Urbanization and Groundwater Pollution in Mombasa-Kenya Do We Have to Transfer the Problem Due to Construction of the Dongo-Kundu by-Pass

7/30/2019 Urbanization and Groundwater Pollution in Mombasa-Kenya Do We Have to Transfer the Problem Due to Construc

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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Urbanization and Gr

we have to Trans

Saee1. Faculty of Applied and He

Mombasa, Kenya2. College of Humanities and

Kenya*Emai

This research was financed througAuthor by the Coast DevelopmentAbstractWe show how a bridge and good roof human settlements beyond themanagement, leading to pollution owould happen in the Kwale Countyto 1979, the population distributionat its potential district of Kisauni,overpopulated due to difficult to a

population dynamics shifted, makion-site sanitation systems for humamicrobial pollution, rendering other Construction of the Dongo-Kundurapid urbanization, replicating the

the locations found along its coastconservation of groundwater aquifeKey words: Ease of access, on-sithealth

1. IntroductionThis study is about safeguardingdrinking water is necessary for asources of pollution, particularly, thhygienic excreta and sullage disposMillennium Development Goals isdrinking water from 77% in 1990 t

realize without inclusion of access pathogens to water resources; resulsince it known to cause waterborne

be severe. About 1.6 million peopllack of access to safe drinking wate5 years of age (cited in Ngethe, 20ethical imperative rooted in the cuequity, compassion and solidarity

poor households would promote theto be "indispensable for leading a lrights" (cited in Ngethe, 2012)

The UN General assembly, in Dece

Action Water for Life, popularlyefforts to fulfill international commiwater in development. The aim of t

cience-0948 (Online)

98

oundwater Pollution in Momba

er the Problem due to Construc

Dongo-Kundu By-Pass

Mwaguni* 1; Daniel Munga 1; Elias Ayiemba 2 lth Sciences, Technical University of Mombasa, P.O.

Social Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 301

l of the corresponding author: [email protected] a partial grant for Postgraduate Studies awardeduthority Kenya

d network opened up the Mombasa County to rapid u bility of Local Government to provide the infrastru

groundwater aquifers and effects in public health.upon construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass linin the Mombasa County was restricted by difficultiewhich though offering plenty of land for housingcess. However, upon construction of the Nyali Bridg Kisauni the most populated area. It remains so a

n waste management. This has had impact on grounwise chemically suitable water unsuitable on this accy-Pass to link Mombasa with the south coast will opater pollution problem experienced in the Mombasa

l belt. In this study technical measures, zoning ands have been proposed to forestall the problem in the n

sanitation, groundwater pollution, water borne dis

groundwater quality against pollution from poor sealthy community. Groundwater source must there

e wastes of human origin through the provision of bal as a way of providing a clean and healthy living e

to increase the proportion of the global populatio 88.5% by 2015 (cited in Ngethe, 2012). This goal

to basic sanitation for human waste management. Hting in freshwater shortages, as such water is not adiseases. The consequences of not having safe drink , die every year from diarrheal diseases (includingand basic sanitation with 90% of the deaths occurrin

12). Expanding access to water and sanitation is detural and religious traditions of communities arounre shared values; hence extending water supply anse values. Access to water (UN General Commentfe of human dignity" and "a prerequisite for the real

mber 2003 proclaimed the years 2005 -2015 as the I

known as the Water Decade. The goal of the Watetments made on water and water related issues, signie declaration was to make water accessible to the co

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sa-Kenya: Do

tion of the

Box 90420-80100

7-00100 Nairobi,

to the Corresponding

rbanization and growthcture for human wastee caution that the sameing it to Mombasa. Upof access, particularly

development, was notge the early 1980s, thed this population useswater aquifers through

ount without treatment.n the Kwale County toCounty, particularly in

eclaration of areas for ewly to urbanize area.ases, effects on public

nitation systems. Safefore be protected fromsic sanitation to ensurevironment. One of then with access to safewill not be possible to

uman wastes introduceailable for human useng water are known toholera), attributable toamong children under

scribed as a moral andd the world as dignity,

sanitation services too. 15, 2002) is judged

ization of other human

ternational Decade for

Decade is to promotefying the importance of munities that needed it.


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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013Though progress has been made in

particularly Southeast Asia and Subof the population in sub-Saharansanitation services (WHO/UNICEincluding 2 million children who di

malnourished, due in part to insuf growth, projections of development proportion of the worlds populatapproximately 34% in 1994 to 63%impact their lives and livelihood ver

Kenya is classified as a water scar Arendal, 2002). The situation isenvironmental conditions influencsources the country may have andoften the only source of potable watthe population dynamics, the sanigroundwater quality in the Mombastatus of groundwater aquifers in th

1.1 Groundwater QualityGroundwater is an important sourccombination of hand-dug wells ansupplies, though in some instancegroundwater is an important sourcethree decades, rapid urbanization hacities, and with residents of suchdomestic water supply, there is feuncontrolled expansion of the saidleakage, indiscriminate waste dispincreased pollution and the deterio

