7
· [B:J!sAqd ;)ql pUB SJOqlTIB JO UO!SS!UIJ;)d pU!)[ 4llM. ' Z861 ' 1 ' 617 . A;)"H ·s ,(qd ' g!J 'AdO:JSOJ:l!Jt\l gU!pUUn.L gU!UUB:JS .\q ;):Jupns '·ru gmma ·o :uroJJ sr ;)ql CUil1CIU UCIL!tUU)' U[LJ/L/U Cll\"UU NU UCIL!IO UCifnlrfL (jji, NCl/CI,-£!1£![ (CiutL (Z) ucdtr,o urc,(jj"o ' L!11, uut,tL!u rrt,,uo auuL!,o yor 1u wu · UL(jj,O I. UCII[(! (jji, G[, 1£![' (jj[ULJCL,U CCICI, O' £!1\,L,O CIOC/[,0 NU CGLQ UCLil L!C<Uri\C'O (C'C(' C!\'L'L' ri\L,!\L,L!' ri\KL Cri\Cil 986T c,c,t LL!' LLLL 'H 'D) C(C(r\CLil L!C<UdL (W.LS C(C(!\d·-I'L L!O t' C(Cri\'L L!CdLN L!C<,dLLCdLG L!QLLd· L!lle<LCL! C('LL! NC\LC(, LCCLI'i\L L!GLLL! CQLL' ml! CC,LLL C<LLtlll ri\tLCL!l c-y C\LGLtLG'L! CdCL! L!LN l!ri\C\U L!C<IlLNL z'f X LLLN'O CL L!lle<LCL! L!'N llNLL C\LGLtLG' GC' Ll!,L!\N LLGl CL! lle<LCL!' ri\l!,LO NGI'i\L lle<LCL! l!QC\LL'Il (lllri\'0 I)' z 86 T L!LG,r\L! cr\,LCLl L!C<Lr\' sJg1Pl CI<(HI CIGLIU' CL!Q C:CIUdl..<O C:Ga<dl.!' C:C<CI<L! ([[<(<:;£r<l.! ' " UL!(LL!"' eLL Br' wr:t..u era , r C<ri\LLNil L!llCLr\L! C(QL! m' uJ.,L.U J.L.cV ,J., a · cacc,dl! dUtC\"o' L!llNCCLil NL CG,!\l!' CC<C< uQ r\Lri\Lil LN,l dLC"O ' L!r\LCLLil ri\C,Ll! ' CC,tLL L!NLGC\"0 N,l NC\LO CLNL! CC,LLL' LL!C<LLtl! L!lle<LCL! L!GLLL! NC\LC(, . Clllri\'0 z' L!C<IlNL GC' !\LLl' e<dLC<L NL CL!C<ri\L G'llLU L!C<C< uQ L!t,r\L CNLGl ri\tlll' Clllri\'0 T r\L"l N,l C<CU'C'O CNC\LC<'O CLLL'O · s:Jrs,\qd JO ;)ql puu SJOqlnB ;)ql JO puq 4llM. (L861) Z"H - 1"H'dd 'z ' 19 'S:J!SAqd ' [ddy 'I ' 61 g!J 'AdO:JSOJ:J!UI gU!UUB:JS . I 71? B UISUBH ')I'd :UI01J P;)lU!ld;)J Sl UCIL!tUU)' NOlO' CNC!l\rf UUCIIW CILLW WCU (jji, NOlO (CiutL (E:) CL(jj,CfU UL(jj,O G[, l\ILI CCIII ([,(jj, (Ill )' CL, rfrtL, [£!,L CIOCI/ aL!tCII (jji, Clifl..CI.t LNdO-t(Q (G(if<:;<O NG<<:;£ if<:; LW<O CICW<O r:wc;· L!CINCII.. CIQ[<L Nl.t ffdul Gif!<:;l.tO (CIC:<N UWN!I.t <:;ril<CI(ril a,duadLG CI<WLt.. Q(t..d W<dt..wd£G cw NCJW< · rilC<L!O Clr<if<O r:NLGl Iii rt..l.t< <:;C(rilt.. L!Gt..LL! NCJLCI< ' G£if<:;<O c;c;N <:;rilC< L!CI<dUad!G<O L!<L(if<O CICC:l.. 1 L!N£GC1< WN<:;dC1UC< 1 (([((QG( CINJ UU<<:;I.t fil((/.[ L!rilC(((<Q ril(< CICril<L<O ULril<O' a.L.!LIOL.!IG a.[l.!IL OILL.! la.L.!LIOL.!IG CIU NOla• urrmLu

urrmLu - Weizmann Institute of Scienceptc.weizmann.ac.il/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/5_11.pdf · SJ~ll~'l . A;)"H · s,(qd ' q£ g!J ... CC,LLL' LL!C

  • Upload
    dangbao

  • View
    222

  • Download
    2

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

· Al~I:Jos [B:J!sAqd uu:Ju~urv

;)ql pUB SJOqlTIB ~ql JO UO!SS!UIJ;)d pU!)[ ~ql 4llM. 'Z861 '1 '617 'SJ~ll~'l . A;)"H ·s,(qd 'q£ g!J 'AdO:JSOJ:l!Jt\l gU!pUUn.L gU!UUB:JS

.\q s~rpn1s ;):Jupns '·ru 1~ gmma ·o :uroJJ p;)1uud~1 sr ~mg!J ;)ql

CUil1CIU UCIL!tUU)'

U[LJ/L/U Cll\"UU NU UCIL!IO UCifnlrfL (jji, NCl/CI,-£!1£![ (CiutL (Z)

ucdtr,o urc,(jj"o' L!11, uut,tL!u rrt,,uo auuL!,o yor 1u wu·

UL(jj,O I. UCII[(! (jji, G[, 1£![' (jj[ULJCL,U CCICI,O' £!1\,L,O CIOC/[,0 NU

CGLQ CLC~ ~G,a,dl!'

