condition directly affect the performance of machine, the higher speed of

operation and field efficiency were found in treatment T7, which may be due to the field

condition of control treatment was ideal for sowing of wheat crop. The multi-tool bar no-

till drill was operated in no-till field with standing stubble and loose straw condition, due

to the lower performance of machine was found in compare to existing no-till drill. The

amount of residue into the field is directly related machine performance all the tested

conditions. Other parameters affecting crop residue cutting ability of a no-till disc opener

such as disc diameter, downward pressure, sowing depth, straw water content, and

forward speed, must be taken into consideration. The effects of tillage on residue cover

depend on the speed and depth of tillage operation, type of implement, soil conditions,

type and amount of residues, and the height of standing stubbles.


Table 1. Field performance of different drills under various field conditions

Sl.

No. Treatments T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

1. Speed of operation, km/h 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.8 3.8 4.05

2. Fuel consumption, l/h 3.31 3.31 3.47 3.47 3.54 3.54 3.26

3. Draft, N 3045 3044.5 3288.2 3282 - - 4600

4. Depth of sowing, cm 6.5 6.7 7.0 6.83 4.9 4.7 5.7

5. Field capacity, ha/h 0.39 0.42 0.38 0.38 0.34 0.33 0.45

6. Field efficiency, % 63.5 63.8 60.2 61.4 68.75 70.83 73.5

7. Residue conveying efficiency % - - 81.6 22.1 - - -

8. Residue flow, % 78.56 100 97.6 100 100 100 -

Effect on crop parameter. Plant emergence and final plant stand: The type of

opener played a significant role in the speed of crop emergence (Table 2). The number of

plants/m2 (20 DAS) varied between 131.1 and 161.7. The maximum plant emergence of

161 plants/m2 was observed in case of treatment T7, followed by 151.3 plants/m2 in T2,

148.7 plants/m2 in T4, 140.7 plants/m2 in T3,139.1 plants/m2 in T1 and T5 and 131.7

plants/m2 in T6 respectively. The lower plant emergence occurred in treatment T6 which

may be due to minimum death of seed placement and slots were opened widely. By that

fact the seeds were more exposed in the sun light. The highest plant emergence occurred

in conventional sowing (T7), which may be due to proper depth of seed placement and

sore soil seed contact. In the presence of crop residue, the winged furrow opener created

inverted T-shaped groove and the hoe-type furrow opener created U-shaped groove that

resulted in greater number of seedling emergence, oxygen diffusion rates and

earthworms activity than V-shaped groove created by the disk furrow opener. Saharawat

et al. (2010) also reported about 15% higher effective tillers in Zero Tillage planter

seeded wheat than Conventional Tillage Wheat.

Number of effective tillers and final plant stand: The effective tillering count was

noted at 30, 60 and 90 DAS, and is shown in Table 2. The number of tillers/m2 increased

during the period between 30 and 60 DAS and then reduced in numbers for period

between 60 and 90 DAS. The highest number of tillers/m2 were observed for treatment

T7 (188.3 tillers/m2) followed by T1 (172 plants/m2), T2 (166 plants/m2), T4 (161.7

plants/m2), T5 (160.0 plants/m2), T3 (155 plants/m2), and T6 (145 plants/m2), respectively

at 30 DAS. The tiller population differed significantly (P<0.05) from one another among

different treatments at 60 DAS. The highest number of tillers/m2 were observed as 443

in treatment T7 followed by 388.7 in T3, 373 in T1, 371 in T4, 370 in T2, 341.7 in T5 and

326.7 in T6, respectively. The tiller population at 90 DAS in different treatments is sown

in table 2. It is clear from LSD value that at 90 DAS also, the tillers population differed

significantly (P<0.05). The highest number of tillers/m2 was observed as 394 in

treatment T7, followed by 339 in T1, 337 in T3, 322 in T2, 310 in T4, 309 in T5 and 297 in

T7, respectively.

Plant height: The maximum plant height was found as 24.9 cm in treatment T3 at 30

DAS, it is significantly higher in comparison to control. At 60 and 90 DAS the

maximum plant height was observed in treatment T7 which were at par with the plant

height in treatments T1, T2, T3, and T4. Plant height in treatments T5 and T6 was found

significantly lower in comparison to rest of the treatments where both the treatments

differed non-significantly. Findings revealed that plant height was maximum recorded


under conventional tillage. Similar results were also reported by LI Su et al (2006) and

Singh et al. (2006). The possible reason of lower plant height under no-tillage with

residue and standing stubble condition could be that crop under no-tillage condition

received crop growth competition with standing stubble which might have reduced the

plant height as compared to control condition.

Table 2. Effect of treatments on plant emergence and tillers

Treatment Number of Plant emergence/m2

20 DAS

Number of effective tillers/m2

30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS

T1 139.3 172.0 373.3 339

T2 151.3 166.7 370.0 322

T3 140.7 155.0 388.7 337

T4 148.7 161.7 371.7 310

T5 139.3 160.0 341.7 309

T6 131.7 145.0 326.7 297

T7 161.0 188.3 443.0 394

LSD 5% 16.7 19.7 27.8 18

Table:3 Effect of treatments on crop growth parameters

Treatments Plant height, cm

30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS At the time of harvesting

T1 24.3 42.1 72.1 90.4

T2 22.9 41.4 72.2 91.0

T3 24.9 40.0 70.5 91.3

T4 22.8 40.1 72.0 91.7

T5 19.4 38.2 66.9 84.0

T6 17.9 38.0 68.0 83.7

T7 18.3 42.5 76.9 96.0

LSD at 5% 3.4 NS 3.9 2.6

NS-Non-significant

Yield and yield attributes. Number of spikes: The difference in number of spikes/m2

for different treatments was significant. The average number of spikes/m2 was highest in

treatment T7 (385.7 spikes/m2), was performed by followed by T3 (311.0 spikes/m2), T1

(305.0 spikes/m2), T2 (294.3 spikes/m2), T4 (288.7 spikes/m2), T5 (281.0 spikes/m2) and

T6 (275.7 spikes/m2). The higher spikes count in case of treatment T7 (conventional

sowing) may be due to the better seed placement as indicated by tillage operation and

also highest plant emergence with higher tillering count at different stages of crop

growth. Lower spikes count in treatment T6 may be due to less plant emergence.

Spike length: Spike length was significant difference in spike length obtained in

different treatments. The highest spike length of 9.8 cm is observed in case of treatment

T7 followed by T5 (9.4 cm), T1 and T4 (9.3 cm), T3 (9.2 cm), T6 (9.0 cm) and T2 (8.9 cm),

respectively.

Number of grains per spike: Wheat crop establishment method had non-significant

effect on grain count per spike in all the treatments. The treatment T3 gave highest grain

count (60.7 grains/spike) followed by treatments T7 (58 grains/spike), T1 (57

grains/spike), T2 (55.0 grains/spike) T4 (54.7 grains/spike), T5 (45.3 grains/spike) and


treatments T6 (45.0 grains/spike) where all the treatments yielded statistically at par. The

observation on spike length under all the establishment method produced non-significant

results, which differed at 5 % level of significance.

Test (1000-grains) weight: The test weight was more in T3 (47.5 g) followed by T5

(46.5 g), T7 (46.0 g), T4 (45.5 g), T2 (44.5 g), and treatment T1 and T7 (43.5 g). The

difference was observed statistically significant at 5 % level of significance. Maximum

test weight was recorded under T3 which was significantly higher than T7, T1, T2, and T4

and at par with T5 and T6.

Table 4. Effect of various treatments on crop yield attributes

Treatments Number of spikes/ m2 Spike length

Cm

Number of

grains/ spike

Test weight

g

Grain yield

t/ha

T1 305.0 9.3 57.3 43.5 5.5

T2 294.3 8.9 55.0 44.5 4.7

T3 311.0 9.2 60.7 47.5 5.8

T4 288.7 9.3 54.7 45.5 4.1

T5 281.0 9.4 45.3 46.5 3.8

T6 275.7 9.0 45.0 46.0 3.4

T7 385.7 9.8 58.0 43.5 5.6

LSD at 5% 21.8 NS NS 2.4 0.6

NS-Non-significant

Grain yield: Highest yield of 5.8 t/ha was observed in treatment T3, where un-

chopped residue combined with residue handling unit and multi-toolbar no-till drill

followed by T7 (5.6 t/ha), T1 (5.5 t/ha), T2 (4.7 t/ha), T4 (4.1 t/ha), T5 (3.8 t/ha), and T6

(3.3 t/ha), respectively. Crop yield in T3 and T1 treatment was recorded non-significantly

to the control. Higher grain yield was produced under treatment, where un-chopped

residue field condition prevailed. This may be due to better crop establishment

throughout the crop season resulting in higher plant stand at the time of harvesting,

higher number of spikes/m2 and higher 1000-grains weight. The better crop

establishment in these treatments may also be due to decomposition of crop residue

slowly as it maintained moisture level on the surface throughout the crop season. Spike

length and plant height were high in case of using no-till drill with the residue manager,

which increased the grain yield by 12.4 % more than using no-till drill without this

attachment (Hegazy and Dhaliwal, 2011). Kumar et al. (2013) reported the grain yield in

Zero Tillage Wheat was 6% and 10% higher than Rotovator Tillage Wheat and

Conventional Tillage Wheat, whereas, lowest yield was observed in Reside Bed Planting

Wheat. The grain yield of winter wheat was higher 11.65% in technologies which

included mulch tillage system than conventional technologies (Kovacevic et al., 2005).

CONCLUSION

The maximum effective field capacity of 0.45 ha/h was found in Pantnagar no-till

drill (M4) followed by multi-toolbar no-till drill (M1) as 0.39-0.42 ha/h, multi-toolbar no-

till drill with residue handling device (M2) as 0.38 ha/h and -powered coulter double disc

type drill (M3) as 0.34-0.33 ha/h. The maximum field efficiency of 73.5 % was found in


machine (M4) followed by 68.75 to 70.83 % for machine (M3), 63.5 to 63.8 % for

machine (M1) and 60.2 to 61.4 % for machine (M2).

The maximum plant emergence of 161 plants/m2 was observed in case of treatment

T7 followed by 151.3 in T2, 148.7 in T4, 140.7 in T3,139.1 in T1 and T5 and 131.7

plants/m2 in T6.

Highest yield of 5.8 t/ha was observed in treatment T3 where machine M2 (multi-

toolbar no-till drill with residue handling device) un-chopped residue condition. This

was followed by T7 (5.6 t/ha), T1 (5.5 t/ha), T2 (4.7 t/ha), T4 (4.1 t/ha), T5 (3.8 t/ha) and

T6 (3.3 t/ha). Almost similar yield was observed for the treatment T1, T3 and T7 (control)

as the same did not differ significantly at 5 % level of significance.

REFERENCE

[1] Anonymous 2013. Annual Report, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. Ministry of

Agriculture, Government of India.

[2] Hegazy, R.A., Dhaliwal, I.S. 2011. Evaluation of a Power Driven Residue Manager for No-

till Drills, Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Journal, 13(1)

[3] Li Su, Juan, CHEN Ji, King, CHEN Fu, LI Lin, ZHANG Hai Lin 2006. Characteristics of

Growth and Development of Winter Wheat Under Zero Tllage in North China Plain, Acto

Agron Sin., 34(2)290-296.

[4] Kovacevic, Dusan; Dolijanovic, Zeljko; Jovanovic, Zivota; Milic, Vesna. 2005. The Effect of

Growth Technology on Yield of Winter Wheat, Scientific Journal Agricultural Engineering.

(1):27-32.

[5] Kumar, Rakesh; Sharma Vineet, Singh Shashank 2014. Comparative Performance of

Mechanical Transplanting and Direct Seeding of Rice, Scientific Journal Agricultural

Engineering. (2):23-31.

[6] Kumar V., Saharawat, Y S, Gathalac M K, Jat, A S, Singh, S K, Chaudhary, N, Jat, M L.

2015. Effect of different tillage and seeding methods on energy use efficiency and

productivity of wheat in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Field Crops Research, 142 1–8

[7] Munir, M.A., Iqbal M., Miran S. 2012. Evaluation of three seed furrow openers mounted on a

zone disk tiller drill for residue management, soil physical properties and crop parameters,

Pak. J. Agri. Sci., Vol. 49(3): 349-355.

[8] Saharawat, Y.S., Singh Bhagat Malik, R.K., Ladha, J.K., Gathala, M.K., Jat, M.L., Kumar, V.