(UNEP, 2006).As a result, aquifer stress now consoften wholly dependent upon grouthe coastal lowlands of the South-Csand and coral geology, quick rechwater table is generally high in thistapping points. The water derived f the Total Dissolved Solids levels aUnfortunately, behind the quick rethrough the coral geology basementhis geological formation and therecognition that though valued

groundwater sources get underminfrom being prompted by other factroad and bridge network, human d

provide the infrastructure neededinfrastructure brings along with impserve the human dwellings. The Mease of access through improvedmushrooming of human settlementhealth. This study represents a cautiwhere groundwater sources are prothe area through the Dongo Kundu

2.0 The Mombasa County CaseThe Mombasa County is located be


99

roviding water and sanitation resources in developin-Saharan Africa are far from reaching their regionalfrica is without improved water resources, and 69, 2010). Each year about 4 million people die o

e of diarrhea. More than 800 million people, 15% of

icient water for crops (DFID, 2001). Based on assand climate change, the Stockholm Environment Insion living in countries with significant water str in 2025, including large areas of Africa, Asia, and L

y negatively (Ngethe 2012).

e country with annual water supplies below 1000 mpredicted to worsen drastically within the near

d by climate change. This calls for action to saf rotecting groundwater sources is very important sin

er for many communities. In this research, a desk sttation systems in application to establish the impsa County. A similar research method of was used t

low lying coastal part of the Kwale County in the ab

of potable water supplies particular in Africa wher boreholes. This source of water is mostly relied u

s, it is also being used for irrigation of market cof affordable public and private freshwater supplie

s led to the growth of large areas of unplanned sub-stareas depending on groundwater as a source of inr that such water may soon be unavailable. This ikind of housing, together with increased sewagesal, and uncontrolled industrial and commercial a

rating of groundwater quality, mounting to several

itutes a genuine crisis in some African countries, whdwater resources (UNEP, 2006). However, the grouoast of Mombasa are yet to be stressed and as such r arge through rainfall, replenishes groundwater aquielt, groundwater is easily tapped from shallow wellsom these sources is generally chemically suitable foe below 1,500mg/liter and salt water intrusion is no

charge, is also the potential for quick infiltration at, where percolation and the movement of water is potential for the spread of pollution may be verys an indispensable resource for human develop

d by mushrooming human settlements whose growtrs, is most often related to the ease of access to theellings come up very quickly and outstrip the abilitfor managing human wastes. This shortfall in

act on groundwater sources from the on-site sanitatiombasa County represents such a case study where aoad and bridge network, opened up the area so qwith negative consequences on groundwater qualit

on and late lessons from early warning an approachtected as urbanization shifts to Mombasas South Coy-Pass.

ween the latitudes 3 80 and 4 10 S and longitudes

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nations, some regions,targets. Currently, 40%

are without improvedf waterborne diseases,the world population is

mptions of populationitute estimated that thess will increase fromatin America. This will

3/person (UNEP/GRIDfuture as a result of guard whatever water e this water sources is

udy was undertaken onct of urbanization ono establish the pristineence of urbanization.

it is tapped through a pon for drinking water ops. In urban centers,. However, in the past

andard housing in mostxpensive, high quality being brought by theeneration and effluenttivities, all leading toublic health problems

re cities and towns arendwater aquifers alongequire protection. Withers of the area. As theand boreholes as water r domestic purposes ast yet a major problem.d spread of pollutantsided through cracks inhigh. This has led toent, the integrity of

h and expansion, apartarea. Thus, with goodof local authorities tosewage management

n systems developed toong many factors, theickly, resulting in theand effects on public

o learning from historyast with opening up of

39 60 and 39 80 E.


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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013It has a total land mass of 229.6Mombasa and Kilindini districtsLikoni in the South. Mombasa Islquickly urbanizing. The populationgrowth that is higher than the

accommodated in settlements withfreshwater shortages in an area alrehealth. It is lessons from this caseanywhere new development of hum

2.1 Topography and Geology

Mombasa County is situated in coalevel to 100 meters above sea levelnamely the coastal lowland plain, eKisauni on the north mainland andthat consists of Jurassic shale, overlFinally, there is the undulating plate

Nearer the sea, the land is composlimestone and lagoonal deposit reac

beaches, which together with a vMombasa north and the south coastwater of acceptable quality for domsuch water.

2.2 Water Demand and Supply

The demand for freshwater suppFrom a demand of an estimated 2reach an estimated 380,000 m 3 da

p u r p o s e s (which accounts for 32009). There being no surface watsources of Marere Springs and TiCounty and the Mzima Springs inwater supply sources have been oveand though there are efforts, expanconstruction activities are completeare common. As such therefore, tfrom within the county, and the resifor some areas, the major source for

Therefore, despite the Mombasa C potable needs, favourable geologyhence sinking of wells and boreholsupplementing the reticulated suppGovernment Chemist Department (the county has the following chemic

Groundwater sources develyield water with total dissoand hardly usable for suppl

Water sources developed iChangamwe Districts, the

Along the Triasic and Jurathe water derived from the

potable.