UCLil L!C<Uri\C'O (C'C(' C!\'L'L' ri\L,!\L,L!' ri\KL Cri\Cil 986T

c,c,t LL!' LLLL (J;nqo~ 'H '~~uu~s: 'D) C(C(r\CLil L!C<UdL ri\~

(W.LS 'gdo:JSOD~W ~uqguun.t ~U~UUB:JS)· C(C(!\d·-I'L L!O t'

C(Cri\'L L!CdLN ua,dL.~~d~c;-a,n,,aL,. ~~l..d (aau~)

L!C<,dLLCdLG L!N~dC\LLC' L!QLLd· L!lle<LCL! L!lldC~L! Cr\~Lil

C('LL! NC\LC(, LCCLI'i\L L!GLLL! L!tLL~ CQLL' tLL~ ml! ri\~

CC,LLL C<LLtlll ri\tLCL!l c-y ~· C~LC(L' C\LGLtLG'L! CdCL!

L!LN tlL~L ri\~ l!ri\C\U L!C<IlLNL z'f 0~ X O~Z LLLN'O CL

L!lle<LCL! L!'N llNLL C\LGLtLG' ri\~ GC' ~L!C' Ll!,L!\N LLGl CL!

lle<LCL!' ri\l!,LO NGI'i\L ~CCLill! lle<LCL! l!QC\LL'Il (lllri\'0 I)'

c,L~' z 86 T L!LG,r\L! cr\,LCLl L!C<Lr\' sJg1Pl M.g~Ag~ IB:J~sA:qd

CI<(HI CIGLIU'

CL!Q C:CIUdl..<O C:Ga<dl.!' C:C<CI<L! ([[<(<:;£r<l.!'

"UL!(LL!"' eLL Br' wr:t..u era, r

L!d~NQ,Il C<ri\LLNil L!llCLr\L! ri\~ N~dC\LLl (Cr\~ C(QL! m'

uJ.,L.U J.L.cV ~~~'.: l't~-,J., a ~'ttl.. al't~'~ · cacc,dl!

u~d,d,o 1'.:~1.! ~uu~tl.. l't~ au~~o c;~cw\,1'.:~ l't~-'J.'

(~uwmunl) ri\~ u~d,d,o dUtC\"o' c~~a1.. u,c~~u ri\~ L!llNCCLil NL CG,!\l!' l'tdL.~l Gl't~~U~ 1.!~1'.: a,tl!~l..

CC<C<uQ r\Lri\Lil LN,l dLC"O' L!r\LCLLil lll!~'C' ri\C,Ll!'

CC,tLL ~C<,dLLCdLG'O L!NLGC\"0 LL!N~dC\LLC"O' N,l

NC\LO CLNL! CC,LLL' LL!C<LLtl! CC<LC~ L!lle<LCL! CL~C\Il ~r\,l'

L!GLLL! NC\LC(,. Clllri\'0 z' L!C<IlNL GC' !\LLl' e<dLC<L ri\~ C~

NL CL!C<ri\L G'llLU L!C<C<uQ L!t,r\L CNLGl ri\tlll' ~Clri\L

Clllri\'0 T r\L"l N,l C<CU'C'O CNC\LC<'O CLLL'O ri\~ ~L!C'

· s:Jrs,\qd JO ~1nmsur uu:Jp~urv ;)ql puu

SJOqlnB ;)ql JO UO!SS!UIJ~d puq ~ql 4llM. (L861) '£Z"H -1"H'dd 'z '19 'S:J!SAqd '[ddy 'I '61 g!J 'AdO:JSOJ:J!UI gUI[~UUfil gU!UUB:JS

'JJOSJ~.L . I 71? BUISUBH ')I'd :UI01J P;)lU!ld;)J Sl ~lng!J ~ql

UCIL!tUU)'

NOlO' CNC!l\rf UUCIIW CILLW WCU (jji, NOlO (CiutL (E:) CL(jj,CfU

UL(jj,O z· G[, l\ILI CCIII ([,(jj, (Ill)' CL, rfrtL, [£!,L CIOCI/ aL!tCII (jji,

Clifl..CI.t LNdO-t(Q (G(if<:;<O NG<<:;£ if<:; LW<O CICW<O r:wc;· L!CINCII.. CIQ[<L Nl.t ffdul Gif!<:;l.tO (CIC:<N UWN!I.t <:;ril<CI(ril

a,duadLG CI<WLt.. Q(t..d W<dt..wd£G cw NCJW< · rilC<L!O Clr<if<O r:NLGl Iii rt..l.t< <:;C(rilt.. L!Gt..LL! NCJLCI<' G£if<:;<O c;c;N