2010. Evaluation of alternative tillage and crop establishment methods in a rice–wheat

rotation in North Western IGP. Field Crop Res., 116, 260–267.

[9] Singh, A., Dhaliwal, I.S., Thakur, S.S. 2008. Evaluation of wheat sowing technologies under

paddy straw chopped conditions, Journal of Research, SKUAST-J., 7(2):175-183

[10] Singh, T. P., Singh, J., Kumar, R. 2006. Study on different tillage treatments for rice-residue

incorporation and its effects on wheat yield in Tarai Resigion of Uttaranchal, Agricultural

mechanization of Asia, Africa and Latin America, 37(3):18-24


RAZVOJ I OCENA VIŠENAMENSKE SEJALICE ZA DIREKTNU SETVU SA

UREĐAJEM ZA OBRADU OSTATAKA U RAZLIČITIM USLOVIMA

Vineet Kumar Sharma, Triveni Prasad Singh, Jayant Singh

G B Pant Univerzitet za poljoprivredu i tehnologiju,

Institut za poljoprivredne i pogonske mašine, Pantnagar, U. S. Nagar (UK)

Sažetak: Višenamenska direktna sejalica konstruisana je i razvijena za rad na

parcelama posle kombajniranja pirinča. Ocena performansi mašine je izvedena u tri

različita stanja ostataka. Maksimalni efektivni poljski kapacitet od 0.45 ha·h-1 kod

Pantnagar sejalice (M4), zatim kod sejalice (M1) 0.39-0.42 ha·h-1, sejalice sa uređajem za

obradu ostataka (M2) 0.38 ha·h-1 i sejalice sa reznim diskovima (M3) 0.34-0.33 ha·h-1.

Maksimalna efikasnost od 73.5 % je izmerena kod mašine (M4), zatim 68.75 do 70.83 %

kod mašine (M3), 63.5 do 63.8 % kod mašine (M1) i 60.2 do 61.4 % kod mašine (M2).

Najveći prinos od 5.8 t·ha-1 je izmeren u tretmanu T3. Sličan prinos je bio kod tretmana

T1, T3 i T7 (kontrola).

Ključne reči: obrada ostataka, direktna setva, metod setve, otvarač brazed, setva

žita, osobine parcele

Prijavljen:

Submitted: 26.04.2016.

Ispravljen:

Revised:

Prihvaćen:

Accepted: 24.01.2017.







Year XLII No.1, 2017. pp: 11 – 20



DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A YIELD MONITOR FOR

GRAIN COMBINE HARVESTER

Karun Sharma*1

, Manjeet Singh2, Ankit Sharma

3

1Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering

2Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 3Punjab Agricultural University, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mansa, Punjab

Abstract: Yield monitor is an important development in precision farming that

allows the farmers to assess the yield variability within the field during crop harvesting.

In advanced countries, developed yield monitors used for high hp combines cannot be

applied on small indigenous combines due to design constraint and high cost. So, to

spread the use of yield monitoring combines in India, it was necessary to develop an

indigenous yield monitor for indigenous combines. For development of an indigenous

yield monitor, components such as auxiliary tank, load cell, inductive sensor and display

unit with micro-controller were identified. Indigenous yield monitor was developed by

assembling designed/selected components on local manufactured combine. Yield

monitor was also calibrated and evaluated in the field. The average value of measured

yield was 3931.1 kg·ha-1 with a standard deviation of 2020.8 kg·ha-1 having coefficient

of variation 51% which indicated that yield variability existed within the small and

marginal field.

Keywords: precision agriculture, combine harvester, yield monitor, load cell

calibration, yield variability

INTRODUCTION

Paddy-wheat is one of the most extensively adopted cropping patterns of Northern

India. The total production of rice and wheat in India was 106.54 and 95.91 million tons

in the year 2013-14. Similarly, in Punjab total production of rice and wheat was 11.27

and 10.17 million tons, respectively in the same year [1]. In Punjab, during last sixty


Sharma i sar.: Konstrukcija i razvoj . . . / Polj. Tehn. (2017/1). 11 - 20 12

years, agricultural production has increased manifold and this increase in production was

because of advancement in technologies and innovations, use of fertilizers, pesticides,

insecticides, high yielding, semi-dwarf and short duration varieties. Although, these

technologies and innovations have improved the socio-economic conditions of the

farmers but this has been done at a cost of environmental degradation [2]. The rice-

wheat rotation in Punjab is very much resource demanding and has led to an agrarian

crisis in Punjab in terms of depleting aquifers, reduced soil health, over exploitation of

natural resources, unabated application of pesticides, loss of soil fertility and

incorporation of non-biodegradable agricultural chemicals in soil and water. To increase

the production and to protect the soil & environment from ill effects of chemicals, there

is a need to adopt new farming techniques and technologies which help to protect our

natural resources by using these resources optimally. Hence, precision farming is that

technique which helps to achieve these goals. There are three basic steps i.e. assessing

variability, managing variability and evaluation in precision farming. To assess the

variability within a field or to get the first step of precision farming, yield monitoring

devices are needed to develop.

A yield monitor is a recent development in precision farming and agricultural

machinery that allows farmers to assess the yield variability in the field during

harvesting of crop [3]. A yield monitor used in conjunction with a Global Positioning

System (GPS) receiver records yield and location during harvest and give user an

accurate assessment of how yields vary within a field. Although in advanced countries,

high hp combines for large farms are available with yield monitors fitted as standard

equipment or installed separately. An impact type flow meter was developed which

measured grain forces on a curved circular tube using a load cell, near the top of a clean

grain elevator [4]. An impact-type yield sensor with a curved plate was developed and

tested in the lab; an error of 1 to 2% was noticed. However, the maximum error in the

field was up to 3.5% [5].

An intelligent yield monitor for grain combine harvester was developed for

harvesting the wheat crop. Field tests showed a linear relationship between actual yield

and the output of the yield monitor. The error between measurement and prediction was

less than 3%. It is concluded that the developed intelligent yield monitor is practical [6].

A modified version of optical sensor was designed to be specific to peanut mass-flow

measurement. Test results showed that the output of the peanut mass-flow sensor was

very strongly correlated with the harvested load weight, and the system’s performance

was stable and reliable during the tests. [7]. A batch type yield monitor was developed

which was having a load cell of capacity 700 kg with drum size 125x85x80 cm for grain

combines, used to measure the spatial variation of grains for use as single unit or by

putting directly in trailer. combine mounted batch type yield monitor was also developed

by fitting an auxiliary tank of size 145×100×85 cm in the main tank and load cell at the

bottom of the auxiliary tank. Yield variability of three different locations having C.V. of

5.46%, 27.56% and 35.34% were observed during the evaluation of batch type yield

monitor [8].

These developed yield monitors are difficult to install on indigenous combines

directly, because the sensors and systems usually design for those high hp combines and

are very costly. Consequently, there was an essential need to develop an indigenous

yield monitor by keeping various things in mind i.e. small combine, low cost and easy

working & installation. Although, farmer could understand the reasons of yield

Sharma et al.: Design and development . . . / Agr. Eng. (2017/1). 11 - 20 13

variations through routine farm work, a combine harvester installed with indigenous

yield monitor was expected to play an important role in establishing site specific crop

management and spreading related technology to farmers. In this view, the present study

was taken with the aim of design and development of an indigenous yield monitor for

grain combine harvester.


This chapter deals with the methods and material applied for the design and

development of an indigenous yield monitor for grain combine harvester.

Design of Indigenous Yield Monitor. Design of indigenous yield monitor includes

(1) Conceptual design of yield monitor (2) Design of auxiliary tank (3) Selection of load

cell, micro-controller 8051, inductive/speed sensor and display unit

Conceptual Design of Indigenous Yield Monitor. Conceptual design of indigenous

yield monitor was about the theoretical planning of how this yield monitor could be

developed physically. Yield monitor worked on the principle that the change in voltage

of Wheatstone bridge circuit in load cell will be correlated with the geo-referencing

points of the small fields and stored in the data logger to sense the yield of sites falling in

the combine tank. Different types of components such as auxiliary tank, single point

parallel type load cell, micro-controller with display unit and speed sensor were needed

to design/select for the development of an indigenous yield monitor. These components

were designed and selected due to their compatibility and operation in the yield monitor.

Parallel beam type load cell was selected because of its easy installation at the bottom of

the auxiliary tank. In this load cell design tension and/or compression loading is

possible, provides easy installation and flexible application. For the data acquisition, a

micro-controller 8051 with data presentation element was selected for the study, due to

its accuracy, easy installation and wider applicability. Inductive sensor is also known as

metal detective sensor as used to detect the metallic object without physical contact. A 3-

wire inductive proximity sensor was selected for present study because of its accuracy,

compatibility and easier installation. Fig. 1 shows the conceptual design diagram of

combine harvester installed with different components of indigenous yield monitor.

Figure 1. Design diagram of combine harvester installed

with different components of indigenous yield monitor


Design of Auxiliary Tank. Auxiliary tank was an additional tank to collect the

harvested grains and designed keeping in view that it should be fitted within the main

tank of combine and there must have the provision and space to open auxiliary tank. It

was made of steel sheet of 3 mm thickness and having a size of 1450 mm x 1000 mm x

850 mm. The angle iron of size 6 mm x 36 mm was used to make the frame of tank. The

capacity of tank was about 200 kg for paddy grains.

Selection of Load Cell, Inductive/Speed Sensor, Micro-controller and Display Unit.

Single point parallel load cell, having capacity of 700 kg, was selected due to its

compatibility with the present monitoring system. In this load cell design, tension and/or

compression loading were possible, provided easy installation and flexible application. A

3-wire inductive proximity sensor, a micro-controller 8051 for data acquisition and

liquid cooled display unit for data presentation were selected for the indigenous yield

monitor due to their accuracy, compatibility and easy installation.

Development of Indigenous Yield Monitor. Development of indigenous yield

monitor includes mounting and assembling of yield monitor’s components at combine

harvester, working of yield monitor and software development.

Mounting of Yield Monitor’s Components at Combine Harvester. Auxiliary tank

was placed on the load cell bed within the main tank of combine harvester. Load cell

was mounted under the auxiliary tank in between the designed load cell bed and

platform. Micro-controller 8051 was used to store and process the data of load cell &

inductive sensor and converted that data into readable form. Micro-controller was a

small component and fitted inside the display unit which was placed at front of driver’s

cabin. The inductive/speed sensor was mounted on the rear axle to count the wheel

revolution. It was mounted at rear wheels as these wheels have minimum slip in the field

being the towed wheel.

Assembling and Working of Indigenous Yield Monitor’s Component. After mounting

the components of yield monitor on combine harvester, next step was to assemble these

components with each others for accurate operation. Load cell, placed under the

auxiliary tank was connected with Micro-controller’s input pin 1. Inductive/speed sensor

was fitted at the rear axle of combine and its signal wire was connected with Micro-

controller’s input pin 2. Micro-controller, installed inside of display unit was further

connected with LCD of display unit, placed in front of operator’s seat to present the

output results. Fig. 2 shows the assembly of different components of indigenous yield

monitor.

Figure 2. Assembly of different components of indigenous yield monitor


Harvested/processed grains coming through the elevator fall in the auxiliary tank

and impact on load cell, fitted at the bottom of auxiliary tank. Load cell sent an analogue

signal to signal condition element. Similarly speed/inductive sensor sent the signal to the

conditioning element. In this element, analogue signal was converted into digital form

and impurities of signal were removed. The digital data sent to the micro-controller for

processing the data. Micro-controller stored and converted the data into understandable

form. Display unit was the data presentation element which showed yield data in

kilogram and distance in meter. Fig. 3 shows the block diagram of working operation of

yield monitor.

Figure 3. Block diagram of working of indigenous yield monitor

Software Development. Software in assembly language was developed to process

the load cell and inductive sensor’s data. The load cell calibrated data and inductive

sensor pulse was fed to software for calculating the cumulative yield and travelled

distance. The yield data in kilogram (kg) and traveled distance in meter (m) was

displayed as output data by display unit/data presentation element.

Calibration of Load Cell. Load cell was calibrated by putting different loads in the

auxiliary tank fitted with load cell placed under the auxiliary tank. Load cell connected

with the micro-controller presented the 24 bits Hax value against the load (kg). The Hax

value was converted into constant readable value with the help of available hexadecimal

into decimal converter software. These constants values were converted into load (kg)

with the help of calibration element. A straight line equation (Y = 345.0x + 16146)

having R2 = 0.99 was used to calculate the different values of load cell against different

loads (kg). Tab. 1 show the calibration chart between load cell values and load/weight

applied on load cell and R1, R2 and R3 represents the replications at different operating

speed of combine harvester.