Unfortunately, on the Triassicfound in a shallow water table

these pose the constant threat osystems. The human settlementMombasa County are presented


100

Km 2 and inshore waters that cover 65 km 2. Theithin Mombasa Island, Changamwe in the west, Kind is predominantly urban while the other district

of the Mombasa County currently stands at 1, 387,8ational average. This burgeoning and widely sp

n-site sanitation systems that are a source of grounddy experiencing inadequate supplies of potable watetudy that a caution is sounded on the need to proten settlements takes place.

stal lowland with extensive flat areas rising gently fr westwards. The County can be divided into three mtending 6 kilometers inland, and includes Mombasatongwe to the south. Next is the broken, severely di

ain in places by residual sandy plateau that is foundau of sandstone that is divided from the Jurassic belt b

d of coral reef of Pleistocene Age that offers excella thickness of 100meters. Along the coastline are al

riety of coastal resources and a rich biodiversity,favourite tourist destinations. The tourist populationstic uses. Fortunately, the areas with sand geology ha

lies in the Mombasa County has been growing r 0,000 m 3day -1 in 1995, it rose to 280,000 m 3 day -1 i-1 by 2020 (World Bank, 1996). The water is ma

5% of the total water u s e s ), for livestock, irrigatior sources in the County to provide for its freshwatei Boreholes in the Kwale County, the Baricho Wa

the Taita Taveta County have been the sources of rtaken by t h e demand for water occasioned by the r ding the traditional water supply sources, the shortf . Therefore to address the water shortage, communale shortfall in fresh-water supply is supplemented bdents continue to rely on this as a supplementary so potable water supplies to the households.

ounty not having any permanent sources of surfacnd high water table gives it quick recharge of its aqes have led to increased supplies of freshwater frolies considerably. Mapping the chemical quality of

waguni, 2002) showed that groundwater sampled fr al composition: -

oped along the coastal beaches and the low-density relved solids (TDS) values above 1,500mg/l. This wateementing the potable supplies.the Shale formations of Mwakirunge and Nguu Taturoundwater is highly mineralized and therefore unsuisic formations of the flat coastal plain, due to quick r e aquifers is generally fresh, with TDS ranges of 400

and Jurassic bedrock formations where chemicallyand tapped are to be found most of the human settle

f sewage contamination of the groundwater aquiferss, their spread and impact on water quality and effectsand discussed in this report.

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ounty is composed of sauni in the north and

are largely rural, but3 people with a rate of reading population is

ater pollution, causingr with effects on publict groundwater aquifers

om 8 meters above seain physiographic belts,and Kilindini districts,

ssected and eroded beltin Changamwe district.y a scarp fault.

ent drainage. The coralo to be found beautifulattract tourist, makingnd local residents needve provided a source of

apidly over the years.2010 and is project to

inly used for domesticand industry (NEMA,

r needs, the traditionaler supply in the Kilifiater consumed. These

pid growth in industry,ll will persist until the

boreholes, a nd we l l sy groundwater sourcedrce for freshwater, and

water to cater for itsifers from rainfall andgroundwater sources,

the groundwater at theom various locations of

sidential areas of Nyali,r is brackish and saline

in Kisauni and parts of table for human use.echarge with rainwater,-1400m/l and therefore

uitable groundwater isent establishments and

rom the on-site sewageon public health in the


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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 20132.3 Population distribution and HuThe Mombasa County has experie

population distribution in the dist population

Table 1: Population Distribution in t

Administrative

Division

Size:

Area km 2 19

Island 14.1 136,

Kisauni 109.7 79,

Likoni 51.3 39,

Changamwe 54.5 81,

TOTAL 229.6 336,Sources: Mwaguni 2002 & Go

NB: *2009 Population figures a+ Population increase based on

growth is due both to natural growtin search of opportunities for emplhave posed a serious challenge in tand health care services.The Countys population is distribuas articulated. In the Mombasa Ishigh-cost, low density settlementsBuxton-Stadium area, Makupa, Safound in the various informalSaragoi/Mwembe Tayari, Mwembdistricts, where large pieces of landMaweni, Timbwani, Kindunguni, Mthe Chaani conglomerate areas of informal settlements and slum areas


101

an Settlements in the Mombasa County

nced a 109% population increase between the year icts of the Mombasa County is as shown in tabl

he Mombasa County 1979-2009

Population % Popul

increase si

Censu9 1989 1999 2009*

140 127,720 146,334 523,188 14.5

95 153,324 249,861 405,930 63.0

65 67,240 94,883 176,426 41.1

84 113,469 173,930 282,279 53.2

148 461,753 665,018 1,387,823 44.0Population and Housing Census Figures 1979, 1989,

re based on Political Units, which are different from1989 and 1999 Population figures

and in-migration mostly of the labour force from otyment and personal development. This high populate provision of essential services like water supply,

ed in several human settlements within the districtsland districts of Mombasa and Kilindini, this popof Kizingo and Tudor; the middle-cost, high-dena Saba, Tononoka and Old Town. The other pop

settlements of California, Paradise, Kafoka, KizTanganyika and Kibarani within the Island; in L

have been reserved for other uses, people have had toweza, Ujamaa, Majengo mapya, Shika-Adabu, Shondalifornia, Dunga Unuse, Tausa, Kwarasi, and Migain Changamwe are at Kasarani, Fuata Nyayo, Kalaha