<:;rilC< L!CI<dUad!G<O L!<L(if<O CICC:l.. 1

L!N£GC1< WN<:;dC1UC<1

(([((QG( CINJ UU<<:;I.t fil((/.[ L!rilC(((<Q ril(< CICril<L<O ULril<O'

a.L.!LIOL.!IG a.[l.!IL OILL.! la.L.!LIOL.!IG CIU NOla•

urrmLu

U(z) = U0

O\U ,monDil1U1J )11n'~il1n1'DJ )')YD 1)mN

:N1il tj!(z) ;.(1111tN)

(3) tj!(z) = Cexp (-k'z); k' = v'2m(Uo- E) h

I 0'1HNil\U mD - j/110 11il)'D ~1j)tJ11j)'D )\U illj)D)

mm7 7Jp )\U nJnD mm7 ')\U '1'-7>' 0'):S1'D m-1

(3) ilntJ1)) U0

- E .(1J3 0'\U1n) d N1il Oil')') j/nlDil\U

mnmil) nJnDil 7\U il11JYil m:sp)1~ nN m:s"D

.(nJnDil ')~D 111Dp7N nN:s1il7 il\U111il n'7D')'Dil

,11n 'tN SeV N1il i111JYil n':Sj/)1~ )\U ilJ1Y\U n')) ON

)\U ill'1n 1nN7 '11j/Y.lil ilJ1YY.l 37% 7 tJ!(z) ,il)N 0')1!1))

ill'1nJ 1JnD ,n1mN nNt .monnil 11n7 1J7J 1A

.0"Y.l11JN 0'1Y.l'DJ

')\UJ O"pnn 7Jpil mm7 ')\UD 0')11Dp7Nil 11mm

\U' 01t n)Jp) .011t' N) 1\J) 01t ;il11\U il1'D) 0')11'Jil

.mm7il ')\U pJ v nnD 11pn 1Jn7

I 11'PN )\U 7Jpil m7 ON m m~pn il)Nil m)ptJY.lil )J

)\U 7Jpil m7 nN '")'Jm ON1 p1om 'nJnr.:lil on;, N1il

11il)'Y.lil 01t nN D1' j/1 11nil .1'Yt 'nJnr.:l 11nJ 3 1H'N

.Ul)')tJ)

01t ,eV < U0

- E :O"j)nr.:l\U 1J )\Jj/ V )y~mil nnr.:lil ON

(11m'Y.lil )))1\Jj))N nY1m )11'JJ 11)1D m1'J\U) I 11il)'Dil

oy n'7N':sm~opN 11v1 ,v )y~mil nnn7 'mDnn

:11nil pJ7 nJnDil ')~ pJ d pmn;,

(4) I( d) <X Vexp (-2k'd)

N1il 11m'Y.lil 01t 0'Y.l1l\JtJ))N ilDJ )\U d 11JY

m)nil pmJ N1il (4)-J IJ))\Uil 01Uil .10-7 A- 10- 9 A

m7il ')~Y.l 1mil npmil :d pmn7 I o1~il pJ il~'1nil

tJtJ1JY.l H m7n )y )1U 11tJJ I Dltil nN m'DPD l A -J

.tJ"Y.lr.:lil )\U il71Y~il 111PY

.0')\U 10-J ')~) il)))\U ,tJ"DD n'IJY.l'JtJ 1NnD 4 0'\U1n

))1-n7n7 11\UP 1m;, . t:l~,.~ ,.,nil p~ N'il ,,m,~il

m\UY.lil 1mn 1Y.l1)J ,(piezo-electric) ')Y.l\Un-HN'~ 1D1nr.:l

)\U 0"7nil \!!17\U . ')Y.l\Un il1\U nY~\UilJ V1Y.l'Y.l nN

n)Y~il .z ,y ,x il1\U' 0'1':S nJ1YD )11'J) )il ))1-n)nil

.lA-J J1l'j)J i1J11N nN m\UD ))1 )y \JJ11 0.1 )\U nnD

)y 0'1\U' omnn O')'Y~Y.l on7 )yn 11nil nN Y')il) '1J

O'nnD ilmn7 ,1il'7Y p~17n-mnD n7Y~il .y ,x 0"))1il

on;, ')~ nN pno' 11nil\U ,1J7 on)n ,"11\UD-')'\U" 7\U

')~Y.l 11nil ilJU '1)'\U .(4 0'\U1n) y 1':S) O')'Jj)D 0'11j)J

7N':Sm1~ 7YJ 11tNJ z 1':S 111N7 ym (E il'n)N1 p(z) ym

:N'il U(z)

(1) p2(z) + U(z) = E

2m

E > U(z) Oil'J)) 0'1HNJ j/1 Y1)) J)1tJD 'tJN)p )11\Jj/JN

11JY 0'))ilr.:l1 "01nn7 ~1nD" Oil E < U(z) 0'1HNil1

np')JDJ 1J N7 .1'1n 'n7J 7N':Sm1~ monD )11Dp7Nil

1HNJ N:SD'il) 0"10D '1J'0 )11\Jj))N) mm)il ,0'\J)))j/il

d 1'J1Y1 U0

N1il )N':S)IJ)~il monD ilJU\U n')) .E < U(z)