Calibration and Accuracy of Inductive/Speed Sensor. To test the sensing accuracy of

speed sensor, a field was selected and a particular distance was measured with the help

of measuring tape. Combine was run on field and sensor counted the wheel revolution.

With the help of micro-controller, travelling distance of combine was calculated. After

three replications, it was found that the measured distance and calculated distance was


almost equal. Tab. 2 shows the accuracy of inductive sensor, where measured distance

indicates the distance measured by measuring tape and calculated distance represents the

distance calculated by micro-controller.

Table 1. Calibration chart between load cell values and load/weight applied on load cell

Sr.

No

Load

(kg)

Load cell value

R1 R2 R3 Average

1 0 161319 161327 161329 161325

2 30 171510 171515 171475 171500

3 60 183009 183013 182978 183000

4 95 194107 194112 194081 194100

5 130 206129 206137 206139 206135

Table 2. Accuracy of inductive sensor

Sr.

No

Measured distance

(m)

Calculated distance

(m)

Error

(%)

1 50 48.75 2.5

2 50 50.75 -1.5

3 50 49.0 2.0

Field Evaluation of Indigenous Yield Monitor. Paddy crop was selected for field

evaluation of indigenous yield monitor. Cumulative yield was measured and yield data

was stored by the yield monitor after harvesting the crop at distance equal to

circumference of rear wheel i.e. 2.5 meter of combine harvester. The variable yield data

calculated from the measured cumulative yield data in each grid size of 10 m2.


The yield monitor was evaluated for paddy crop of variety PR 118 to measure the

yield variability with in the field.

Yield Variability Measurement with Indigenous Yield Monitor. Three strips of paddy

crop were harvested at 3.0 km/h forward speed of combine harvester installed with

indigenous yield monitor and yield variability data in each harvested grid of 10 m2 area

is shown in Fig. 4. In first strip the maximum and minimum yield was 9.09 kg and 1.21

kg in 15th and 14th grid of size 10 m2 respectively. The moisture content of grains was

varying from 15.6 to 15.9% on dry basis during the harvesting of selected crop area. In

second strip the maximum and minimum yield was 7.09 and 1.7 kg in 13th and 2nd grid

of size 10 m2 respectively. Similarly, in third strip, the maximum and minimum yield

was 7.46 and 0 .65 kg in 15th and 4th grid of size 10 m2 respectively.

Yield variability maps of harvested strips at forward speed of 3.0 km/h are shown in

Fig. 5. In first strip, the minimum yield i.e. below 2500 kg/ha was in the maximum area

i.e. 37.5% followed by the yield having range 3750-5000 kg/ha in the area of 31.25%.

The maximum yield i.e. more than 6250 kg/ha was in only 12.5% area. In second strip,

the yield in the range 2500-3750 kg/ha was occupied the maximum area i.e. 37.5%

followed by the yield range 5000-6250 kg/ha in the area of 18.75%. The maximum yield


i.e. more than 6250 kg/ha was in only 12.5% area. In third strip, the minimum yield i.e.

below 2500 kg/ha was in the maximum area i.e. 37.5% followed by the yield range

3750-5000 kg/ha in the area of 25%. The maximum yield i.e. more than 6250 kg/ha was

in only 6.25% area.

The mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of yield data at forward

speed of 3.0 km/h is given in Table 3. The average value of measured yield data in three

harvested strips was 3931.1 kg/ha with a standard deviation of 2020.8 kg/ha having

coefficient of variation 51%, which indicated that yield variability existed within the

small and marginal field.

Grid Number

Grid Number

Grid Number

Figure 4. Yield variability v/s Grid Numbers

Table 3. Mean, standard deviation (S.D.) and coefficient of variation (C.V.)

at forward speed of 3.0 km/h

Attributes Forward speed (2 km/hr) Strip 1 (R1) Strip 2 (R2) Strip 3 (R3) Avg.

Mean (kg/ha) 3921.8 4018.1 3853.5 3931.1

Standard deviation (S.D) 2238.5 2051.9 1772.1 2020.8

Coefficient of variation (C.V) % 57 51 45 51

Cost Analysis of Yield Monitor. The major components of yield monitoring system

were load cell, auxiliary tank and data acquisition system includes micro-controller,

Yield

(kg)

Yield

(kg)

Yield

(kg)


proximity sensor and display unit. The total cost of yield monitoring system comprising

of load cell, auxiliary tank and data acquisition system was approximately Rs. 60000.

Fixed cost of yield monitor includes depreciation, interest etc. and operating cost

comprised of repair and maintenance of the system. Depreciation cost is calculated based

upon the purchase price of the system. The interest rate for calculating the interest cost

was assumed to be 10% and repair and maintenance cost was 5% of the purchase price.

Total operational time for harvesting by combine harvester for rice, wheat and maize

was assumed to be 150 days and field capacity of combine harvester was 0.75

hectare/hour. Hence, Total operational cost of yield monitor was calculated Rs. 12.5/hr

or Rs, 16.50/ha.

Figure 5. Yield variability maps of harvested strips

CONCLUSIONS

The conceptual design of indigenous yield monitor was that when grains fell from

combine elevator to auxiliary tank fitted in the main tank of combine, were measured by

load cell fitted at the bottom of the tank. Single point parallel type load cell for yield

measurement and inductive proximity sensor for distance measurement were selected for

development of indigenous yield monitor due to their accuracy and compatibility. Micro-

controller 8051 with display unit was selected to process the yield monitor’s data.

Indigenous yield monitor was developed by mounting and connecting these selected on

locally manufactured combine harvester. Calibration of load cell indicated linearity

between the loads (kg) and load cell values. The average value of measured yield was

3931.1 kg/ha with a standard deviation of 2020.8 kg/ha having coefficient of variation

51%, which indicated that yield variability existed within the paddy field.

4

m

4

0 m

2.

5 m Strip 1

Strip 2 Strip 3


BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Anonymous. 2015 Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2014, Government of India, Ministry of

Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Oxford University Press YMCA

Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110 001, India.

[2] Singh, H., Singh, K., Singh, M., Bector, V., Sharma, K. 2015 Field Evaluation of tractor

mounted soil sensor for measurement of electrical conductivity and soil insertion/compaction

force. Scientific Journal Agricultural Engineering, XL(3): 33-42.

[3] Shearer, S.A., Fulton, J.P., McNeill, S.G., Higgins, S.F. 1999 Elements of precision

agriculture: basics of yield monitor installation and operation. University of Kentucky.

[4] Baerdemaeker, J.De., Decroix, R., Lindemans, P. 1985 Monitoring the grain flow on

combines. In proc. Agrimation I conference and Exposition, Pp.329-338 St. Joseph, Mich:

ASAE.

[5] Vansichen, R., Baerdemaeker, D.J. 1991 Continuous wheat yield measurement on a combine.

In: Automated Agriculture for the 21st Century, Proceedings of the 1991 Symposium, ASAE

Pp. 346–355.

[6] Minzan, L., Peng, L., Wang, Q., Fang, J., Wang, M. 2003 Development of an intelligent yield

monitor for grain combine harvester. Key laboratory of Modern Precision Agriculture System

Integration Research, Ministry of Education, China Agriculture University, Beijing 100083,

China,

[7] Thomasson, J.A., Sui R., Wright, G.C., Robson, A.J. 2006 Optical peanut yield monitor:

development and testing. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 22(6): 809-818.

[8] Singh M., Singh J., Sharma A. 2011 Development of a batch type yield monitoring system for

grain combine harvester. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 48(4):10-16.

KONSTRUKCIJA I RAZVOJ UREĐAJA ZA MERENJE PRINOSA NA

ŽITNOM KOMBAJNU

Karun Sharma1, Manjeet Singh

2, Ankit Sharma

3

1Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering

2Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 3Punjab Agricultural University, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mansa, Punjab

Sažetak: Uređaj za merenje prinosa daje značajan doprinos razvoju precizne

poljoprivrede tako što farmerima omogućuje merenje promenljivosti prinosa tokom

žetve. U naprednim zemljama razvijeni uređaji ne mogu da se primene na malim

kombajnima domaće proizvodnje zbog visoke cene i razlika u konstrukciji. Zato postoji

potreba da se proširi upotreba monitora prinosa na domaćim kombajnima u Indiji, tako

šro će se razviti domaći uređaj. Za razvoj ovog uređaja određene su domaće

komponente: pomoćni rezervoar, ćelija tereta, indukcioni senszor i ekran sa mikro-

kontrolerom. Uređaj od ovih komponenti je postavljen na domaći kombajn, kalibrisan i

ocenjen u poljsim uslovima. Srednja vrednost izmerenog prinosa iznosila je 3931.1

kg·ha-1, sa standardnom devijacijom od 2020.8 kg·ha-1 i koeficijentom varijacije od


51%, što pokazuje da je promenljivost prinosa postojala u malom i zanemarljivom

interval.

Ključne reči: precizna poljoprivreda, kombajn, merač prinosa, kalibracija ćelije

tereta, promenljivost prinosa

Prijavljen:


Ispravljen:

Revised:

Prihvaćen:

Accepted: 12.01.2017.







Year XLII No. 1, 2017. pp: 21 – 30

UDK: 628.3:664 Originalni naučni rad


EFFECT OF TREATED WASTE WATER FROM FOOD

PROCESSING INDUSTRIES IN TOMATO PRODUCTION

THROUGH AUTOMATED DRIP IRRIGATION

Sandeep Kumar Pandey1*

, A.K. Jain2, Abhijit Joshi

3

1Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

2Punjab Agricultural University, Department of Soil and Water Engineering 3Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd. Jalgaon Maharashtra, India.

Abstract: The Water is the necessary source for all forms of life. The existing trial

was accompanied in Jain Irrigation System Ltd. Jalgaon (India), to check the feasibility

of treated waste water from food processing industry in agriculture. The experiment was

laid out in split plot design for tomato crop (Lycopersican esculentum) with two

treatments viz., treated fruit waste water (M1), treated and bore well fresh water (M2).

Two emitter were selected viz., Model B2.0 (Non pressure compensating – S2) and

Model C2.0 (Pressure compensating and compensating non leakage – S1). The different

observations on each treatment were taken such as uniformity coefficient, plant height,

yield, protein content and lycopene, fiber, carbohydrates content. The results showed

that the highest uniformity coefficient (97.9 %) M1 (01 DAS), plant height (69.82 cm)

M1, yield (35.42 t·ha-1), protein (0.92 %) M1 and lycopen (4.28%) M2. In conclusion,

treated fruit waste water can be used as an unconventional source of irrigation after fresh

water source, as it has positive effect on crop growth, yield and quality parameters, also

less maintenance while operating automated drip system as compared with treated fruit

waste water.

Key words: waste water, uniformity coefficient, treated fruit waste water, bore bell

fresh water, tomato

INTRODUCTION

Paper Waste water management in India has become an extremely important area of

focus due to increasing health awareness and population pressure. Despite the

wastewater sector witnessing major growth in the last decade due to increasing


Pandey i sar.: Upotreba tretirane . . . / Polj. Tehn. (2017/1). 21 - 30 22

government support and private participation, the scale of the problem remains

enormous. For instance, it is estimated that less than 20% of domestic and 60% of

industrial wastewater is treated. Metros and large cities (more than 100,000 inhabitants)

are treating only about 29.2% of their wastewater; smaller cities treat only 3.7% of their

wastewater. (Anoon)

Agricultural use of water accounts for nearly 70 per cent of the water used

throughout the world, and the majority of this water is used for irrigation. The sources of

irrigation water are limited and demand for agricultural products is increasing.