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s 1999 and 2009. Thee 1 below, where the

ation

ce last

s+

Population

density/ km 2

2009

37,106

0 3,700

1 3,439

8 5,179

2 6,0451999 and 2009

dministrative units

her parts of the countryion and its growth rateanitation infrastructure

and their distribution islation is found in theity settlements of thelation concentration isiwi, Kaloleni, Spaki,koni and Changamwecrowd in areas such as

a and Jamvi la Wageni;ini in Kilindini. Other i,


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Fig1: Map of the Mombasgrowth of human set

Birikani, Kwa Punda, Bangladesh,Jomvu Kuu. Kisauni District in thethrough the construction of the N

possible due to existence of plenty o

2.3.1 The Nyali Bridge opens up Kis

Agil, 1999 carried out a study on lathe total land area was under resincreasing both the number of humThis direction of growth was promthe area easily accessible and with p

people. Opening of the district ther county to this resident new area ohigh-density settlements of KisauniMtopanga, Shanzu and the squattinformal settlements and slum are

Ndogo (Kongowea), Maweni, Mafis

The bridge thus promoted the rapidability of the local authority to provforcing households to develop thei


102

a County, showing the Distribution of Informal Settltlements upon construction of the Nyali Bridge

Gana Ola, Mikanjuni, Miritini Madukani, Vikobani,north-coast, which has urbanized very fast due to theyali Bridge, (described later) has several large huf open and available land for construction of residenc

auni to major Human Settlements

nd use classification in the Mombasa County, whichdential settlements. The study showed a northwar an settlements and population densities in the Kisaunted by the Nyali Bridge, constructed in the early 19lentiful open lands, became the preferred residentialfore, resulted in the migration of a large population

f choice, leading to the rapid construction of housiEstate, Mlaleo, Barsheba, Mwandoni, Bakarani, M

r areas of Ziwa la Ngombe, Kisimani, and the Bs that developed very fast are those of Matopeni,ini, VOK, Kilimanjaro, Makombeni, Mwembe Legez

expansion and development of human settlements aide the supporting infrastructure and services for hur own on-site sanitation systems. (Gatabaki-Kamau

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ments and direction of

Mwamlali, Wayani andopening-up of the areaan settlements, made

es.

ndicated that 31.2% of d direction of growth,i district of the county.80s. This bridge maderea of choice for many

from other areas of theng estates in low-cost,gogoni, Mishomoroni,mbolulu slums. Other nazi Mmoja, Kisumu

a, Utange and Majaoni.

t a rate that striped thean waste management,et.al, 2000), described


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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013most settlements as informal, cromyriad of environmental problemswaterborne diseases and the effectsthe residents.

3.0

Sewage Infrastructure and G

3.1 Sewage Infrastructure

The main systems used for humansanitation systems include septic tause the pit latrine system for humamost households, the pit latrine andirected to enter the toilet pit (Mwagroundwater aquifers. This situationof suitable chemical composition fothe water unsuitable for potable usein the said area meant that the well

behind the quick recharge, was tcontaminants released on the groun2009).

3.2 Groundwater Pollution

Increasing pollution from domesticat hotspots located in and arounwastewater management is notthe sewage system, leaving alatrines. These on-site sanitation sy

Mwaguni (2002), determined the mdeterminations of the Total Colifor analysis used to determine thisGroundwater samples collected froand incubated at 37 0 C for 24-48

brilliant green lactose bile broth an production in tryptone water were cthen computed from Probability Tabsources in Mombasa. These results


103

ded and with poor sanitation practices. This situatielated to pollution that are manifested in the declineon human health that come with it, greatly undermin

oundwater Pollution

aste management in the human settlements are on-sitnks and soakage pit systems, and pit latrines. A maj

waste management in most of the households. It wthe shower rooms were close to each other and all

guni 2002). This made the pits wet-cells and activehas in some locations undermined the integrity of w

r domestic use. The introduction of micro-bacteria, fr without treatment. Similarly, the high hydrologic conand boreholes continually refill with water from the

e eminent danger of the aquifer vulnerability tod, or below the surface, rapidly entered the groundw

sewage and solid waste is a severe challenge in coasd the main urban centers such as Mombasa. In tadequate and only 10% of the populatioajority of the population to rely on septic tank-soak tems contribute to groundwater pollution.

icrobiological pollution status of groundwater sourcms and Escherichia Coli (E-Coli) in groundwater s

as the 5-tube, 3- dilution, Most Probable Numwater points spread in the area were inoculated into

ours for the Total Coliform test. Gas positive tubed incubated for a further 48 hours, and tubes that teonsidered positive for E-Coli. The Most Probable Nles. The results of analysis gave good indication of thre given in Table 2: a, b, c, and d.