I 1HN :O'lHN il\!!1)\U) JnlDil nN p7m .(1N3 0'\U1n)

os\U1n .monDil '1nN - III-1 DU1J 111HN ,monDil ')~)

)nn'~il) )n\Jp7Nil )\U tJ!(z) ))il n':Sj/)1~ nN 1NnD ' ) 3

.0'11tNil n\U1J\UJ (1))'11\U nN11\UD)

,------, U=Uo

- - E

'------U=O z=O z=d

II lHN III lHN

'J

--z

.3 D'l!nn

.d 'J.l\.11 Uo il:lln '71< 1YllJI9 DIOnD .1<

'71!! D'llll<ll DI!Ji'?I!JJ. lllOj7'71< '7\!J '7~11 n 1Yj7Jl9 '7\!J 1\!JDDil j7'7nll .J.

.DIOnDil

,10")1D1il 0')) ')\U )\U ODD '1'-)y tj!(z) il)1m I 1HNJ

:1mD 1mm ')\Uil1 monDil 7N y) 1nN

(2) tj!(z) = Aexp (ikz) + Bexp (±ikz); k = J lrnE h

)D pmnDil ')1D1il )) Nm tJ!(z) ,III 1WNJ ,monDil '1nN

(3-1 2 mN11\UDJ) C-1 D ,B ,A .tj!(z) = Dexp (ikz) :01Dnr.:lil

. il~\Uil 'Nm '1'-)Y 0'YJpm 0'Y1Jp Oil

1 ' 0'-' Jn::lln ,18 J7::J ,''i17Ji1n"

11N 0'D'O :::">"1 ?n ,IJ1'0!:l 'Y~DK:l 0''0D11'0D 0"JJ'D

)m)'3 11n1!:!1Dil m13J m'11J11D mY3\J l!:ltJD ?y tJ"DDil

o?13J n?;11;w ,('DIJ)'tJ mu )'D) )11J'1 ?'0 mJ'11n '">' 11N 0'J'Y!:!D il11\J1!:!DIJ-"1)''0 11>J'))JJ .ilJWD 0'Y1~Y~

0'~1!:! nn )J)))JIJ , 1UtJ N113 mn!:l? 1N 01N1j')N1::t tJ"DDil

.(ilJ'IJil ?y Y3~3 Y'!:l1D - 5 0''0111)

31 11N Jl1D'nDil 111')1'0) 111N~111 llDJ 1Nm1 1''0)J)

O'D1\JN Oj')DJ J)1tJD N1il'O 1)'N1 .tJ"DDil J'O 111P)U

JJJ 1113 1N (2 0''0111) 011\JtJ))N 1 )y ilJ1Yil j'/1'13

')£! ON .11nJ 11n11D N~)J)Il 01\JNil 11N mm? n'J~D 1))'N

)'N DYDJ ,B -1 A O'D1\JN ')1tJ ')'OJJ 0'3J11D Onil

onil .B JYD 1N A JYD N~m 11nil ON ,Y1::tp? 1111'0!:!N

.GaAs il~nn? 1'J1Dil il'il 11N~ m'l'Y? 1n'J~il n )1'0N111

01~ )11'J Ga 01\JN JYD N~)J) 11nil 1\VNJ\V , 11311il

.11£lil N1il mPJ- As JYD1 ,on;, JN 11nll )D N1il 111J)'Dil

p?1 (occopied surface states) mN?D )il As JYD 0')£lil 111D1

)il Ga ?yn ;11m'Dil 01~? omi\Jp?N on11? 111J)1tJD

.mv'' )y Y3~3 Y'!:l1D N1111 ,ilP'ItJil 11N~1Jl 11N 1N11D 6 0''0111

mmN 113'3tJ 11N )DtJD pn'il Y3~il .m )1'?; 11J'1J '3)

)DtJD 3111~ .As-11 'D1\JN 113'30 11N - 0111Ji11 ,Ga-il

.0')11'Jil ')'03 1111'0 \JYDJ 11il)'lJil 01~ 0'0 ,0")'3 11\'N

-')))) J'O ll!:l'!:lnll IH'N 11N )DtJD 31il~ ,111nN )1'0)