Inadequate access to water is one of the biggest problems faced the world. India is one

such nation where demand of water has continuously overlapped its supply. The total

water demand in the country in 2003 was close to 465 BCM which has been increased to

634 BCM in 2013 (www.snpinfrasol.com, 2014).The waste water from industries varies

greatly in both flow and pollutional strength. Industrial wastewater may contain

suspended, colloidal and dissolved (mineral and organic) solids. These wastes may

contain inert, organic or toxic materials and possibly pathogenic bacteria. It is necessary

to pre-treat the wastes water prior to release to the agriculture or municipal system. Jain

Irrigation has food processing facilities for dehydration of onion, vegetables and

production of fruit purees, concentrates and pulp. The annual average availability of

treated waste water generated from fruit processing is 200000 cubic meters and from

onion dehydration plant is about 150000 cubic meters (Anonymous, 2012). Tomato

(Lycopersicon esculentum ) fruit, often described as a vegetable fruit is a true berry, a

type of fleshy fruit characterized by its soft pulp, thin skin and many seeds. On a

worldwide scale, tomato continues to increase in importance for consumption as a fresh

crop, as a major constituent in many prepared foods and also as materials for research

into the fundamental principles of growth and development in plantation. Economically,

tomato tops the list in value among edible vegetables. Tomato fruits contain various

minerals and vitamins (Decuypere, 2006). It is grown in 0.458 M ha area with 7.277 M

mt production and 15.9 mt/ha productivity. The major tomato producing states are Bihar,

Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and

West Bengal. In West Bengal, tomato is grown over an area of 43,600 ha with the

production 0.588 M mt and productivity of 13.6 mt/ha. Tomato is rich source of vitamins

A, C, potassium, minerals and fibers. . Tomatoes are used in the preparation of soup,

salad, pickles, ketchup, puree, and sauces also consumed as a vegetable in many other

ways. (Anon, 2011). However, major tomato cultivation area is spread in rain fed

condition contributing around 80-82 per cent of annual production in kharif, whereas left

over production come from Rabi and summer season under irrigated conditions. India is

a second largest country to produce the tomato in the world. The tomato production in

India 17,500,000 MT (FAOSTAT 2012). The world dedicated 4.8 million hectares in

2012 for tomato cultivation and the total production was about 161.8 million tonnes. The

average world farm yield for tomato was 33.6 tonnes per hectare, in 2012.


Field experiment was conducted during 30th January 2015 to 30th May 2015 in Rabi

season. The experiment was located at Jain irrigation Systems Ltd. Jalgaon, India. The

climate is semi-arid and the average annual rainfall is 690 mm. The maximum and

Pandey et al.: Effect of treated . . . / Agr. Eng. (2017/1). 21 - 30 23

minimum temperature and ET during the cropping period was 33 °C and 12 mm day -1

and the minimum was 9.5 °C and 3.8 mm day-1 respectively. Soil texture of the

experimental conducted site is sandy clay-loam. The total experimental area was about

1500 m2 in the vicinity of food processing plant. The experiment was laid out in split

plot design with 2 main treatments, 2 sub treatments with 5 replications are presented in

the fig1. The raised beds of 1.2 m x 10 m were prepared for transplantation of tomato

plant by maintaining plant and row spacing (30 cm x 40 cm). There were five

replications for each treatment; Net plot size-9.2m x 8m and net plot area having about

720 m2. Variety- Synzenta-1389 (Hybrid Tomato) was used for transplanting. The

irrigation system consists of automatic irrigation controller, EC and PH sensor,

Temperature sensor, Soil moisture sensor, Weather station, 5000 litre storage tank, 2.5

hp pump, 63 mm water meter, 25 m3/hr. sand and disc filter, 40 mm control valves, 40

mm main line, 32 mm sub main lines, 16 inline laterals and other necessary details of

treatment and sub treatments are explained below and depicted in plate1;

1. Main treatments (irrigation sources)

M1 - Treated fruit waste water (TFWW)

M2 - Bore well fresh water (BWFW)

2. Sub treatment (emitter types – discharge 2 lph, emitter spacing 30 cm)

S1 - Pressure compensating, compensating non leakage emitter (Model C2.0)

S2 - Non pressure compensating emitter (Model B2.0)

Figure 1. Automated drip system and experimental tomato crop layout

Determination of peak water requirement. Amount of irrigation water applied to

drip treatments were based on daily pan evaporation readings. The water requirement of

the crop was calculated based on the following equation mentioned in Jain Irrigation

Systems Manual (Anonymous, 2008).

Q = A x B x C x D (1)

Where

Q [lpd] Quantity of water required,

A [m2] Gross area per plant,

B [-] Amount of area covered with foliage,

C [-] Crop Coefficient.

D = Kp x Epan (2)

Where

Kp [-] Pan Coefficient


Epan [mm] Evaporation from Class A open pan Evaporimeter.

Determination of uniformity coefficient (UC). To determine the uniformity

coefficient in drip irrigation the depth of water in the formula was replaced by discharge

rate of drip and the discharge of emitter was measured by volumetric method for three

minutes. The uniformity coefficient was calculated using equation:

UC=100 [1- D/M] (1)

Where

UC [%] Uniformity coefficient,

D [lph] Average absolute deviation from the mean discharge rate,

M [lph] Mean discharge rate.

Periodically observations on each treatment were taken for uniformity coefficient,

plant height, yield, protein and fat content.


Water analysis. Treated waste water analysis revealed that all studied parameters

were within permissible limit as declared by Maharashtra Pollution Control Board.

Water analysis result should that the treated waste water from both fruit as well as onion

processing industries was adding macro and micro nutrient in the water. Average value

of waste water analysis is given in Table 1.

Table1. Quality of treated waste water and fresh water used for experiment

Parameter Units MPCB Norms Different water treatment

TFWW BWFW

TDS Ppm 2100 810.67 788.30

pH 6.5-9.0 7.27 6.73

BOD Ppm 30 8.83 0.56

COD Ppm 250 78.03 0.93

CI Ppm 600 141.67 0.00

S Ppm 1000 47.67 0.00

EC ds/m - 1.22 1.10

N Ppm - 2.23 0.48

P Ppm - 0.65 1.48

K Ppm - 44.23 50.94

Na Ppm - 175.67 23.36

Ca Ppm - 88.00 95.65

Mg Ppm - 53.67 34.35

Soil analysis. Soil samples were collected before sowing; the soil analysis results

indicated that soil had clay loam texture with low bulk density and moderate field

capacity. All the nutrients viz., major N, P, K, secondary Ca, Mg and S and micro

nutrient Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn are comparatively higher in surface 10 cm soil with the

exception of K which is higher in lower depths (Table 2).


Table 2. Soil characteristics of the experimental plot before treatment

Parameters Range Soil Sampling

N (kg/ha) 280 – 560 163.07

P (kg/ha) 23 – 56 2.23

K (kg/ha) 130 – 336 126.79

Ca (%) 0.05 -0.41 0.12

Mg (%) 0.01 – 0.05 0.08

Fe (ppm) 5 – 10 4.77

Mn (ppm) 5 – 10 3.52

Zn (ppm) 0.5 – 1.0 0.37

Cu (ppm) 0.2 – 0.4 2.41

S (ppm) 10 – 20 7.06

Sand (%) - 34.48

Silt (%) - 33.32

Clay (%) - 32.19

Bulk density (gm/cc) - 1.30

Field capacity (%) - 35.98

Permanent wilting point (%) - 21.96

Texture - Clay loam

Uniformity coefficient. In this study we compute statistical parameters and analyse

uniformity of the subsurface drip system. The data pertaining to uniformity coefficient of

drip irrigation system at different stages (01, 30, 60, and 90 DAS) of crop growth as

influenced by different irrigation treatments and different emitter types as well as their

interactions are presented in the Fig.1. There was significant effect of different irrigation

treatments on the uniformity coefficient throughout the experiment, except at the end of

experiment i.e. 90 DAS, there was not much difference in the uniformity under each

treatment due to maintenance of automated drip system. The highest uniformity

coefficient about was 97.09 per cent (01 DAS) was observed under TFWW. On the

contrary there was no any significant effect among the different emitter types, hence the

highest uniformity coefficient of 97.4 per cent was observed under Model C2.0 type

emitter (01 DAS). On the contrary, lowest uniformity coefficient of 88.60 per cent (90

DAS) was observed under Model B2.0 type emitter. Uniformity coefficient of emitters

was within permissible limit throughout the experiment due to regular maintenance of all

the components of automated drip irrigation system. The special care was taken to

increase the clogging resistance of emitters by regular chlorine and acid treatment. The

similar results were observed by Capra and Scicolone (2004).

Plant height. Plant height is an important character of vegetative phase and

indirectly influences the yield components. The data pertaining to plant height at

different stages 15, 30, 60, and 90 DAS of crop growth was not influenced by different

irrigation treatments and different emitter types as well as their interactions are presented

in the Fig.4.

There was no significant effect of different irrigation treatments on plant height

during all stages of plant growth. Under BWFW, highest plant height was 69.8 cm

(60DAS) and lowest plant height was 14.4 cm (15DAS). But at harvesting stage i.e. after

90DAS the plant height was declining from 69.8 in TFWW and 67.6 cm in BWFW. This

may be due to non-function able leaves and stem.


Figure 2. Average Uniformity coefficient

Figure 3. Effect of different irrigation treatments on uniformity coefficient

There was no significant effect of emitter types on plant height during all stages of

plant growth. Under S1 emitter type, highest plant height was 69.8 cm (60DAS) and

lowest plant height was 14.0 cm (15DAS) under S1 type emitter. But at harvesting stage

i.e. after 90das the plant height was declining from 67.6 in M1 and 69.3 cm in M2. This

may be due to non-function able leaves and stem. The interaction effects due to different

irrigation treatments and emitter types on plant height during all stages of plant growth

were found to be non-significant except S1 type of emitter at 15 DAS showed significant

growth in plant height.

As a result of this may be due to the nitrogen, potassium nutrient increase the plant

height. Higher nitrogen and potassium uptake in sandy clay loam soil is an evidence for

this.

Yield . Number of fruit per cluster. The data pertaining to number of fruit cluster/

plant at different stages 45, 60 and 90 DAS of crop growth was influenced by different

irrigation treatments and different emitter types as well as their interactions are presented

in the Fig. 5.


There was no significant effect of different irrigation treatments on number of fruit

cluster/ plant during all stages of plant growth. Under BWFW, highest number of fruit

cluster/ plant of were 6.3 (60DAS) and lowest number of fruit cluster/ plant was 4.1

(45DAS). But at harvesting stage i.e. after 90DAS the number of fruit cluster/ plant was

declining from 5.7 in TFWW and 6.2 in BWFW.

Figure 4. Effect of different irrigation treatments on tomato plant height

There was no significant effect of emitter types on number of fruit cluster/ plant

during all stages of plant growth. Under S1 emitter type, highest number of fruit cluster/

plant was 6.1 (60DAS) and lowest number of fruit cluster/ plant was 2.9 (30DAS) under

S2 type emitter. But at harvesting stage i.e. after 90DAS the number of fruit cluster/

plant was declining from 6.1 in S1 and 5.9 in S2.

The interaction effects due to different irrigation treatments and emitter types on

number of fruit cluster/ plant during all stages of plant growth were found to be non-

significant.

The data pertaining to weight per tomato influenced by different irrigation

treatments and different emitter types as well as their interactions are presented in the

Table 4.16 and Fig 4.10.

Non Significantly weight per tomato was observed under BWFW was about 81 gm.

On the contrary, lowest weight per tomato 70 gm was observed under TFWW. Among

the different emitter types, Non significantly highest weight per tomato 80.8 gm was

observed under S2 type emitter. On the contrary, lowest weight per tomato was about

79.7 gm under S1 type emitter.

The interaction effects due to different irrigation treatments and emitter types on

weight per tomato during all stages of plant growth were found to be non-significant.

The data pertaining to grain yield influenced by different irrigation treatments and

different emitter types as well as their interactions are presented in the Fig 3.

Significantly highest Tomato yield was observed under BWFW was about 9.92 t ha-1.


On the contrary, but among treated waste water TFWW (8.34 t ha-1) has significant

effect on tomato yield. Among the different emitter types, significantly highest tomato

yield of 9.04 t ha-1 was observed under Model C2.0 type emitter. On the contrary,

lowest tomato yield was 7.15 t ha-1 in Model B2.0 type emitter. Interaction effects due

to different irrigation treatments and emitter types on tomato yield were found to be

significant. The more difference in the tomato yield was observed in the BWFW

followed by TFWW. The maximum tomato yield was observed in the Model C2.0 type

emitter (10.56 t ha-1) in BWFW. This may be due the treated waste water was carrying

impurities were affecting the emitter performance and still the pressure compensating

emitter were better than non-pressure compensating emitter in case of uniformity. Also

the treated waste water was adding macro as well as micro nutrient to the soil and which

was available during its growth period. Similar findings was observed by Hassanli et al.

