58

WomenÕs WorkEconomic globalization has resulted in the

deeper integration of production, trade

and finance. In order to remain competi-

tive in the global market place, businesses

in many countries have capitalized on

women as a source of labour willing to

work in poor working conditions for low

wages. Thus we see the phenomenon of

more women joining the labour force but

for the most part in unskilled, labour

intensive and poorly paid jobs. This situ-

ation is made worse by the burden of

household, childcare and domestic

responsibilities. In order to cope with the

twin burden of domestic responsibilities

and the need for paid work, many women

have been forced to take on temporary,

part-time, casual and home-based work.

Women’s quality of life is directly related to the

strength of the economy and the conditions in which

they live and work. The conditions of work and life

are far better for women residing in Western and

European countries. In Eastern Europe the status of

working women worsened drastically with the eco-

nomic transition. The unemployment rates for

women remain higher for women and they continue

to be the first to be laid off in times of economic cri-

sis.

Although today’s cities are dependent on the labour

of its women, women are denied access to credit and

URBAN SOCIETYGENDER EQUITY & EQUALITY

UNEP/UNCHS Nairobi River Basin Project

Bus Stop onDemandIn the city of Montreal, fear of

violence reduced mobility at

night. The “Between Two

Stops” Service allows women

to get off the bus, at night, at

a spot closer to their destina-

tion. Because women are the

principal users of public

transportation, this pro-

gramme generates an

increase in utilization as well

as security. The project con-

firmed that local authorities

can make concrete contribu-

tions to support women

toward autonomy and equali-

ty, when they recognize

women as the main recipients

of these services.

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Only few women have access to formal employment andmost of them are dependent on the informal economyfor their own and their family’s survival. Many womenjoin low paid and unskilled jobs. In developed countries,unemployment affects more women than men, andwomen also join low paid jobs. Progress remains to bemade in almost all cities, so that women have equal lev-els of employment to formally contribute to the econo-my. This is particularly important when a high propor-tion of households are woman-headed.

www.urbanobservatory.org

Gender inequalities in unemployment in cities

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resources, income generation and entrepreneurial opportunities. Women also con-

tinue to be viewed in a stereotypical role of the consumer in cities. The cities of the

world have, for the most part, ignored issues like the empowerment of women and

the specific needs of women. Many cities continue to be male dominated and

female unfriendly. Public transport remains intimidating to women in many parts

of the world. Few cities in the world have addressed issues like provision of nurs-

eries and creches, let alone basic amenities like conveniently located and usable toi-

let facilities for women.

Worldwide there has been a growth of woman headed households as well as a tan-

gible impoverishment of women. Woman headed households tend to be poorer

than those headed by men. This is a global phenomenon and is not limited to the

developing world, as recent studies have shown. In the United States, where recent

liberalization of divorce legislation has led to an increase of woman headed house-

holds, one finds that these households also remain among the poorest. Studies

have also shown that the problem of feminization of poverty transmits itself

from one generation to the next. The reason is that children usually stay with

the mother and that women heading households are expected to assume fami-

ly responsibilities and meet the day to day needs of their families and therefore

often are forced to choose relatively poorly paid work.

Women working and living in cities are faced with the daily challenge of per-

sonal security. Living and working alone or as heads of families raises issues

which affect the choices women make regarding their places of residence as well

as jobs they are able to undertake.

Joining City HallTo rectify the inequities, more women are seeking equal participation in gover-

nance as part of the political structure and administrative institutions, as well as

exercising their rights as citizens acting to influence the city’s agenda. Women’s

role in local governance is a major means of empowering them in local policy.

Increasingly, women are finding a place on city councils and as professionals in

city management; however their representation in city government is still very

limited, occurring usually where women have been organized.

Power in NumbersFrom the highly industrialized countries of the North to countries as varied as

Guatemala, Morocco and India, working women are increasingly becoming

unionized. In India, for example, SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association)

operates as a trade union and as an economic empowerment group.

Labour Unions have historically been a male preserve, but women are now

making up an increasing share of membership in these unions. The involve-

ment of women in paid employment has also led to the politicization of women

and gender issues. There is increasing awareness and acceptance that women’s

roles be recognized as contributors to the work force as well as in their social

and economic roles.

Transnational NetworksAn important result of globalization has been the

growth in women’s transnational networks. The grow-

ing recognition by the international community that

women’s NGO’s in particular have a role to play at the

international, national and city level has changed the

face of international affairs.

A result of these organized movements has been that

women nationally and globally are drawing attention

to social, economic and political issues related to gen-

der. Class lines fade as women have taken up common

cause against violence, poverty, job insecurity, land

rights, reproductive and health rights and roles in

decision making. The global society is now taking note

of a growing number of educated, employed and polit-

ically aware women.

Trade Union Banking forWomen in IndiaSEWA was created as a trade union and now has

formed a separate bank for poor self-employed

women. This was established at the initiative of

4,000 self-employed women, while an elected

board sets policies. It currently has 51,000 deposi-

tors and a working capital of US $1 million. The

bank provides all finance-linked supportive servic-

es to its members and has started a work security

insurance scheme and a housing programme.

Surplus capital is used to promote developmental

activities of SEWA.

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The female-male gap in formal participation is defined as the dif-ference between female and male proportions of elected or nomi-nated local government representatives. The reported participa-tion of men and women in cities shows high differences, except incities of transition countries. Women still play a very minor role inlocal government in most cities. Almost everywhere, women havethe right to vote and more and more women work in the public sec-tor. Yet, women rarely hold leading positions in decision-making.

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www.urbanobservatory.org

UNEP/UNCHS Nairobi River Basin Project

Source: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2000

Source: World Health Organization, 2000

Source: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2000

LITERACY RATE

FERTILITY RATEFERTILITY RATE

CHILD MORTALITYCHILD MORTALITY

0 - 1010 - 20

(%)

20 - 3030 - 4040 - 5050 - 6060 - 7070 - 8080 - 9090 - 100

<1.51.5 - 3.03.0 - 4.54.5 - 6.0>6.0

0 - 2

Child Mortality %

Fertility Rate

2 - 5

5 - 10

10 - 15

>15

0 - 1010 - 2020 - 3030 - 4040 - 5050 - 6060 - 7070 - 8080 - 9090 - 100

% of urbanpopulation,by country

Source: World Population Prospects: The 1999 Revision,United Nations Population Division

Urbanization Rates, 2000

URBAN SOCIETYMAPS

0 - 0.40

0.40 - 0.50

0.50 - 0.60

0.60 - 0.70

0.70 - 0.80

0.80 - 0.90

0.90 - 1.00

HDI bycountry, 1998

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX BY COUNTRY, 1998HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX BY COUNTRY, 1998

Source of data: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2000

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT VERSUS URBANIZATION, 1998

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.00

20

40

60

80

100

Burundi

Belgium

Djibouti

Panama

By Country

Human Development Index (HDI) value

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(correlation coefficient = 0.705) Human Development Index 1998 Urban Population (as % of total) 1998

Sub-Saharan Africa

South Asia

Arab States

Sout-East Asia and the Pacific

East Asia

LAC

Eastern Europe and the CIS

OECD

By Region

33%0.464

29% 0.560

56% 0.635

36% 0.691

35% 0.716

75% 0.758

67% 0.777

77% 0.893

Source: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2000