'11\V J\V il!:l'!:lnil IHN ,O'D11JNil ')'OJJ 0')11\Jj')JNil

.?m 11P~P)1£l

ONil ,Y1::tj')J J)1tJD tJ"DDil'O ,iln'J1D 11N311 Nmn;,

. 'D'J 1'Jil113 <']1111'0il NJ 1N <)1111'0il 0'1tJD 01\JN

7a 0''0111 .NH3

il)))JJN UJ )11~ ')!:! )'3'0 113U113 1311Dil

)11~11 'D1DN .UJ il!:l''Onll ')!:!J (Si) )11~il ')£! 11N 1N11D

11113 0'D11JNil 12 .O'n?;, 0'JU'Yil '1'-JY 0')~PD

.(2 0''0111? 1111'0il) 111'n'il N11 11N 0'11i1D )D1tJDil )'1YDI1

N113 O'D1\JNil 11'~nDJ :il!:l''Onil InN) J3pm 7b 0''0111

O'D1\JN ,)::t1DJ ,Oil ilJN ;1111' 0'N1) NJ il1m'il

.11'D'Jil il3 1)113 1!:!1111'0il'O

C'IJ~"N t'til' 'mmil il"T~lll '':l m 'OD'OJ J1J' tJ"DDil

')!:! )y 0'N~mil (Xe) )1mp J'O O'D1\JN J'ODJ , CIJ~viJIJ

11111j'))IJ) )1mpil 'D1\JN 0'N1) 8a 0''01113 .(Ni) Jj')')

0'1~1' 011 8F-3 ,Jj'/')11 ')!:! )y 11'N1j')N 0'1n!:!D (mn?il

1Dj')'D 11''0N1 :)Dj')J1J 11Y~311il ilHilll .IBM 11P111Nil 11N

1::t1p J"nN1 0'1tJD )1)tJj') 01\JN JYD tJ"DDil J'O 11nil 11N

0'1tJD 11YJ J1) 11m'Dil 01~'0 1Y ,Jj')')IJ ')!:!J 11nil 11N

7l 1 'DY-1 JJ7~ln ,18 17J , 11TI1li717"

.z J)l )y V n11D 11JY!:lil '1'-JY Y~1::tD OHil z

Vz

JUilJD

<nrn fl'llllJjJ/N

'lvo 1tn1l '71!l ilf7'lOn nJJ/Jn .o"JJJJ '71!l 'nJJ•:Jo liNn .4 D'I!Jln

700 '7JJ nwlJ•l •lJJJJnn nN nl~l' ('lovn 71n1 nJwn,l) on'l

.(nnJ17JJ,l nJJ'I!JTJ (4) ''Jl) J.I!JnJJ,l

the figure is reprinted from: J.A. Golovchenko, The Tunneling Microscope: A New Look at the Atomic World, fig 1, p.49, Science, 232, 48, 1086, with the kind permission of the author and The American Association for the Advancement of Science, copyright 1986 .

N1il 11'JD'On-HN'!:l 11J1YD J'O 'JD'tJjJDil ilHilil n11\J

'0' , 1111' IJJ)1) ilHil il'0111 ON .O'lJ11\JtJ))N 111ND

n')) .'11JD11j')'D nn J'ODJ ,Tl')J'JJ 11J1YD <']'tJ1ilJ

01~1 d0

on? 11nil )'3 pn!Dil 11'11 llP'ItJil 11?n11il3'0

m11D JYD 11nil 131Y ilj')'ltJil )Dn ON .l(d0

) 11il)'Dil

J1)' I(d) 11m'Dil 0111 ,d < d0

,d pn!Dil )IJP'

0"1)''011'0 )NJD .(4) ilN11'0DJ ON11il3 11'JN'~))1£ltJj')N

ilD1j')Yil1 0)1il ')£!3 il3Uil-"1)''0 nnN 0'3P1Y I(d)-3

111n J'O 1'P!:l11 11NJDD y ilj')'ltJ 1p 111NJ I = f(z, y)

)'0 ilJY!:lilll 11J1YD'O pm .(4-1 1 0'D''IV111) '£!1)1!:!1\J

)y 11Y'!:l1D "11'!:!1)1!:!1\Jil il!:!Dil"1 1113'0n1DD ilJ1J tJ"DDil

I'O!:!N 111'£!1) 111'D1Jl 111~>'3 .11DN )m3 3 'OnDil 1tJD

I il'1~1 113 'IJj')::ltJI£!3 '1DD-11J11 11N11J IJ!))JIJ 11N 11!:!11?

tJ"DDil J'O 1'D1\JNil ,111::t)IJ il11!:lllll 1'01J .(2 0''0111)