(2010)

Figure 5. Effect of different irrigation treatments on tomato yield

Quality parameters. The influence of different irrigation treatments and different

emitter types as well as their interactions on quality parameters of tomato such as

protein, carbohydrates, fats, ash, crude fiber and energy are presented. Quality of

Tomato depends on amount of protein, lycopene, fiber and carbohydrates content within

it. TFWW is containing maximum amount of protein (0.92%). This may be due to the

essential micro nutrient present in the treated waste water from fruit processing plant

was available during growing period.

CONCLUSIONS

- Please Model C2.0 type of emitter was having better performance throughout the

experiment than Model B2.0 type emitter. It was observed that UC were more than

90 per cent for Model C2.0 type of emitter under TFWW and BWFW. Performance

of automated drip irrigation system was within the permissible limit for TFWW, due

to chlorine and acid treatment for BWFW.


- Maximum yield was obtained under Model C2.0 type emitter in BWFW; whereas

minimum yield was obtained under Model B2.0 type emitter in TFWW.

- The yield obtained under TFWW was 31.01t ha-1 under Model C2.0 type emitter

and yields obtained Model B2.0 type emitter used BWFW was 35.42 t ha-1 under

the automated drip irrigation system.

- Maximum yield was obtained under Model C2.0 type emitter in BWFW; whereas

minimum yield was obtained under Model B2.0 type emitter in TFWW.

- Percentage of protein, carbohydrates, lycopene, sugar and moisture content in the

tomato was increased under treated fruit waste water.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Adewoye, A.O., Okunade, D.A. and Adekalu K.O. 2010, Assessing the Yields and Nutrient

Uptake of Okra Abelmoschus Esculentu Using Diluted Stabilized Wastewater for Irrigation in

South -Western Nigeria. Journal of Waste Water Treatment Analysis 1:104.

DOI:10.4172/2157-7587.1000104.

[2] Anonymous, 2008, Jain irrigation systems manual, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, pp. 32-53.

[3] Anonymous, 2012, Jain Irrigation farm fresh annual report 2012, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, pp.8.

[4] Hassanli A M, Ahmadirad S and Beecham S, 2010, Evaluation of the influence of irrigation

methods and water quality on sugar beet yield and water use efficiency Journal of

Agricultural Water Management, 97:357–362.

[5] http://mpcb.gov.in, 2014, Maharashtra Pollution Control Board. pp. 1-6.

[6] Pacco H C, Sandri D, Rinaldi M M, Neves P E C and Valenter R M, (2009) Tomatoes

produced in the greenhouse, irrigated with raw water and wastewater, and organoleptic

quality. Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine UNB, Brasilia Planaltina.pp.1-6.

[7] www.snpinfrosol.com, (2014) Report on water and waste water sector in India- evaluating

and emerging opportunities, pp. 12-37.

[8] Zhang Y, Ghaly A E and Bingxi L (2012) Physical properties of corn residues. American

Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 8(2): 44-53.

[9] "FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2012 data". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations. 2014.

[10] "Production of Tomato by countries". Food and Agriculture Organization. 2012. Retrieved 30

June 2014.; "Food and Agricultural Organization." http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx,

accessed 13 Aug 2013.

[11] Decuypere JD (2006). Food and industrial value of tomato. United State Department of

Agriculture (USDA) food and Nutrition centre. Annual Publication, pp. 100-106.

[12] FAO (2002). Production of Nigeria, Principal Crops, pp. 26-28.

[13] European business and technology center.www.ebtc.eu. The Association of European

Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Pp-6.

[14] Malunjkar, V.S., Deshmukh, S.K. 2015. Energy efficiency assessment of micro irrigation.

Agricultural Engineering, 1: 95-102.

[15] Panigrahi and Sharma, 2016. Using Hydrus-2D Model for Simulating Soil Water Dynamics

in Drip-Irrigated Citrus. Agricultural Engineering, 1: 59 – 68.


UPOTREBA TRETIRANE OTPADNE VODE IZ PREHRAMBENE

INDUSTRIJE U PROIZVODNJI PARADAJZA

KROZ AUTOMATIZOVANO NAVODNJAVANJE

Sandeep Kumar Pandey1, A.K. Jain

2, Abhijit Joshi

3

1Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

2Punjab Agricultural University,

Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Ludhiana Punjab 3Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd. Jalgaon Maharashtra, India.

Sažetak: Voda je neophodna za sve forme života. Ovo istraživanje je izvedno radi

provere održivosti primene tretirane otpadne vode iz prehrambene industrije u

poljoprivredi. Ogled je postavljen na parcelama paradajza (Lycopersican esculentum) sa

dva tretmana, tretirana otpadna voda od voća (M1) i sveža voda iz bušenog bunara (M2).

Dva modela su izabrana, Model B2.0 (Bez kompenzacije pritiska – S2) i Model C2.0

(Pritisak kompenzacije – S1). Ispitivani su koeficijent ujednačenosti, visina biljaka,

prinos, sadržaj proteina, likopena, vlakana i ugljenih hidrata. Rezultati su pokazali da je

najviši koeficijent ujednačenosti (97.9 %) M1 (01 DAS), visina biljaka (69.82 cm) M1,

prinos (35.42 t·ha-1), protein (0.92 %) M1 i likopen (4.28%) M2. Zaključeno je da

tretirana otpadna voda može biti upotrebljena kao izvor za navodnjavanje posle sveže

vode.

Ključne reči: otpadna voda, koeficijent ujednačenosti, tretirana otpadna voda, voda

iz bunara, paradajz

Prijavljen:


Ispravljen:

Revised:

Prihvaćen:

Accepted: 12.12.2016.







Year XLII No. 1, 2017. pp: 31 – 40



QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE ASSISTED

FLUIDIZED BED DRIED BUTTON MUSHROOMS

(Agaricusbisporus)

Azad Gaurh1, Anjineyulu Kothakota*

1,Sankar Rao

2, Ranaselva

3,

Gourikutty Kunjurayan Rajesh 3

1GBPUAT, Department of Post Harvest Process & Food Engineering,

Pantnager-263145, Uttarakhand, India 2 MAU, Department of Food Science and Technology,

Parbhani- -431402, Maharastra, India 3 KAU, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering & Technology,

Tavanur-679573, Kerala, India

Abstract: Microwave assisted fluidized bed drying can greatly improve the quality

characteristics of button mushroom (Agaricusbisporus) slices. The quality attributes such

as colour, texture, rehydration ratio and sensory score of dehydrated mushrooms using

microwave assisted fluidized bed drying were compared with fluidized bed and sun dried

products. Microwave assisted fluidized bed dried mushrooms had better quality

characteristics with high rehydration potential, better colour and softer texture than other

drying techniques. The shrinkage and rehydration ratio of microwave assisted fluidized

bed drying varied between 67.115%-69.12% and 3.12%-4.59%, respectively. Similarly,

the hardness value and cohesiveness varied between 1.24-1.63 N and 0.19-0.49,

respectively. L*, a* and b* values of dehydrated button mushroom were range between

76.1-78.8, -1.09-3.76 and 7.01-11.01, respectively. The microwave-fluidized dried

mushrooms showed higher sensory score by sensory panel in terms of appearance, color

and overall acceptability.

Key words: button mushrooms, microwave-fluidized bed drying, rehydration ratio,

shrinkage, sensory score

* Corresponding author. E-Mail: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Gaurh i sar.: Kvalitativne . . . / Polj. Tehn. (2017/1). 31 - 40 32

INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms are non-green edible fungi which comprise a large heterogeneous group

having various shapes, sizes, appearance and edibility. It plays an importance role in

human diet due to the presence of protein, non-starchy carbohydrates and dietary fiber,

minerals and vitamins. Button mushroom (100g) contains 1.8g protein, 0.5g fat, 0.4g

carbohydrate, 0.2g sugar and 0.2g starch [1]. Button mushrooms are highly perishable as

they contain moisture in the range of 6.75 to 18.9 kg/kg dry basis (87% to 95%, wet

basis) [2]. Low fat content, absence of cholesterol and high fiber content makes

mushroom dietician’s choice for heart patients and also inhibit aromatase activity and

suppress breast cancer cell proliferation The production of mushroom in India during the

year 2013-14was 25000 tones.

Nowadays button mushroom have enormous post harvest losses, estimated nearly as

20 to 30% of total production[3]. So, there is a need to develop some processing

techniques to reduce the post harvest losses.

Drying of button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is done by different methods viz.

sun drying, tray and cabinet drying, fluidized/sprouted bed drying, microwave oven

drying and freeze drying [4]

The factors that affects drying rate are temperature, thickness of button mushroom,

method of drying and moisture diffusivity. Sulphitation followed by drying is one of the

pretreatment methods for button mushrooms. The drying method used in this study is

microwave drying followed by fluidized bed drying technique. The microwave treatment

helps for the instant loss of moisture from the sliced mushrooms while the later drying

technique showed faster rate of drying with retaining the quality of the dried product.

The quality evaluation of the dried mushroom was done based on shrinkage, rehydration

ratio, colour, texture and sensory evaluation.


The fresh button mushroom (4 cm size) without any defect was procured from

Mushroom Research Centre, Pantnagar for the proposed study. It was washed

thoroughly using potable water and soaked in 1.5% (Potassium metabisulphate) KMS

solution for 15 min at room temperature for preservation. KMS preserves the natural

colour of button mushroom and protects against bacteria. It was then blanched at 100°C

with 3% common salt for 3 min in hot water to inactivate the enzymes and to retain the

colour.

Microwave oven dryer: The drying apparatus used consisted of a microwave oven

(Essential microwave oven fitted with National Magnetron with 800 Watts power and

with 5 modes), which is operated at a 2450 MHz. The energy input was microprocessor

controlled from 160W-800W.

Fluidized bed dryer: The fluidized bed dryer consist of a centrifugal blower, holding

bin, heating coils, motor and thermostat control. The blower was centrifugal type with a

capacity of 32m3/min, run by a 3 hp, 3ɸ and 1400 rpm motor through a belt drive

system. A sliding shutter was provided at the suction end to control the flow rate of air.

Four fin type electrical heaters of 90 cm length were placed inside the drum. The

thermostat at the discharge end measures the temperature of hot air and connected to the

Gaurh et al.: Quality . . . / Agr. Eng. (2017/1). 31 - 40 33

main supply to control the power supply to the heater coils. Hot air of 40-750C

temperature at a flow rate of 9 to 32m3/min could be obtained in the dryer.

Experimental procedure: After chemical pretreatment in KMS and sodium chloride,

button mushroom pieces were dried in microwave oven dryer and fluidized bed dryer.

The drying was carried out at different operating conditions of the dryer viz. drying time

in microwave oven dryer, temperature and air velocity of fluidized bed dryer. The sun

drying is also carried out simultaneously for the similar pretreated button mushrooms.

Shrinkage measurement:The button mushrooms were chopped into four equal pieces and

its weight and bulk volume were measured. The same experiment was conducted for

dried sample. Volumetric changes after dehydration of button mushroom pieces was

measured by the liquid displacement method using liquid toluene.Shrinkage was

expressed in terms of percentage change in the volume of the original sample.

Shrinkage =

× 100 (1)

Where:

[ml] Initial volume,

[ml] Final volume.

Rehydration ratio: Rehydration ratio (RR), a measure of rehydration characteristics

of dried mushroom slices was determined by immersing 5 g of dried samples in distilled

water at 30 and 1000C temperatures. The water was drained and the samples weighed at

every 30 min intervals for those immersed at 300C and at every 2 min intervals for those

at 1000C. Triplicate samples were used. Rehydration ratio was defined as the ratio of

weight of rehydrated samples to the dry weight of the sample

Textural Measurement: The textural properties of rehydrated button mushroom were

determined according to the procedures outlined in the ASTM methods using a texture

analyzer (Model TA.HD plus, United Kingdom) [5]. Samples were fixed on the plate of

the equipment and probe P/75 was moved perpendicularly to the mushroom surface at a

constant speed and the force-deformation were determined.

Color Measurement: For the measurement of colour of samples combination of

digital camera, computer and Adobe Photoshop 7.0 software provides a less expensive

and more versatile way to determine colour parameters of food products than traditional

colour measuring equipments and also good colour of sample depends upon the intensity

of light and distance between sample and camera. This colour measuring technique

involves setting up a lighting system, high resolution digital camera to capture images of

food samples[6].