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on has resulted in thein groundwater quality,ing the welfare of local

e systems. Such on-siteority of the householdss also observed that inshower washings weresources of pollution toter that was, otherwise,om the toilets rendereductance of the aquiferssurrounding strata, but

pollution as well; asater system (Mwaguni,

tal Kenya, particularlyhe Mombasa County,

is connected toage pit system and pit

s in Mombasa throughmples. The method of er (MPN) technique.the Mac Conkey broth

s were sub-cultured insted positive for indoleumbers of E.coli weree status of groundwater


7/15


Table 2: Bacteriological contaminati

Table 2a: Likoni District

Sampling Location Coliform

Mtongwe Pri. Sch. (w)

Mtongwe Navy(w)

Mtongwe Village (w)

Kenya Navy HQ (bh)

Kenya Nvy Mosque (bh)

Kenya Nvy Women (bh)

Approved School (bh)

Maweni Mosque (w)

Kiawairera Mosque (bh)

Caltex Ferry (bh)

Misufini (w)

Kitaruni (w)

30

1800+

1800+

0

43

210

150

1800+

0

1100

1100

1800+

Key: PL-Pit Latrine; C-Chlorinate-well

Summary: Number of boreholes = 6

Wells with water of acce

Table 2 b: Changamwe District


Port-Reitz Hospital (w)

KR Shed (bh)

Port-Reitz Corner (bh)

1800+

0

23

Key: SW Sewered area; NC Not

Boreholes with water of ac


104

on of groundwater in the Mombasa County

counts/100ml E. Coli counts/100ml Remar

6

45

1800+

0

23

4

23

1800+

0

1100

1100

150

PL, NC

ST/SP,

PL, NC

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

PL, NC

PL, C

ST/SP,

PL, NC

ST/ SP,

; NC-Not Chlorinated; ST/SP-Septic Tank-Soakag

; Boreholes with water of acceptable quality = 2; num

table quality = 0; Sources with acceptable water qual


1600

0

5

NC; ST

NC; no

NC; S

hlorinated; ST/SP Septic Tank/Soakage Pit

ceptable quality = 1; Wells with water of acceptable q

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s

, Protected

C, Protected

, Not Protected

C

C

C

, Open

C

, Open

NC, Open

Pit; bh borehole; w

ber of wells = 6

ity = 16.7%

s

/SP Area

ST/SP nearby

Area

ality = 0


8/15


Table 2c: Kisauni District


Utange former RC (w)

Shimo Prison (ow) older

Shimo Prison (ow) old

KitaruniKongowea (ow)

Near Ratna Sq. (ow)

Mkomani (ow)

Mkomani Sagaaf (w)

Bombolulu Bohra (ow)

Kisauni Sokoni (w)

Show ground (bh)

Dhamji Kongowea (bh)

Jeta Kongowea (bh)

Abdalla Kongowea (bh)

Customs Bamburi (bh)

MITC (bh)

Sch. Phy. Hndcp (bh)

Show ground (bh)

Mtopanga (w)

Kiembeni Damaga(bh)

Bamburi Kitaruni (w)

Kiembeni Mulji (w)

80

8

1800+

110

1600

350

1800+

1600

17

11

1100

460

460

1800+

43

150

4

460

23

240

43

Key: C- Chlorinated; w -well; ow -o

Summary : Number of boreholes =

Wells with water of acceptable quali


105


17

2

1800+

35

20

30

200

710

0

4

240

7

240

210

0

9

0

43

9

24

9

NC; PL

C; ST/S

Open;

NC; ST

NC; ST

NC; Pit

NC; Pit

NC; Pit

Pit Lat.

ST/SP,

PL, ST/

PL, ST/

PL, ST/

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ST/SP,

ld well; bh borehole; setlmts settlements; Hndcp -h

9; Boreholes with water of acceptable quality = 1;

ty = 0; Sources with acceptable water quality = 4.8%

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s

Area

P Area

C; ST/SP Area

/SP Area

/SP Area

Lat.; ST/SP

Lat.; ST/SP

Lat.; ST/SP

; ST/SP

C, No setlmts.

SP, NC

SP, NC

SP, NC

C

C, No setlmts

C, ,,

C, No. Setlmts.

C, Protected

C

C, Protected

C Protected

andicapped

umber of wells = 12;


9/15


Table 2d: Mombasa Island

Sampling Station Colif

Kibokoni (bh)

Makadara (bh)Kuze (bh)

Mji wa Kale (bh)

Anisas Cafe Kilifi (bh)

Coast Bottlers (bh)

Arya-Samaj Pri. (bh)

Near Manor Hotel (bh)

Makupa church (bh)

Makupa Church (w)

MEWA Hospital (w)

Railway Station(bh)

Kizingo, Hyders (bh)

Blue Room HLA (bh)

KPLC (bh)

Sapphire Hotel (bh)

St. Aug. Pri. Sch. (bh)

Msa Polytechnic (w)

Central Bank Bldg (bh)

Star of the Sea (bh)

Kizingo (bh)

Coast Car Park (bh)

Shimanzi (bh)

Law Courts (bh)

Central Bank (bh)

Makupa Nursing Hm bh

Msa Polytechnic (bh)

CDA ((bh)

Khamis High Sch. (bh)

Std Bank Tr. Sq. (bh)

Ziwani Msq. (bh)

GTI (bh)

Tudor High Sch. (w)

0

50175

25

35

25

900

35

32

1800

1800

35

50

1800

50

2

95

1800

25

0

0

43

23

4

0

4

15

93

1800

38

93

3

1100

Summary: Number of boreholes =Wells with water of acceptable qu

The high levels of coliform counlatrines and the septic tank-soak groundwater quality.