))!)3 11nll1 0)1il )y ))'1 1111'3 3'~' il'il' )il)::t)J'O '0111

0'YHY~ 11)\Jj')ilJ !1J1 il11\J1!:!DIJ-"1)''0 ,111'D'D 1111'>'1

nl'{ 1Y-P1il I 1r.J1j7Y.:l) )1JOj/il >'')il\UJ .il"J'O) 011\?tnJN 4

>'~1:1 l')ilnil .'111n) NJil 01\?N 11 ) ):VY.:l 1n1N 1r.Jj7'Y.:l1 11nil

ilY1Jnil nN pDpil) '1J m 14K 1ilJ1Y.:lJ il11\?1!lY.:l\?J

ommN )v m!ltJ Y1JY.:l) '1J m1 D'Y.:l1\?Nil ;,v nm1nil

\?)'0 nN j/!ltJ N)) 1NnY.:l 8f 0'V1n )j7'Jil 'J!l )N 0'1~

.soA-J mN )J )v ililJn 1D)1YJ 1nPJ 1DPil nmtJ1!lil

il1'ilY.:l il)Jm n1:1n nN~v 1')il) ilVP 'JV 1~Y.:l

!ilJ\U) Y.:l 11 tJ 1 11YJ Oil il"J'O) 011\?tJ)JN 4

1DIDNil n:>il 91j701lj7 1D

1'1~n~' C'~''m 1N C'~''1~ 'l!l 'll v, 'll1!l ~,~~1'1

,,1'13,~1'1 C,t, C'l1,"v'N11 11N v!l~' C''~,~~11

n1~1'1 !l1v~1,v'~ 11nN 1'\UJY.:l D"j/ D'11JY.:l 11JY

1ilJJY.:l\U (Atomic Force Microscope, AFM 1N11 JY.:l) '~1"N1'1

D'JY1Y.:l n~DP ,,,_;,y nm!l N1il1 tJ"Y.:lY.:lil )'0 m) ilY.:ln

.tJ 11 Y.:lY.:lil )\U D'N'~Y.:lY.:lil 'J'OY.:l 1nN 1)'J':J .) 1Y.:l:V il\UN1J\U

1N) O'Y.:l1\?Nil )'J D')Y1!lil mnDil nN )~JY.:l 1'\UJY.:lil

mnDil :I'D .11nil-'Y.:l1DN p:~;, onil-'J!l )\U Cm)1p)mil

):VY.:l D'j7n1Y.:l:J :D'Y.:l1\?Nil )'J\U pn1Y.:lJ D"1)n onY.:l~1Y1

D'j7n1Y.:lJ1 (Vander Waals) tJ)1 11 )1 mmJ D'\?)1\U 15A

.'Y.:l'Jil 1\UPJ npY.:l'O ilJ''OY.:l mJ )'Y!l IA 1:v11m' D'1~P

12A )\U pmY.:l:J 11)1m n')N'~JJ1!ltJpN N'il pmY.:lJ 1m)n

0'\?))\U I A -Y.:l 0'1~j7 0'j7n1Y.:l) .10-9 N )\U )1U 11tJY.:l

ilY.:l'JtJ N1il 9 D''01n .D'Y.:l1\?Nil-'J'Y1) p:1 il"n1il mnD

.N 11 JY.:l )\U D'J1\UN1il D'Y.:lnil 1nN )'0

111JY.:l 1Y.:l1nY.:l il'1'0Y il1'Y~ Y11~ N1il n 'D1Y.:lil p)nil

111JY.:lil on:~ :V)1Jil 11n 1nNil il1'~:J\U 1('\111P )'OY.:l))

:Oil il1'Y~il :vn~il '1Y.:lY.:l .:1m il!l1~Y.:l 'J'Oil il1'~

Y.:l " tJ 240·10-4-1 1Jn11 Y.:l " tJ 20·10-4 1' :11>' Y.:l"tJ 1.5 ·10-4

-HN'!l )mJY.:l '1'-):V il1'Ym Y11~il '!l)J nm 0)1il .111N

'll~ ,n,~ 1'J1n'll , ~"~~ N11'1 N"~~ ''ll 'N'~11 . ')Y.:lvn

p:::1 o"pnY.:l 11ilJ'Y.:lil o1~ .11,'llt1'1 ll,,m ''ll ~11m '1!l'~ :vnm m:v1Jn )J mm11nY.:l 1J1 1 tJ" Y.:lY.:lil 1m) '1!l'~il

I D'1nN D'N))J D) D''OY.:ln'OY.:l D1'il .11ilJ'Y.:l 01~ "1J''O)

)Y.:l n1mm il1'>'~ :v11n n:V)1!l\U 1P'J np :D"D!l1N )'OY.:l)

.'nJnY.:lil '1!l'~il

D')) n1~1' 1n1mmm nY)1!lil 1D"J1Pil 'n'O nDJNnil

Y11~il m:v1Jn .ilil1J) m'0' )1J n11m onY.:l~1Y\U 1Dnm:v

1'01J .D'1Y.:l1Yil D'J)il nY.:l~1YJ D"1J''OJ mY.:l1U il1'Ym

." D1Nnil 1mN" I tJ"Y.:lY.:l 7'0 m7 ilm N"JY.:l )'0 il11!lilil

D'JD' )'nil 'D!l1Nil !l1j/tJ11j/'Y.:lil1 tJ 11 Y.:lY.:lil 1N11 JY.:lil

.7 D'l~nn

.i1l'n'il Nn nN IDOD 1'1\!Dil il'liDN D'7 ln9'1!Jn 'J9'7 Ill~ 1l9 .a

.(nlllj7Dil nD'I!.llJ. (6) linD) il9'1!.lnil 'lnN Ill~ 'l9 .b

the figure is reprinted from: Ph . Avouris & R. Wolk:ow , Atom­resolved surface chemistry studied by scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, figs. 2a, 2b, p. 5093 , Phys. Rev. B, 39 , 8 , 1989 , with the kind permission of the authors and the American Physical Society .

nN 111) m J~Y.:lJ . \UN1Y.:l YJj/J\U (1·10-8A - 6·10-8A)