The sample was placed under the source of light at minimum distance and intensity

of light over the sample should be uniform for good quality colour. Digital camera (Sony

13 mega pixels) was used to capture the image of sample. The L*, a*, b* values of

samples were measured by using Adobe Photoshop 7.0 software.


The optimized drying conditions for drying under microwave assisted fluidized bed

drying and other drying methods viz., fluidized and suns drying are presented inTable.1.


The drying is carried out in microwave followed with fluidized bed drying, separate

fluidized bed drying and sun drying. The optimization of drying parameters drying

temperature, time and air velocity of mechanical dryers was done based on rate of

moisture removal rate and quality of dried product.

Table.1. Optimized drying parameter for drying of button mushroom

S.No Drying conditions Microwave with

fluidized bed dryer

Fluidized

bed dryer Sun drying

1. Drying temperature (°C) 40 50 27 to 31*

2. Air velocity (m/s) 3.2 3.2 -

3. Drying time (min) 2.7 and 60 to 65 210 5760

4. Moisture content% (d.b) 8 to 9 8 to 9 23 * Sun drying was carried out from 9 AM to 4 PM

Quality evaluation of button mushroom: The quality evaluation of dried button

mushrooms under optimized conditions of the three drying types is evaluated. The

shrinkage, rehydration ratio, texture, colour and sensory analysis were done for the dried

product and results are discussed below. The effect of drying parameters on the quality

of the dried mushroom have been analyzed statistically using regression equation with

modeling equation that fit to the curve and also analyzed graphically.

Shrinkage: Dried product usually shows the shrinkage due to the removal of

moisture content. Dried product always contracted in size compared to the original

material [7][8]. Volumetric shrinkage is a major parameter that affects the drying rate

due to change in surface area. Hence to determine the volumetric shrinkage is essential.

The average shrinkage varied from between 67.11 to 69.12%. It was lower in case

of 2.5 min drying in microwave oven dryer. The shrinkage of button mushroom was 79

and 75% in case of sun drying and fluidized bed drying respectively. Higher shrinkage

was seen in sun drying and fluidized bed drying than microwave assisted fluidized bed

dehydration. Similar result was reported by [9]button mushroom pieces dried by using

vacuum drying. They concluded that over drying time and loss drying has more

shrinkage than average drying time.

Shrinkage of button mushroom decreased from 67.9 to 65.8% with increasing air

velocity (3.2 m/s) in fluidized bed drying keeping other variables (time and temperature)

at optimum point. The graph Fig. 1. Presented below shows interactive effect of air

velocity and temperature on shrinkage of button mushroom. Minimum shrinkage was

obtained at optimum point of air velocity (3.2 m/s) at 42°C temperature while maximum

shrinkage was obtained at air velocity (1.8 m/s) at 52°C temperature. From Fig. 2, at

quadratic level, it is clear that the shrinkage of button mushroom decreased from 66.4 to

64.98 and increased from 64.98 to 67.2 with increasing drying time (3 min) in

microwave oven dryer keeping variable (temperature and air velocity) at optimum point.

The rehydration property is important for the better market value and consumer

acceptability of the dried mushrooms. It was analyzed in terms of the ability of the

dehydrated button mushroom to regain the original product characteristics. Rehydration

kinetics was studied for a period of 5 min at 100°C temperature. The result of

rehydration ration was statistically analyzed using regression analysis. Second order

mathematical model (Eq.6.) was fitted into the rehydration ratio data to analyze the

effect of variables.


Fresh sample had moisture content of about 90.33% and it decreased with increase

in temperature. The average rehydration ratio varied between 3.12 to 4.59. Similar result

was found by[10].Rehydration ratio was higher in the case of 2.5 min drying in

microwave oven dryer and it was 2.12 and 2.52 for sun drying and fluidized bed drying

respectively. It was significantly lower in case of sun drying and fluidized bed drying

than microwave assisted fluidized bed dehydration. This is attributing to less shrinkage

of dried material. [10]Reported that the rehydration ratio of button mushroom dried using

freeze drying was 3.416 and for microwave finish drying rehydration ratio was 2.850.

At optimum point (X1= 0.40)

Tem

per

ature

of

fluid

ized

bed

dry

er,

°C

(X3)

Air velocity of fluidized bed dryer, m/s (X2)

Figure 1. Temperature versus air velociy of fluidized bed dryer at interactive level

Figure 2. Shrinkage versus drying time for microwave dryer at quadratic level

Rehydration ratio

Total effect of individual parameter on rehydration ratio was calculated using the

sequential sum of squares. It was observed that drying time for microwave oven dryer

affected Rehydration ratio significantly at 1% level of significance, air velocity of

fluidized bed dryer at 5% level of significance and temperature of the fluidized bed dryer

affect 10% level of significance. Similar result was obtained by [11].

Drying time for microwave dryer, min (X1)

Shri

nkag

e

(%)


Second order predictive quadratic equation for Rehydration ratio (%) is given

below:

Y = 4.34-0.039X1-0.027X2-0.18X3+0.34X1X2 -0.030X1X3 +0.0074X2X3-0.74X1

2

-1.10X22 +0.15X3

2 (2)

Where:

Y [-] Rehydration ratio,

X1 [s] Drying time for microwave oven dryer,

X2 [m/s] Air velocity of fluidized bed dryer,

X3 [°C] Temperature of the fluidized bed dryer.

The interactive effect of air velocity and drying time on rehydration ratio of button

mushroom. Maximum rehydration ratio was obtained at optimum point of drying time

(2.5 min) at 3.2 m/s air velocity while minimum rehydration ratio was obtained at drying

time 2 and 3 min in microwave oven dryer. It decreased from 3.49 to 4.5 and gradually

decreased from 4.5 to 4.2 with increasing drying time in microwave oven dryer keeping

other variables (air velocity and temperature) at optimum point.

Figure 3. Rehydration ratio versus temperature of fluidized bed dryer at linear level

Texture characteristics: Texture characteristics of rehydrated button mushroom

pieces were studied in terms of hardness and cohesiveness. Texture of button mushroom

pieces was measured using Texture analyzer. The hardness value varied between 1.24 N

to 1.63 N and cohesiveness varied from 0.19 to 0.49 for microwave assisted fluidized

bed drying.[12]Observed the same trend of hardness and cohesiveness for rehydrated

button mushroom. Hardness was 2.56 and 2.13 and cohesiveness was 0.07 and 0.10 in

case of sun drying and fluidized bed drying respectively. The hardness was higher and

cohesiveness was less in case of sun drying and fluidized bed drying than microwave

assisted fluidized bed dehydration. It was also observed that hardness was increased and

cohesiveness was decreased with increase in drying time and temperature.

It was observed that drying time for microwave oven dryer affected Hardness

significantly at 1% level of significance, air velocity of fluidized bed dryer and

temperature of the fluidized bed dryer affect 10% level of significance. Similar result

Air

vel

oci

ty o

f fl

uid

ized

bed

dry

er,

X2 (m

/s)

At optimum point (X2= 1)



was obtained by [13]. In the present study, effect of three variables on Hardness was

observed.

The graph Fig.4. below indicates that hardness of rehydrated button mushroom is

increased from 1.38 to 1.29 and increased from 1.29 to 1.63 with increasing in drying

time in microwave oven dryer keeping other variables (air velocity and temperature) at

optimum point. It also increases with increase in air velocity in fluidized bed dryer

keeping at optimum point.

Figure 4. Hardness versus drying time for microwave dryer at linear level

The cohesiveness of rehydrated button mushroom increased from 0.32 to 0.46,

decreased from 0.46 to 0.18 with increasing in drying time in microwave keeping other

variables (air velocity and temperature) at optimum point. It increased from 0.39 to 0.41

andstart decreasing from 0.41 with increasing air velocity of fluidized bed dryer keeping

other variables (drying time and temperature) at optimum point.

Figure 5. Cohesiveness versus drying time for microwave dryer at linear level

Colour characteristics: The colour of dried button mushroom indicates its quality of

consumer acceptability pieces were measured in terms of L* value (darkness/brightness),

a* value (greenness/redness) and b* value (blueness/yellowness). L*, a* and b* values

of fresh button mushroom pieces was 85.2, 0.5 and 9.11. L*, a* and b* values of

dehydrated button mushroom were range between 76.1 to 78.8, -1.09 to 3.76 and 7.01 to

11.01 respectively. Similar result was found by [14]. The L*,a* and b* of button

At optimum point (X2= 1.0 and X3= -1)


Har

dnes

s (N

)



Cohes

iven

es

s


mushroom was 70.3,-1.20 and 8.02 in case of fluidized bed drying but L* was 72.8, a*

was -1.29 and b* was 7.56 in sun drying. The sun dried product was dark than fluidized

bed dried than microwave assisted fluidized bed dehydration.

The below figures give a clear difference in colour of sliced dried button mushrooms

using different drying technique.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6. Dried sliced button mushroom (a) Microwave assisted fluidized bed dehydrated button

mushroom; (b) Sun dried button mushroom; (c) Fluidized bed dried button mushroom

The L* value decreased from 78.6 to 77.6 with increase drying time in microwave

oven dryer keeping other variables (air velocity and temperature) at optimum point.

Figure 7. L* versus air velocity of fluidized bed dryer at quadratic level

The value of a* increased from -0.07 to 2.09 with increasing in microwave dryer

and fluidized bed dryer other variables at optimum point. The b* value increased from

7.8 to 10.98 and decreased from 10.98 to 10.70 in microwave dryer and increased from

9.48 to 10.97 in fluidized bed dryer, this may be significantly influenced by optimum

drying temperature[15] .

CONCLUSION

Button mushroom is highly perishable in nature; therefore, its shelf life needs to be

extended to use it during off season. It has a very high level of moisture content hence it

needs preservation. Dehydration is the most important method for preservation of button

L*


Air velocity of fluidized bed dryer, m/s (X2)


mushroom with an ultimate aim of improving storability by reducing its moisture

content. Removal of water from button mushroom prevents microbial growth and thus

makes storage without refrigeration possible. Microwave assisted fluidized bed drying of

mushroom was much faster thanfluidized bed and sun drying.Particularly towards the

end of the drying process

Result of the study shows thatmicrowave assisted fluidized bed dried mushroom

created a more porous dehydrated product, shrinkage slightly reduced then rehydrated

more quickly. The hardness was lower and cohesiveness was higher for microwave

assisted fluidized bed dried. The drying time range from 60 to 65 min for microwave

assisted fluidized bed drying whereas 210 min for separate fluidized bed was drying and

4 days for sun drying to dry the button mushroom up to 23.00% moisture content

(d.b.).The shrinkage and rehydration ratio of microwave assisted fluidized bed dried

mushroom varied from 67.11 to 69.12%. and 3.12 to 4.59.whereas shrinkage of button

mushroom was 79 and 75% in case of sun drying and fluidized bed drying respectively.

The rehydration ratio for sun drying and fluidized bed drying 2.12 and 2.52 respectively.

It is concluded that the quality of the dried button mushroom was high in case of

microwave assisted fluidized bed dryer.

BIBLOGRAPHY

[1] Kotwaliwale, N., Bakane, P. and Verma, A. 2007. Changes in textural and optical properties

of oyster mushroom during microwave drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 10,118-125.

[2] Verma, P. 2006. Optimization of quality parameters of button mushroom and oyster

mushroom. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 16(5):16.-30.

[3] Siur. S.P., Ishohy, P.O.. Olliy, H. 2006. Production and post harvest losses of fruits and

vegetables. International Food Research Journal., 26(2) :107-125.

[4] Singh, S.K., Narainl, M.. Kumbhar, B.K. 2007. Drying kinetics of button mushroom in

fluidized bed. Journal of Agricultural Engineering., 44(1):203-207

[5] Kulshreshtha, M., Singh, A., Deepti. Vipul. 2009. Effect of drying conditions on mushroom

quality. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, , 4(1), 90-98.

[6] Spyridone, P., Doharey, D.S., Jain N.K.. Kumar S. 2012; Fluidized and convective drying

kinetics of foods. J. of Agril. Engg. 46(3), 14-18.

[7] Keey, R.B. 1978; Introduction of industrial drying operations theory book. Paragamon Press

Ltd. Oxford..

[8] Chinmaya, K, Bakhara, Sanjaya, K. D, Aditya, P. Manoj, K.P.2015. Effect of temperature

and pressure on moisture diffusion characteristics of paddy (cv. mtu 1075). Sci J. Agrill.