106

rm Counts/100ml E. Coli counts/100ml R

0

22

5

5

0

8

2

2

40

25

0

0

7

2

0

5

45

0

0

0

43

0

4

0

0

4

40

240

9

25

0

210

N

SS

S

S

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

S

N

N

S

N

N

N

C;

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

29; Boreholes with water of acceptable quality = 7lity = 0; Sources with acceptable water quality = 2

s and E.Coli were linked to cross contaminationge pit systems, confirming fears that on-site sani

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marks

;

, NC;, NC;

, NC;

, NC;

; ST/SP Area

; ST/SP Area

; ST/ST Area

; ST/SP Area

; ST/SP Area

; Open well*

; ST/SP Area

, NC,

; SW

; ST/SP Area

/SP, C;*

; ST/SP Area

; ST/SP Area

; ST/SP Area

*

, NC,

, NC,

/SP, NC

, NC

, NC

/SP, NC

/SP, NC

, NC

/SP, NC

, NC

/SP, NC

, NC

/SP, NC, Protected

; Number of wells = 4;.2%

of groundwater by pittation is undermining


10/15

Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013The international standards for dri

be more than 10 per 100 ml of saevident that groundwater sourcesoccurs through cross-contaminatiwater of accepted quality are ei

municipal sewer.As the results indicate, sewage poin most cases the quality of watdrinking water.

4. Impact of Sewage on HumanSewage introduces pathogens in wtyphoid, diarrhea, intestinal worms,directly on the levels of mortality.the developing world, Kenya includwhere a burst sewer line contamina470 out of 1628 people tested positested positive for typhoid, also wiHealth Information Systems and R following daily out-patient return oand 3c (Mwaguni, 2002).

Table 3a: Out Patient Morbidity, 19

Disease Island K

Diarrhoea

Malaria

Worms

Eye Inf.

Skin Inf.

Others

2, 401

13, 895

943

692

4, 444

17, 392

1

1

1

5

1

Table 3b: Out Patient Morbidity, 19

Disease Island K

Diarrhoea

Malaria

Worms

Eye Inf.

Skin Inf.

Others

1, 627

10, 933

1, 255

784

2, 970

19, 360

2

1

1

4

1


107

nking water specify that the coliform count in drin ple; and that there should be no E. Coli in the wain the Mombasa County are polluted with wastesn from septic tanks and soakage pits and pit latrinher located away from human settlements or in

lution is widely distributed in the groundwater souer derived from these sources is below the inter

Health

ter that may cause various waterborne diseases sucskin and eye infections, etc. The way sewage is dispoany cases of diseases related to sewage contaminatioed. For example, a case was reported in February-Mted the main reticulated water supply line with the f tive for cholera, with some people losing their livesth reported deaths (UNEP, 2000). Similarly, a searccords office for the annual reports for the years 199f morbidity of diseases related to sewage disposal p

8

isauni Changamwe Likoni Total

, 998

, 727

, 006

637

, 647

, 314

2, 359

15, 164

1,103

587

5, 308

20, 938

107

1, 730

82

72

613

1, 840

6, 865

46, 516

3, 134

1, 988

16, 012

57, 484

9


, 251

, 933

, 284

496

, 725

, 197

1, 381

10, 354

523

268

3, 534

12, 661

145

1, 459

97

44

493

1, 610

5, 404

39, 679

3, 159

1, 592

11, 722

50, 828

www.iiste.org

king water should notter. Consequently, it isof human origin. Thiss; and boreholes withareas served by the

rces of Mombasa, andational standards for

as cholera, dysentery,sed of therefore hinges

have been reported inrch, 1999 in Mombasallowing consequences:; 66 out of 179 people

at the Mombasa City8 to 2000 provided theroblems, Tables 3a, 3b

%

5.2

35.2

2.4

1.5

12.1

43.5

%

4.8

35.3

2.8

1.4

10.4

45.2


11/15

Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013Table 3c: Out Patient Morbidity, 20

Disease Island K

Diarrhoea

Malaria

Worms

Eye Inf.

Skin Inf.

Others

1, 509

11, 444

1, 047

991

3, 177

16, 963

1

1

3

1

Source: Municipal Health Departme

Analysis of the results on the diseathe district were related to water quThis makes the management of m

groundwater for potable supplies, awhere human settlements are to bewhich will soon open up to the proDongo Kundu By-Pass. Here, the qsanitation systems will provide theshould therefore provide a wake-upof the development.

5.0 Water Sources of the Kenya S

Kwale District is bounded by the loopened up by the Dongo Kundu By

by coral limestone of Pleistocene Ngombeni, Waa, Tiwi, and Diani Lgroundwater integrity stand to besettlements. Currently, these areasoriginating from the Shimba Hills,inadequate as the pipeline is old. It ithe shortage from this reticulated sdraw from the Tiwi aquifers. Thisinadequate water volumes to servethe shortfall, the Kwale Water andAgency (SIDA) drilled many boreh1985-1995. Though still not adeqsupplementary water supplies, co

groundwater aquifers are not protsettlements anticipated with the opewill be the result. This study suggnewly to be opened areas to maintwater for the residents.