)\U m1'ilY.:l:J 1 '1~1il )1PJJ 11nil nnil ,,,_;,y 01\?Nil

1 ' DJJ rn:lln ,18 JIJ ,''i77li7JJ" 18

JIU 11n n ""L_Y

0)1

11:JY.l

D.J2P"P'D

.(H":JlJ) 'lJIOH no CJI17on17 11J 'l !V •nn•:;o liNn .9 D'!Vln

0

J MIN

J

7

•n Hn'l •ll/17 1l1J nlHnnn H":Jr.J nown 'l!V ill10 . . 1 o D'!Vln

7tnr.J) Dtnl ll7n J7/JJCJV1Hil-'Oil 11/!V 'lnH , ')117 l!V ll 1l:Jr.J n 177J.l

.(nnt17r.Jil nlJ'!VlJ (8)

figure reprinted from: W . Haberle et al. , In situ investigations of single living cells infected by viruses , fig 8 , Ultramicros­scopy, 42-44 , 116 , pp.l161 -1167 , with the kind permission of the authors and Elsevier Science - NL, Sara Burgerhartstraat 25, 1055KV Amsterdam, The Netherlands

9l 1 1(7!::) J71:Jlr1 ,18 71:J ,'1i71li7J711

O'lJIOH 1711/l J7lNJ71Jil 0 "1Jr.J-J7/J/r.JJ7 l!V ill70 .8 0 11VlJ7

0 1l7/0r.J 0 11J/0Nil 8a ll1/r.JJ7J . '717'1 !V'J:I 11'J l JJ f/1'0!7 l!V

SOA n1N 7:; nJu .IBM nt'niNil nH D'lYt' on Bj-J /Nl 17NJ

.(nllt,7r.Jil J7r.J'!VlJ (7) 7tnr.J)

the figure is reprinted with the kind permission of the authors and Macmillan Magazines Limited , copyright 1990 , from: D.M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunneling microscope , fig 1, Nature, 344 (letters to Nature), 524, 1990.

Oil p) )mJ. 0'tJ1JIJil 0')J)1 DY) l'11NJ. ))>'.:!) DJl\!J))\!J

D'IJ"PJliJ 0J'N\!J on)))PJ. D'J')ilJl lpn>J D'l\!J.:JNIJ

np)) 10 D'\!Jl!l .Jl')m ilJ.'J.tJ D'\!Jln m1 ,D1N1pNn

.ilD 1pn>J>J

np))il m NJl) ill1p iliJ ,Jl1)1iJJl 6 )\U ill1tJJ. lNJliJ N1il

.Dm) n1n JlW1J.YJ.Nil-'tJ11'11\!J nnN ,rpp )\U il')J>J

ilD')J. JlY£11il) D'IJlU 1NJlil 11JlJ. D'J.lJliJil , 0'tJ11'11il

0'tJ11'11il JlN'~P) ,ilNlJJ 1ill1\!Jp ilD')J.il .YJ.:SN Jll):SJ.

,Jl>J)>J) ilD')J.il N!lil nN ntY\!J 'lnN .Nnil )>J D'\!J1nil

20 )\!JnlJlil il)N Jl1Yl1NIJ .!lp?:s DY YU.:J lN\!J) NJlil 1N

I l):::t)) )::Ipnn i1Dn i1D1j?)) .Qt. V = Q(V2

- V1) ~ E . :'ll

mm

.11 0''llln i1Nl ,J:l))D:::t Ol~i1 N1i1 I .V 1:lD

Q,i

v

f'J. l!V17n nN n1Nnan nm(7Jltl 1m'n ,"ft'7t17 no11a" .77 D'!Vln

'71A Q-!V:J nnt17 nt~'Dt7'1 .V t''lJJ nna,l f'J.'l '7J.17 'l!V Q tJJJOrJ . l)j)rJJ. OlTtl Nltl i . 1nN fll0(7lN l!V /]j}O/'JJ.

( II Coulomb Staircase II) O'll:::t i1))n' m~P!Jj?i1 nmpy

.m'll 25-D i1JYD) m mpm1 "1'!7'i' ,.,,~.,'J~"

r 0

r:: Q

0.4

~ 0.0 r:: r

-0.4

-

-

-

-

-

- ·-' I

-1.0

(c)

. ... ~

,;

I I . ./

/ -

, -

/ - -' .r

' " ..

~ ---

-

I I

0.0 1.0 (V) 11nn nnn

Nni1 )mil )J 1'liD::I1 ,tJ1l'11J Nni1 n!:l''lln lnN) mY'll

J:l1tJDi1 '1'n'i1 l''liJDi1 m .N11JDi1 J'll 1m~ ::Ij?))D::I i1'i1

'n Nn::I 'llnlnDi1 ':l1JP:::t 1'Ji1n nDN )Dn lNn)

.l\JD1lf''DD i1:::tli1::I 0')\Jj/il 0'1DD:::t1

m):l) J:l1tJD tJ"DDi1 'J n'J1i1'll ,lpnD l1N'n:::t O"tJ)

J'll i11l!Ji1 l'liD" l)J)JJ ,1nN )1l\Jj?JN '1'-J)) J::Ij? m'))D

J'll mm;, 1'::1 Q 1>'DD l'::I>'i1J nJ ·" 'JD'llni1 1>'DDi1 Dmp

(Sa)

(5b)

E= - 1-Q2 2C

Emin = -1- e2

2C

:E i1'll)N i1'll1l1 C J):::t'j? J)):::t ):::tp

,c J::If'1 v mn'liD nnD l1f'DD ::IJlmil 'JD'lln J:lYD::I

O))!:l )J ,i1~'!:lf' i1Nln v 1:l)J Q )'l! i1D1f'>'i1

r 0

r:: Q

0.4

~ 0.0 r:: r

r 0

r:: Q

-0.4

0.4

~ 0.0 r:: r

-0.4

-1.0

-

-

-

1-

r-.,. .