Engg. (4).65-74

[9] Swasdisevi, A., Chauhan, G.S., Verma, N.S., Kumbhar, B.K., Singh, D. 2007.Texture profile

analysis of button mushroom before and after fluidized bed drying. Journal of Food Science

and Technology, 30(6) 49–450.

[10] Kar, A. 2013: Osmo-air dehydration characteristics of button mushroom. J.Fd. Sci. and

Technol., 40, 378-381.

[11] Stephension, G. 1999. Rehydration characteristics of button mushroom. Octa. J. Biosci., ,

21(2):14-20.


[12] Arumuganathan, T., Manikantan, M.R., Rai, R.D., Kumar, S., Khare, V.2010. Mathematical

modeling of drying kinetics of milky mushroom in a fluidized bed dryer. Int. Agrophysics, ,

23:1-7.

[13] Jyothirmayi, O.2011. Texture characteristics of button mushroom. Int. Agrophysics, , 31:5-

11.

[14] Spyridone, P., Doharey, D.S., Jain N.K.. Kumar S. 2012. Fluidized and convective drying

kinetics of foods. J. of Agril. Engg. 46 (3), 14-18.

[15] Anusha, K.. Manimehalai, N. 2015. Optimization of process parameters for the production of

vegetable chutney powder for its maximum nutrient content. Sci J. Agrill. Engg. (4).57-64.

KVALITATIVNE KARAKTERISTIKE MIKROTALASNOG SUŠENJA

PEČURKI U FLUIDIZOVANOM SLOJU (Agaricusbisporus)

Azad Gaurh1, Anjineyulu Kothakota, Sankar Rao

2, Ranaselva

3,

Gourikutty Kunjurayan Rajesh 3

1GBPUAT, Department of Post Harvest Process & Food Engineering,

Pantnager-263145, Uttarakhand, India 2 MAU, Department of Food Science and Technology,

Parbhani- -431402, Maharastra, India 3 KAU, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering & Technology,

Tavanur-679573, Kerala, India

Sažetak: Mikrotalasno sušenje u fluidizovanom sloju može značajno da unapredi

kvalitet pečurki (Agaricusbisporus). Kvalitativne osobine kao što su boja, tekstura,

odnos rehidracije i ukus dehidriranih pečurki su poređene sa pečurkama sušenim na

suncu. Mikrotalasno sušenje je dalo bolji kvalitet sa velikim potencijalom rehidracije,

lepšom bojom i mekšom teksturom nego druge tehnike sušenja. Skupljanje i odnos

rehidracije bili su 67.115% - 69.12% i 3.12% - 4.59%, redom. Slično, tvrdoća i kohezija

su iznosili 1.24 - 1.63 N i 0.19 - 0.49, redom. L*, a* i b* vrednosti dehidriranih pečurki

su iznosile 76.1 - 78.8, -1.09 - +3.76 and 7.01 - 11.01, redom.

Ključne reči: pečurke, mikrotalasno sušenje u fluidizovanom sloju, odnos

rehidracije, skupljanje

Prijavljen:


Ispravljen:

Revised:

Prihvaćen:

Accepted: 19.01.2017.







Year XLII No. 1, 2017.

pp: 41- 48

UDK: UDK: 631.3(082)(0.034.2) Originalni naučni rad


VARIATIONS IN EXPLOITATION CHARACTERISTICS OF

TRACTORS DEPENDING ON PRE-IGNITION ANGLE

OF THE ENGINE

Nermin Rakita, Selim Škaljić*

1University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences,

Zmaja od Bosne 8, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract. Maintenance of tractors on small private farms in Bosnia and Herzegovina

is not given sufficient and adequate attention. Consequences of such a trend reflect on

exploitation characteristics of tractors, significantly increases fuel consumption and

environmental pollution. The goals of the research focused on the part of the issue

related to the influences of different pre-ignition angle of the engine on the available

power at the PTO shaft and increase of the specific fuel consumption. The research was

conducted in the laboratory and experimental facilities of the agricultural machinery

testing station in 2015 at the Butmir range, Sarajevo. The obtained results indicate that

the tractor power at PTO shaft varied from 21kW do 45kW, that is in a range from 46.6 -

100 %. Variation of the engine power caused changes in fuel consumption which in the

plough mode varied from 4.01- 6.86 kg·h-1 of fuel (D-2). Cost-wise, this influenced

variations from 2.25 to 4.72 €·h-1 in the idle mode (stand gas) and from 5.57 to 8.81€·h-1

in the plough mode. The obtained results confirmed the hypothesis that regular

maintenance in accordance with manufacture’s standards needs to be implemented;

otherwise the costs of consequences will exceed the maintenance costs several times.

Key words: tractor, maintenance, engine power, fuel consumption.

INTRODUCTION

In order to understand the importance of the pre-ignition for the process of

combustion of fuel in diesel engines, one needs to be familiar with the overall process of

* Corresponding author. E-Mail: [email protected]

Rakita i Škaljić: Promjena eksploatacionih . . . / Polj. Tehn. (2017/1). 41 - 48 42

supply, purification and combustion. It is understandable that manufacturers of engine

continuously strive to improve the combustion system in other to better utilize the

energy potential of the fuel. More recent generations of engines have computer

controller combustion systems. However, in practice, hydro-mechanic systems of

distribution of fuel are still dominant in agriculture tractors. The quantities are does

through a high pressure pump which can be of rotary or linear type, but the deviations of

the fuel quantity per cylinder should not exceed ±2%. In the case of such older types of

engines, Kozarac et al. [3] the time for injection of fuel is limited to a period from 1/300

to 1/800 parts of second. Computer controlled engines („Common Rail“) have a much

higher injection pressure (up to 2,000 Bar), and the injection velocity is measured in

thousandths of a second.

Technical designs of engines continuously follow the perfecting of the quality of

fuel Šilić et al. [6] which are expressed in respective cetane number, that is a ratio

between the volume of fast burning cetane (n-hexane) and the volume of slow burning

cetane (á- Methylnaphthalene). The process of combustion also depends on physical-

chemical features of the diesel fuel such as, viscosity, chemical stability, percentage of

sulphate, etc. Depending on the working conditions of the engine different additive are

added to the fuel to enhance the combustion process, prevent solidification of paraffin,

improve the chemical stability, prevent development of soot and tar pitch, which

contaminate the environment and partly remain in the engines.

Bearing in mind the listed characteristics of engines and fuels, special attention

needs to be given to regular maintenance which can significantly influence the

performance. The pre-ignition angle of the engine can be one of the reasons for improper

combustion of fuel. Therefore the goal of the research is to draw attention to the negative

consequences of this factor and the requirement to do regular maintenance.


The research was done in laboratories and experiment stations using a Zetor model

63.41 tractor assembly with double reversible plow. The part of the research done in the

laboratories was related to different levels of adjustment of the pre-ignition angle and

measuring of power with electric brake at PTO shaft and was conducted at the Testing

station for agriculture machines of the Agriculture and Food Sciences Faculty in

Sarajevo. The adjustments of the pre-ignition angle were done using the comparative and

goniometric method for adjustment of angle. The goniometric method implied adjusting

the pre-ignition angle with a comparator, and the comparative method implied a use of a

template used also in the testing of exploitation characteristics of the tractor assembly.

The following levels of adjustment of pre-ignition angle were applied:

A - Deviation of up to 10% (-17.80 early ignition /A´/; -16.20 late ignition /A˝/);

B - Deviation of up to 20% (-19.50 early ignition /B´/; -14.50 late ignition /B˝);

C - Deviation of up to 30% (-20.40 early ignition /C´/: -12.70 late ignition /C˝/);

K - Adjustments made according to manufacturer's regulations (Control).

Any deviation of the pre-ignition angle in comparison to the manufacturer's norm of

170 reflects on the power of the engine and other exploitation characteristics of the

tractor. By calibrating the high pressure pump to inject fuel prior to 170 causes a change

Rakita and Škaljić: Variations in . . . / Agr. Eng. (2017/1). 41 - 48 43

in the work of the engine, which is manifested in a way that the engine is noisier and has

seemingly bigger power.

The experimental part of the research included measuring of fuel consumption

during ploughing. The volumetric method of consumption expressed in liters was

applied, specifically consumption per units surface area (L/ha) and specific consumption

(g/kwh) Lulo et al. [4]. The volumetric method was the basis for calculation of the other

two forms of listed consumption. The volumetric consumption was translated into mass

consumption through application of the following formula:

q=V[l]∙δ [kg m-3] (1)

The results obtained from conducted measuring were processed with application of

standard mathematical-statistic methods, presented in appropriate tabular breakdowns

and graphs and discussed in relation to results obtained by other authors. In the work we

applied the Spearman’s correlation coefficient, which is often used for measuring of the

relations among variables and when it is not possible to apply the Pearson's correlation

coefficient.


In case of a tractor engine with a properly adjusted high pressure pump the engine

had an average engine power of 39.04 kW, and the average torque of 189.65Nm, and the

average number of Rotation at the PTO shaft of 511.35 min-1. Other statistic indicators

are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Indicators of tractor performance at a pre-ignition angle of 170 (K control)

Pre-ignition angle 170

(K- control) N0 Min. M ax. Mean

Std.

Deviation Variance Skewness

Rotation on PTO (min-1) 23 384 609 511.35 73.61 5418.78 -0.31

Torque (Nm) 23 97 230 189.65 37.81 1429.68 -0.99

Power on PTO shaft (kW) 23 24 45 39.04 5.07 25.77 -1.60 No – Number of measurements’;

Skewness - measure of asymmetry data.

The simulation of movement of high pressure pump to an early ignition phase of up

to 10% reflected on reduction of the average power of the engine to 38.33 kW, lower

average torque of 174.78 Nm, as well as a lower average number of Rotation on the PTO

shaft, which was at the level of 543.27 min-1.

Table 2. Indicators of tractor performance at a 10% deviation of the pre-ignition angle

Deviation of 10%

(A´ and A˝ ) Angle No Min. Max. Mean

Std.


Rotation on PTO (min-1) 17.80 30 368 615 543.27 74.34 5527.65 -1.13

16.20 30 370 613 543.20 74.19 5504.50 -1.12

Torque (Nm) 17.80 30 96 226 174.78 5.23 1241.71 -0.44

16.20 30 96 224 174.72 5.29 1245.82 -0.44

Power on PTO shaft (kW) 17.80 30 24 44 38.33 5.12 26.29 -1.16

16.20 30 24 44 38.40 5.16 26.66 -1.17


When the high pressure pump was moved to the late ignition phase of up to 10% it caused a reduction in the average power of the engine to 38.40 kW and a smaller average torque at the level of 174.72 Nm. The average number of Rotation at the PTO shaft totaled 543.20 min-1. When the high pressure pump was in the position of an early ignition phase (10-20%) it caused a reduction of average power of the engine to 36.30kW and a lower torque, which was at the level of 162.42Nm. In such a position of the pump the average number of Rotation at the PTO shaft totaled 552.10 min-1.

Table 3. Indicators of tractor performance at a 10-20% deviation of the pre-ignition angle

Deviation of 10-20% (B–early; B-late)

Angle N0 Min. M ax. Mean Std.


Rotation of PTO (min-1) 19.50 30 424 615 552.10 60.95 3715.33 -0.73

14.50 29 401 620 552.00 67.50 4556.38 -0.84

Torque (Nm) 19.50 30 93 208 162.42 32.58 1061.69 -0.50

14.50 29 95 224 162.43 37.71 1422.59 -0.42

Power on PTO shaft (kW) 19.50 30 23 41 36.30 5.00 25.04 -1.22 14.50 29 24 43 36.48 5.55 30.83 -1.27

Positioning of the high pressure pump to a late ignition phase (10-20%) influences a

reduction of average power of the engine (36.48kW) and a lower average torque (162.43 Nm). In the respective position of the pump the average number of Rotation on the PTO shaft was 552.00 min-1. After shifting the high pressure pump to the early ignition phase (20-30%) the average power of the engine was reduced to 34.48kW, torque to 149.43Nm, and the number of Rotation at the PTO shaft was je 539.03min-1.

Table 4. Indicators of tractor performance at a 20-30% deviation of the pre-ignition angle

Deviation 20-30% (C–early; C-late)

Angle N0 Min. M ax. Mean Std.