6.0 The Proposed Dongo-KunduThe government received a Sh29Cooperation Agency (JICA) to consroad also referred to as the Dongosecond largest project after the LASouth Coast and to the planned Don

by August 2018. The project as pr Nairobi (A109) road, and traverse


108

0


, 809

, 133

976

419

, 555

, 911

1, 401

8, 621

512

246

2, 149

8, 615

220

1, 180

36

37

413

921

4, 939

33, 378

2, 571

1, 693

9, 294

40, 410

nt, Mombasa, 2000& Mwaguni, 2002

es of occurrence, showed that more than 50% of allality issues, as undermined by inadequate wastewater unicipal wastewater an issue of major concern in

d which therefore, calls for urgent and immediate mestablished. This fits the scenario along the coastal becess of quick urbanization on advent of the openinguick development and establishment of housing settldirect linkage of sewage contamination , causing wcall for strategies towards groundwater protection thr

outh Coast

gitudes 39 022E and 39 036E and latitudes 4 09S and-Pass lies within the coastal belt of the Indian OceanAge (Caswell, 1953) and for purposes of the stucations. Lying in lithologies of coral limestone and baffected greatly with projected urbanization and threceive freshwater supplies from the traditional sand from the Tiwi Borehoes. Water supplies from

s now being expanded to meet the increased demand pply will persist. The Tiwi Boreholes, which serve tsource of water, supplements that from the Marerethe needs of the targeted populations. To increase wanitation Project (KWSP) supported by Swedish Intoles and rehabilitated several shallow wells in theseate, these combined sources have served the poping from privately dug boreholes and wells. Now,

cted from the expected rise in urbanization due tning up of the area by the Dongo Kundu By-Pass, thsts initiation of measures for the protection of grouin the integrity of the water sources to guarantee th

y-Pass

illion loan from the Japanese government through,truct a 26km bypass that will link the island of Mombundu Bypass is aimed at easing movement of cargoSSET Corridor. It will serve as an alternative link frogo Kundu Port. It was scheduled to start in December

oposed will feature a road that will branch off fromMiritini, Kipevu, Tsunza, Mtenza to end at Kibund

www.iiste.org

%

5.4

36.2

2.8

1.8

10.1

43.8

he diseases reported inmanagement practices.reas which depend on

asures in new locationslt of the Kwale County, p-the area through theements that use on-siteaterborne diseases, andough advance planning

4030S. The area to be. Its geology is definedy; these areas include

eing densely populated,expanding of human

urces Marere springs,the Marere springs arefor water, but until then,his area and Mombasa,Springs, but, it yields

ater supplies and offsetrnational Developmentareas during the periodlation very well withthe fear is that if the

o expansion in humann freshwater shortagesdwater aquifers in the

e sustainable supply of

Japanese Internationalasa to South Coast. Thefrom the port and is them the hinterland to the, 2012 and be complete

the main Mombasa toni in the South Coast.


12/15

Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013According to Kenya National Highroads, bridges and drainage facilitiroad safety facilities and other amewill provide an alternative route toInternational Airport with the North

Decongesting Mombasa means peoout-come of the Dongo Kundu projof all forms to the area. Such onedevelopment and mushrooming of groundwater, and it is in line withKwale area residents as the area is o

Fig 3: Map of Mombasa

construct Mombasa Sout

7.0 Protecting Groundwater fro

With the establishment of human sBy-Pass, paradise will be lost andfrom the on-site sanitation systemthrough precautionary measures. Topen access, protecting the integrit

be residents to benefit from the groendeavor of both the local commu

communities, play different, but comajor role in guiding the protectio


109

ay Authority (KeNHA), the scope of the Project wills at selected locations, installation of slope protectiities. On completion, the road will decongest the cithe Likoni ferry. It will also connect the new contarn transport corridor and the South Coast.

ple will have an additional place for residence. Thisct. This project will open up Mombasas south-coastevelopment will be the quick urbanization of the a

human settlements. Human settlements as deducedthis concern that this precious resource is protecte

pened-up.

ort Area Road Development Project (The Project is

ern Bypass and Kipevu Link Road) Source, JICA 2012

Pollution Sources

ettlements, promoted by the urbanization engineerethe once potable sources of water will be contamin

used in the newly expanded urban areas. This situs, having shown that the pollution problem in Moof groundwater in a new area should be undertaken

ndwater it produces. As such therefore, there shouldity and the government towards this direction. Her

plimenting roles. In this case, the government in pan measures where in the interim, it guide the short

www.iiste.org

include construction of on works, provision of ty of Mombasa since itiner terminal near Moi

will be the immediate, bringing developmentea as seen in the rapidearlier have impact on

for the benefit of the

to

by the Dongo-Kunduted with human wasteuation can be avoided basa was facilitated byas a priority for would

be deliberate effort ande, the government and

ticular, should play theterm objectives, while


13/15


pursuing a long-term objective in tdesignated land uses.