1-

-1.0

0.0 1.0 (V) 11nn nnn

I I -

(b) ( -

~ ... ·"' -•.

t .•., -·· . ,.. .

l .. ~ -,..1'

~ · -., -

-

l I

0.0 1.0 ( v) 11nn nnn

'lm l'IIN 'l!V tll/OlDrJOJ. o"aa ''V O!VtiJ nm~mn 'l:J .onn 'ly c ,b ,a O'Jt!V nwt17rJrJ t'7J.17m!V "ft'7t17 ntm(7JJ" nt'W1 ntat17JJ !VI'l!V . 12 O'!Vln

.(nnt17an nrJ'!VlJ. (9) 7ma)

the figure is reprinted from: E. Bar Sadeh eta!. , Single-electron tunneling effects in granular metal films , fig .. 2, p.50 , Phys . Rev . B , 50 , 12, 1994, with the kind permission of the authors and the American Physical Society .

1 ' D.Y.J 1n:11n ,18 Jl:::! ,"i77li7il"

:nlllj7Y.>i1 nn·l~n l~91< '7K'Yll)l9 DIDnD '7~ i"llj7D'7 lAl'll~ nKII~D pln9 '?)) D'Ol9

.(IT i"lD'~l) .1) ."n'llliD i"lj71T19 ") D'Jli"l 11D1'7il 1l90) I<IYD'7

1. Eisberg, Resnick: Quantum Physics (Wiley) McGervey: Introduction to Modern Physics (Academic Press) French, Taylor: An Introduction to Quantum Physics (Norton) Ohanian , Modern Physics (Prentice Hall)

2. Binnig et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 49 , 57 (1982). 3. Hansma and Tersoff, J . Appl. Phys. 61 , R1

(1987). 4 . Golovchenko, Science 232, 48 (1986). 5 . Feenstra et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 58 , 1192

(1987) . 6 . Avouris and Wolkow, Phys. Rev. 39, 5091 (1989). 7. Eigler and Schweizer, Nature 344, 524 (1990). 8. Haberle et al., Ultramicroscopy 42-44 , 116 (1992) . 9 . Bar-Sadeh et al., Phys. Rev. 850 , 8961 (1994).

:n90il i1N'li7'7 .nlllj7Dn nD'~lJ (4) -1 (3) .1

2. Binnig and Rohrer, Scientific American, August 1985, p. 40

3. Rugar and Hansma, Physics Today, October 1990, p. 23 ---

i1')l)Ni1 il:J 1i1J)Y.l) i11)\J1!:lY.l\J:J j/1 n)>P!))Y.l nU11Y.li1

1DY) lK-::1 .E . -Y.l nmp kT O')nDp~mn '"" n'Y.llnil mm

1'::1 JD'Pil ;10- 15F )y i1JY' NJ"-' JD'P "-'n1 t. V = lV

mN 1) 1"-'!:lN p?) il:l 1i1:1 iliY.l 1\JP O"Y.lY.l:J on) 11ni1

.1)J)p '"" nn11Y.li1 nN m1tY:J

m1n .)J:Jf'm"-' nPJPm mN~:nn "")'"" i1N1Y.l 12 D'"-'1n

n:smnn '"" 11:JY.l Y:::!Y.l ;,y '1)1) :1m i1'i1 O" Y.lY.lil '""

i1J:Jpm 12 0'"-'1n:J ilY.l)jJ)J ?J .Al20

3 OP)'Y.l)JNil

m1'1Y.l 1'::1 :J)J'"-'' Nmn n .onn '"" InN mpY.l:J

m'J)'t))il mmpyn 1Y.l .m'JY.l"-'n m1'1Y.l? m'!:l1~)!:l)\)

,10- 19 F :1m? onn r:1 ?n,pn nN m?p:J :l"-'n? 1"-'!:lN

p)) ,?" Jil 'JY.l'Oj)Y.lil JD'Pil 1Y.l J1U-'110 i1Y:l1N:l 1\JP

,?m 1'nN '"" i111\J1!:lY.l\J:J m1'1Y.li1 nN 1nY? i1'i1 1"-'!:lN

i11J't11:J'J1Ni1 J"-' i1jJ't1'!:lJ np1 1DY.l:l Y:::!D 1pnY.li1 .78K

.N1J'Y.l .)J 1"1 J"-' 1n1:l)JY.l:J ,D'J"-')1'::1 n'1:l)Ji1

t11/(Jfl

o1'J~111 nw·~1nn 111111nn · n~·n-uuli$1

?1'1~0 n·1 11 .. '1~01 ·1~n

?niJ·o·~n 11111Jn11

Ill 1 ' OJ:) Jn::lln ,18 71~ ,"i77Ji'7n"