Rotation on PTO (min-1)

20.400 30 411 602 539.03 60.95 3715.33 -0.73 12.750 29 396 615 543.21 67.50 4556.38 -0.84

Torque (Nm) 20.400 30 80 194 149.43 32.58 1061.69 -0.50

12.750 29 86 215 156.62 37.77 1426.67 -0.43

Power on PTO shaft (kW) 20.400 30 21 40 34.48 5.01 25.11 -1.24 12.750 29 22 41 34.52 5.48 30.11 -1.30

Shifting of the high pressure pump to the late ignition phase (20-30%) reduced the

average power of the engine to 34.52 kW and the average torque to 156.62 Nm. The average number of Rotation at the PTO shaft was 543.00 min-1. After shifting the high pressure pump to late ignition mode (above 170) the tractor worked more quietly (seemingly nice sound of the engine) but its power declined. The power of the tractor engine in case of a deviation of the pre-ignition angle of up to 10% caused a reduction of the power at the PTO shaft by 0.85 kW, deviation of between 10 to 20 % cause a reduction of power by 2.7 kW and a deviation of the pre-ignition angle at the level from 20 to 30% caused a reduction of power by 4.66 kW. Asymmetrical data processed by skewness method was in the range -1.16 to -1.60.

In case of diesel engines, shifting of the angle caused tapping in the engine as well

as a delay in ignition of fuel. In the late ignition phase the combustion of fuel was

incomplete. Researches done by other authors noted the same occurrence. According to

Šilić et al. [6] delays in combustion that exceed 0.002 seconds, result in a bigger quantity

of fuel in the combustion area and causes rapid (peak) combustion which is accompanied


with strong noise. Continuation of the analysis of the described occurrence shows (Fig.

1) that tapping (throbbing) in the engine causes an additional increase in pressure, but

negatively reflects on the noise and vibrations.

Figure 1. Combustion process in a diesel engine (taken over)

Shifting of the high pressure pump from the optimum pre-ignition area reflects on

exhaust gases. Specifically the engine exhausts gases of black or white color. The

combustion process takes place in all diesel engines and is higher in the case of high-

speed engines than in the case of low-speed engines. Eriksson [2] in his dissertation

stipulates that early ignition time produces a pressure of so called “early development”,

which results in a sudden increase of pressure which can be considered as an early

expansion.

The usual period of combustion of fuel in engines Kozarac et al. [3] various from

0.0007 to 0.003 seconds. If the period of concealed combustion is too big (exceeds 0.002

sec), then a larger amount of fuel is accumulated in the combustion area, which will

ultimately lead to the simultaneous combustion of fuel. The consequence is that the

pressure and temperatures rapidly increase above the usual values. This occurrence is

often called “peak combustion” or “rigid work” of the diesel engine. Peak combustion is

not desirable because it burdens parts of the engine mechanism and can cause negative

consequences.

The testing of the influence of the pre-ignition angle on the power of the engine and

the torque were confirmed by the positive correlation factors. Correlations between the

engine power and the size of the angle of the high pressure pump were at the level of

0.01 and 0.05. Correlations with the torque were at the level of 0.01.

Consumption of fuel depending on the pre-ignition angle. The analysis of fuel

consumption revealed that deviation from manufacturer's norm (170) result in significant

increase of fuel consumption. Results obtained are presented in Table 5.

Deviations of the pre-ignition angle in relation to the manufacturer’s norm (170)

caused significant increase in fuel consumption. The biggest increase in fuel

consumption was recorded in the „C-late” case and amounted to 1.91 kg/h that is by

109.12%. The presented indicators confirm that work with technically irregularly tuned

tractor engine can exceed multiple times the costs of regular maintenance. As for the

exploitation indicator of fuel consumption, other authors obtained similar results. In


example, in their research Filipovic et al. [1] stipulated that the change of working speed

in the ploughing mode from 5 km/h to 7 km/h increased consumption for 10.32%;

Mileusnic et al. [5] stipulated that during ploughing at 30 cm the fuel consumption

varied from 26-36 l/ha, or when calculated in percentages this means that consumption

increased by 38.46%.

Table 5. Fuel consumption in relation to pre-ignition angle

Pre-ignition

Fuel consumption (kg) Increase in fuel consumption (%)

Stand gas

800 min-1

Ploughing

(1500 min-1)

Stand gas

800 min-1

Ploughing

(1500 min-1)

Manufacturer's norm (170) 1.75 4.01 0 0

10% Deviation (A-early) 1.95 4.38 11.11 9.20

10% Deviation (A-late) 2.02 4.53 15.10 12.94

20% Deviation (B-early) 2.80 5.78 59.54 44.10

20% Deviation (B-late) 3.07 5.66 74.93 41.11

30% Deviation (C-early) 3.51 6.58 99.72 64.05

30% Deviation (C-late) 3.67 6.86 109.12 71.03

Table 6. Fuel costs in relation to pre-ignition angle

Pre-ignition angle Fuel consumption (€/h)

Stand gas 800 min-1 Plough 1500 min-1

Manufacturer's norm (170) 2.25 5.16

10% Deviation (early) 2.50 5.63

10% Deviation (late) 2.59 5.82

Up to 20% Deviation (early) 3.59 7.43

Up to 20% Deviation (late) 3.94 7.27

Up to 30% Deviation (early) 4.50 8.46

Up to 30% Deviation (late) 4.72 8.82

Effect of pre-ignition angle on fuel costs. The level of technical education of a large

number of farmers is not at the level that would enable them to fully grasp the presented

results of the research. If the obtained results are transformed and expressed as a loss of

money then the farmers get a much clear picture of the importance of this issue.

Definition of fuel consumption can be used to calculate the costs that are directly

correlated. The fuel costs are calculated on the basis of the price of diesel fuel in BiH,

which currently is at the level of 2.10 KM/l (1.07 €). Breakdown of fuel costs in relation

to the pre-ignition angle is given in Table 6.

In case of fine-tuned pre-ignition angle, fuel costs totaled 2.25 €/h on stand gas (idle

mode) and 5.16 €/h in plough mode. After shifting the angle (deviation, A-early, up to

10%) the fuel costs totaled 2.50 €/h, that is 5.63 €/h in the plough mode. Fuel costs

increased with the simulated deviation from the prescribed pre-ignition angle. In the

plough mode in case of a 20.40 pre-ignition angle the difference in fuel consumption in

relation to manufacturer’s norm (170) was at the level of 3.67 €/h.

In case of early pre-ignition with a deviation of 19.50 before the upper dead center,

in comparison to the normally tuned ignition, fuel costs totaled 3.59 €/h at 800 min-1 in

the plough mode, and at 1500 min-1 the value was doubled and totaled 7.43 €/h.


CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of conducted research which encompassed laboratory work, field work,

research of literature and processing of data we draw the following conclusions:

The average power of tested tractor engine with a fine-tuned pre-ignition angle totaled.

39.04kW. After simulated shifting of the pre-ignition angle the engine power

significantly decrease and reached the following values:

- In case of an early and late pre-ignition with an up to 10% deviation the average

power totaled 38.33 kW;

- In case of early pre-ignition (20% deviation) the average power totaled 36.30 kW,

while in the case of late pre-ignition (20% deviation) the average power totaled

36.48 kW:

- In case of early pre-ignition (30% deviation) the average power totaled 34.48 kW,

while in the case of late pre-ignition (30% deviation) the average power totaled

34.52 kW.

The effect of the pre-ignition angle on fuel consumption was tested in the stand gas

(idle mode) (800 o/min-1) and the plough mode (1 500 o/min-1). In case of a normally

tuned pre-ignition angle the consumption at 800min-1 was 1.75 kg/h, and at 1500 min-1

it totaled 4.01 kg/h. After simulated shifting of the pre-ignition angle the fuel

consumption significantly increased. The following values were recorded:

- 10% deviation (A-early), consumption at 800min-1 was 1.95 kg/h, and in the

plough mode at 1500min-1 4.38 kg/h;

- 10% deviation (A-late), consumption at 800min-1 was 2.02 kg/h, and in the plough

mode at 1500min-1 4.53 kg/h;

- 20% deviation (B-early), consumption at 800min-1 was 2.80 kg/h, and in the

plough mode at 1500min-1 it was 5.87 kg/h;

- 20% deviation (B-late), consumption at 800min-1 was 3.07kg/h, and in the plough


- 30% deviation (C-early), consumption at 800min-1 was 3.51 kg/h, and in the

plough mode at 1500min-1 6.58 kg/h;

- 30% deviation (C-late), consumption at 800min-1 was 3.67 kg/h, and in the plough


Financial indicators of fuel consumption varied from 2.25 to 4.72 €/h with no load

on stand gas and from 5.57 to 8.81 €/h in plough mode with a double furrow plough.

The obtained results confirmed the hypothesis that servicing of agriculture tractors

should be done regularly and in accordance with manufacturer’s norms as otherwise the

consequences will exceed several times the costs of regular maintenance.

REFERENCES

[1] Filipović, D., Košutić, S., Gospodarić, Z. 2005. Consumption of energy in conventional

processing of loose-clay soil in West Slavonija, Agronomy Gazette, 5, pp. 383-392 (in

Croatian).

[2] Eriksson, L. 1999. Spark Advance Modeling and Control, Linkoping Studies in Science and

Technology, Dissertation number 580, pp. 7-17.


[3] Kozarac, D., Mahalec, I.; Lulić, Z. Homogeneous charge compression ignition engine

combustion. Jornal „Strojarstvo“ (0562-1887) 47 (2005), 5-6; 185-193.

[4] Lulo, M., Škaljić, S. 2004. Agricultural mechanization, University of Sarajevo, Agriculture

and Food Science Faculty, Sarajevo, pp. 23 (in Bosnian).

[5] Mileusnić, Z., Đević, M., Miodragović, R. 2007. Tractor machinery systems working

parameters in tillage, Contemporary agricultural engineering, 33 (3-4), pp. 157-164.

[6] Šilić Đ., Stojković V., Mikulić D. 2012. Fuel and lubricants, Velika Gorica University,

pp.131-151. (in Croatian).

PROMJENA EKSPLOATACIONIH SVOJSTAVA TRAKTORA

U ZAVISNOSTI OD UGLA PREDPALJENJA MOTORA

Nermin Rakita, Selim Škaljić

Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Poljoprivredno prehrambeni fakultet,

Sarajevo, Bosna i Hercegovina

Sažetak: Održavanju traktora na malim privatnim posjedima u Bosni i Hercegovini

ne posvećuje se dovoljna pažnja. Posljedica takvog stanja odražava se na eksploataciona

svojstva traktora, te značajno povećava potrošnju goriva i zagađenje okoline. Ciljevi

istraživanja fokusiraju se na dio problematike koja sagledava uticaj različitog ugla

predpaljenja motora na raspoloživu snagu traktora na priključnom vratilu (PTO) i

povećanje specifične potrošnje goriva. Istraživanja su izvedena u laboratorijskim i

eksperimentalnim uslovima ispitne stanice za poljoprivredne mašine u Sarajevu, na

destinaciji “Poligona Butmir” u 2015. godini. Dobiveni rezultati ukazuju da je snaga

traktora na PTO varirala u rasponu od 21kW do 45 kW, što u procentualnim

pokazateljima iznosi 46,6 - 100 %. Varijacije snage motora prouzrokovale su promjenu

potrošnje goriva koja je iznosila u oranju od 4,01- 6,86 kg·h-1 nafte (D-2), dok se

navedena potrošnja goriva u finansijskim pokazateljima kretala u rasponu od 4,41 do

9,23 KM·h-1 na štandgasu i od 10,9 do 17,23 KM·h-1 u oranju. Dobiveni rezultati su

potvrdili hipotezu da servisiranje poljoprivrednih traktora treba izvoditi redovno i prema

tvorničkim normativima, u protivnom posljedice višestruko nadmašuju troškove

servisiranja.

Ključne riječi: traktor, servisiranje, snaga motora, potrošnja goriva.

Prijavljen:


Ispravljen:

Revised:

Prihvaćen:

Accepted: 07.12.2016.

CIP – Каталогизација у публикацији Народна библиотека Cрбије, Београд

631(059)

ПОЉОПРИВРЕДНА техника : научни часопис = Agricultural engineering : scientific journal / главни и одговорни уредник Горан Тописировић. – Год. 1, бр. 1 (1963)- . - Београд; Земун : Институт за пољопривредну технику, 1963- (Београд : Штампарија ”Академска издања”) . – 25 cm Тромесечно. – Прекид у излажењу од 1987-1997. године ISSN 0554-5587 = Пољопривредна техника COBISS.SR-ID 16398594

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