Thus zoning will be seen an expresare given preference as conservatiowill guide urbanization and the

groundwater aquifers, which will isources. The government therefore

people are not known to adhere towould be expected at the minimumwhich seek to ensure the following:

Boreholes are constructed t Safe separation distance be Follow-up monitoring is ca

As the above is being achieved, thachieve the long terms objectives, a

Controls on various polluti Restrictions on certain lan Acquisition of land is mad

8.0 Conclusion and RecommendaFresh water for domestic use is scgroundwater aquifers, which other the reticulated water supplies have sfrom the on-site sewage managemeof access made possible by theurbanization. As such, therefore grouse without treatment, and the eff Kwale County, groundwater aquisettlements are widely sparse. Hoexperienced in Mombasa, will see iDongo-Kundu By-Pass, linking it tdevelopments, if, immediate steps t

Pollution causes freshwater shortadiseases. Waterborne diseases, impwelfare, which is in addition to theand therefore, the integrity of watecalled as urbanization sets foot inurbanize area must meet some standSimilarly, as there is tendency for activity should be allowed only if pwhere water points and on-site sanithe required separation distance btopography requirements guide thisanitation systems should be part o

be routine to detect any problems be

On long term basis, control of the vuses should be implemented as partas a groundwater aquifer, then theAcquisition of land, in such areas,categorized as conservation. Sociresources, should be located awayshould be planned and appropriate sshould be sensitized that groundwadrinking contaminated water are e

protecting the environment in the p


110

is front an objective, which can be realized throug

sion of achieving a long term objective and areas witareas, and other land uses are thus prohibited for p

establishment of human settlements will take pl

n turn, alleviate the detrimental effects of humanneeds to plan for this, as, left without guidance and plan adequately for sewage management! Having plthat the government engages communities to realize t

o a sanitary standard and appropriate sanitation facilittween water point sources and on-site sanitation units,rried out.

government should concentrate on the long-term ud this entails that the following is being undertaken:

on sources;-uses, and

e to maintain water quality objectives (Y Xu and E Br

tions

arce in both the counties of Mombasa and Kwale iise produced water of suitable chemical quality and teen this good chemical quality undermined by micro-t systems in the human settlements. This problem is

Nyali Bridge and the Makupa Cause-way, whichund water taped from locations of most these areas iscts of pollution have manifested themselves water ers are largely free from microbial contaminatiowever, the situation is about to change, and thetself transferred here, as the area opens up to rapid

Mombasa, and therefore easing the burden of acce protect the groundwater aquifers are not undertaken.

es. Pollution of freshwater sources by human wasct the health of residents, undermining their socio-

health costs borne in seeking medical care. These sitas a commodity that sustains life must be ensured.

a new area. In order to achieve this, sanitation faard requirements and they should therefore be construwater points such as boreholes and wells to be dermission is granted from authorities, and such devetation systems should be sited should also be guidedetween a water point and an on-site sanitation ss. Where possible, follow-up monitoring for functf the groundwater protection measures. Water samplifore they spiral out of control.

rious potential sources of pollution should be considof policy in groundwater conservation. More so, whedevelopment of human settlements in such an are

where it is necessary, should be enforced, and the lo-economic activities, which have potential for ifrom the water conservation zone. The developmenewage management systems integrated as part of theter resources, once polluted, are difficult to clean-uormous. This will impart knowledge for good envocess, and moving towards achieving the goals of s

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zoning of the area for

h groundwater aquifersrticular locations. Thisce away from major

astes on groundwater a structured approach;ayed the above role, ite short term objective,

ies built;and

dertakings designed to

aune, 1995)

Kenya. In Mombasa,erefore supplementing

bacterial contaminationxacerbated by the easehave promoted rapidnot suitable for human

borne diseases. In then because the human

ater pollution burdenrbanization due to the

ss to human settlement

es causes water borneconomic activities andations are undesirable,Precaution is thereforeilities in the newly tocted under supervision.veloped privately, thislopment, guided. As toand supervised so thatstem is met and that

ionality of the on-siteng and analysis should

red; restriction on landre an area is designated

should be prohibited.nd use for these areas

mpacting groundwater of human settlements

evelopment. Residents, and that the costs of

ironmental citizenship,stainable development.


14/15

Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013In this way, opening up of the south

References

1. Agil, Mahmoud Swaleh, (1Contribution to Integrated

2. Caswell, B. V., (1953), Ge Nairobi

3. Gatabaki-Kamau, (2000),Report

4. Government of Kenya, (195. Government of Kenya, (196. Government of Kenya, (1

Census, Volume 1, 19997. Government of Kenya, (2

Population Census, Volum8. Mwaguni, S. M., (2002),

Management, Unpublished

9. NEMA, (2009), State of tResources in Kenya

10. Ngethe, A.; (2012), Factor district, Garissa county-Kethe MA Degree in Project

11. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, (2012. UNEP, (2006): Groundwat13. WHO/UNICEF, (2010), M

challenge of the Decade14. Post PN 78 Acc

http://www.parliament.uk/b15. Y Xu and E. Braune, (1995

and Sanitation, Dept of wa


111

coast through the Dongo Kundu By-Pass shall not be

999), Land Use and Land Use changes in the Nyali-Boastal Management in Kenya

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Urban Governance, Partnership and Poverty in

9), Central Bureau of Statistics, Kenya population C89), Central Bureau of Statistics, Kenya population C99), Central Bureau of Statistics, Kenya National

009), Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Kenya1, 2009Public Health Problems in Mombasa District, AMA Project Report, University of Nairobi

he Coast Report Towards Integrated Management

influencing accessibility to Potable Water supply inya. An unpublished project report submitted to the Uanagement2), Water Scarcity Indexr Pollution in Africa

eeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Targ

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amburi-Shanzu Area, A

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15/15

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Urbanization and Groundwater Pollution in Mombasa-Kenya Do We Have to Transfer the Problem Due to Construction of the Dongo-Kundu by-Pass